AY2018-2019 - Exercise On Welding Processes

Exercise on Welding
Prof. Pasquale Russo Spena

A.Y. 2018-2019
Power density
Power density can be computed as the power entering the surface divided by the
corresponding surface area:
NOTE:
- power source (e.g., the arc) is moving in many welding processes;
- power density is not uniform throughout the affected surface; it is distributed
as a function of area.
If not specified elsewhere, slides, photos, and images are from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing", aut. M. Groover, ed. Pearson
EX. Power density
In a laser beam welding process, what is the quantity of heat per unit time (J/s)
that is transferred to the material if the heat is concentrated in circle with a
diameter of 0.2 mm? Assume the power density provided in
Solution:
PD from Table is 9000 W/mm2 for laser beam welding
P = PD x A = 9000 x π x (0.2)2 / 4 = 283 W = 283 J/s
EX. Power density
A heat source transfers 3000 W to the surface of a metal part. The heat impinges the surface
in a circular area, with intensities varying inside the circle. The distribution is as follows:
70% of the power is transferred within a circle of diameter = 5 mm, and 90% is transferred
within a concentric circle of diameter = 12 mm. What are the power densities in (a) the 5-
mm diameter inner circle and (b) the 12-mm-diameter ring that lies around the inner circle?
Heat transfer in fusion welding
The quantity of heat required to melt a given volume of metal depends on:
(1) the heat to raise the temperature of the solid metal to its melting point
(2) the melting point of the metal
(3) the heat to transform the metal from solid to liquid phase at the melting point
To a reasonable approximation, this quantity of heat can be estimated by the

following equation
Um unit energy for melting (i.e., the quantity of heat
required to melt a unit volume of metal starting from
room temperature), J/mm3;
Tm melting point of the metal on an absolute
temperature scale, K;
K constant whose value is 3.3*10-6
Ex. Heat transfer in fusion welding
Compute the unit energy for melting for the following metals: (a) aluminum and
(b) plain low carbon steel.
Solution:
(a) From Table, Tm for aluminum = 930 K

Um = 3.33 x (10-6) x Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 x (930)2 = 2.88 J/mm3
(b) From Table, Tm for plain low carbon steel = 1760 K

Um = 3.33 x (10-6) x Tm2 Um = 3.33 x 10-6 x (1,760)2 = 10.32 J/mm3
Not all of the energy generated at the heat source is used to melt the weld metal.
There are two heat transfer mechanisms at work, both of which reduce the amount
of generated heat that is used by the welding process.
heat transfer factor f1 , (from 0 to 1)

ratio of the actual heat received by the
workpiece divided by the total heat
generated at the source
melting factor f2, (from 0 to 1)

proportion of heat received
at the work surface that can be used
for melting.
heat energy available for welding, Hw

total energy of the welding process, H
heat transfer factor f1

determined largely by the welding process and the capacity to convert the power
source (e.g., electrical energy) into usable heat at the work surface.
melting factor f2
depends on the welding process, but it is also influenced by the thermal properties of
the metal, joint configuration, and work thickness.
Note: Metals with high thermal conductivity (Al, Cu) have a rapid dissipation of heat
away from the heat contact area. The problem is exacerbated by welding heat sources
with low energy densities (e.g., oxyfuel welding)
High power density combined with a low conductivity work material results in a high
melting factor.
Balance equation between the energy input and the energy needed for welding:
Hw net heat energy (J)
Um unit energy required to melt metal, J/mm3
V volume of metal melted, mm3
Most welding operations are rate processes; that is, the net heat energy Hw is
delivered at a given rate, and the weld bead is made at a certain travel velocity.
It is therefore appropriate to express the rate balance equation:
RHw rate of heat energy delivered to the

operation for welding, J/s
RWV volume rate of metal welded mm3/s
In the welding of a continuous bead, the volume rate of metal welded is the
product of weld area Aw (mm2) and travel velocity v (mm/s)
The power source in a particular welding setup generates 3500 W that can be
transferred to the work surface with a heat transfer factor 0.7. The metal to be welded is
low carbon steel, whose melting temperature is 1760 K. The melting factor in the
operation is 0.5. A continuous fillet weld is to be made with a cross-sectional area 20
mm2. Determine the travel speed at which the welding operation can be accomplished.
A U-groove weld is used to butt weld 2 pieces of 7.0 mm thick titanium plate. The U-
groove is prepared using a milling cutter so the radius of the groove is 3.0 mm. During
welding, the penetration of the weld causes an additional 1.5 mm of material to be
melted. The final cross-sectional area of the weld can be approximated by a semi-circle
with a radius of 4.5 mm. The length of the weld is 200 mm. The melting factor of the
setup is 0.57 and the heat transfer factor is 0.86. (a) What is the quantity of heat (in
Joules) required to melt the volume of metal in this weld? (b) What is the required heat
generated at the welding source?
Tm for titanium is 2070 K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 x (2070)2 = 14.29 J/mm3
Aw = πr2/2 = π x (4.5)2 / 2 = 31.8 mm2
V = Aw L = 31.8 x (200) = 6,360 mm3
Hw = Um V = 14.29 x (6360) = 90,770 J
(b) H = Hw / (f1 f2) = 90,770 / (0.86 x 0.57) = 185,200 J
Compute the unit melting energy for (a) aluminum and (b) steel as the sum of: (1) the
heat required to raise the temperature of the metal from room temperature to its melting
point, which is the volumetric specific heat multiplied by the temperature rise; and (2)
the heat of fusion, so that this value can be compared to the unit melting energy
calculated by Eq. . Find the values of the properties needed in these
calculations either in this text or in other references. Are the values close enough to
validate ?
Solution: (a) Aluminum properties (from standard sources):
heat of fusion Hf= = 395,390 J/kg, melting temperature Tm = 660°C, density ρ = 2700 kg/m3,
specific heat C = 900 J/(kg °C).
Um = ρ x C x (Tm - 21) + ρ x Hf
Um = (2.7 x 10-6 kg/mm3) x (900 J/(kg °C))) x (660 - 21) + (2.7 x 10-6 kg/mm3) x (395,390 J/kg)
Um = 2.62 J/mm3
This compares with : Um = 3.33 x 10-6 x (660 + 273)2 = 2.90 J/mm3, which is about a
10% difference. These values for aluminum show good agreement.
(b) Steel properties (from standard sources):
heat of fusion Hf = 272,123 J/kg, melting temperature Tm = 1480°C, density ρ = 7900 kg/m3,
specific heat C = 460 J/(kg °C).
Um = ρ x C x (Tm - 21) + ρ x Hf
Um = (7.9 x 10-6 kg/mm3)(460 J/kg-C))(1480 - 21) + (7.9 x 10-6 kg/mm3)(272123 J/kg)
Um = 7.45 J/mm3
This compares with Eq. : Um = 3.33 x 10-6 x (1480 + 273)2 = 10.23 J/mm3, which
is about a 37% difference. These values show a greater difference than for aluminum. This is at
least partially accounted for by the fact that the specific heat of steel increases significantly with
temperature, which would increase the calculated values based on Um = ρC(Tm - Tambient) + ρ Hf
Power source in arc welding
In all arc-welding processes, power to drive the operation is the product of the current I
passing through the arc and the voltage E across it. This power is converted into heat, but not
all of the heat is transferred to the surface of the work. Convection, conduction, radiation,
and spatter account for losses that reduce the amount of usable heat. The effect of the losses
is expressed by the heat transfer factor f1
Heat transfer factors are greater for AW processes that use consumable electrodes because
most of the heat consumed in melting the electrode is subsequently transferred to the work as
molten metal.
Power source in arc welding
Melting factor f2 further reduces the available heat for welding. The resulting power balance
in arc welding is defined by
E Voltage, V
I current, A
Ex. Power source in arc welding
A gas tungsten arc-welding operation is performed at a current of 300 A and
voltage of 20 V. The melting factor f2 is 0.5, and the unit melting energy for the
metal Um is 10 J/mm3.
Determine (a) power in the operation, (b) rate of heat generation at the weld, and
(c) volume rate of metal welded.
A fillet weld is used to join 2 medium carbon steel plates each having a thickness
of 5.0 mm. The plates are joined at a 90° angle using an inside fillet corner joint.
The velocity of the welding head is 6 mm/s. Assume the cross section of the weld
bead approximates a right isosceles triangle with a leg length of 4.5 mm, the heat
transfer factor is 0.80, and the melting factor is 0.58. Determine the rate of heat
generation required at the welding source to accomplish the weld.
Solution: Aw = bh/2 = 4.5 x (4.5) / 2 = 10.125 mm2
From Table, Tm = 1700 K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1700)2 = 9.62 J/mm3
Rh = Um x Aw x v / (f1 x f2) = 9.62 x (10.125) x (5.0) / (0.8 x 0.58) = 1260 J/s =

1260 W.
A GTAW operation is performed on low carbon steel, whose unit melting energy is 10.3
J/mm3. The welding voltage is 22 V and the current is 135 A. The heat transfer factor is
0.85 and the melting factor is 0.65. If filler metal wire of 3.5 mm diameter is added to the
operation, the final weld bead is composed of 60% volume of filler and 40% volume base
metal. If the travel speed in the operation is 5 mm/s, determine (a) cross-sectional area of
the weld bead, and (b) the feed rate (in mm/s) at which the filler wire must be supplied.
Solution:
(a) RHW = f1 f2 E I = Um Aw v
Aw = f1 f2 E I / (Umv) = 0.85(0.65)(22)(135)/(10.3x4.0) = 39.8 mm2
(b) Volume of weld = Awv = 39.8(4.0) = 159 mm3/s

Filler wire A = πD2/4 = π(3.5)2/4 = 9.62 mm2
At 60% filler metal, feed rate of filler wire = 159(0.60)/9.62 = 9.94 mm/s.
A flux-cored arc welding operation is performed to butt weld two austenitic stainless steel
plates together. The welding voltage is 21 V and the current is 185 A. The cross-sectional
area of the weld seam = 75 mm2 and the melting factor of the stainless steel is assumed to
be 0.60. Determine the likely value for travel speed v in the operation.
Solution: From Table f1 = 0.9 for FCAW.
From Table, Tm = 1670 K for austenitic stainless steel.
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1670)2 = 9.29 J/mm3
f1 f2 E I = UmAwv
v = f1 f2 E I /Um Aw = 0.9(0.6)(21)(185)/(9.29 x 75) = 3.01 mm/s
Power source in resistance welding
The heat energy supplied to the welding operation depends on current flow, resistance
of the circuit, and length of time the current is applied. This can be expressed by the
equation
H heat generated, J (to convert to Btu divide by 1055);

I current, A;
R electrical resistance, Ω;
t time, s.
The current used in resistance welding operations is very high (typically 5000 to
20,000 A), although voltage is relatively low (usually below 10 V).
Ex. Power source in resistance welding
A resistance spot-welding operation is performed on two pieces of 1.5-mm-thick sheet steel
using 12,000 A for a 0.20 s duration. The electrodes are 6 mm in diameter at the contacting
surfaces. Resistance is assumed to be 0.0001 Ω, and the resulting weld nugget is 6 mm in
diameter and 2.5 mm thick. The unit melting energy for the metal Um is 12.0 J/mm3. What
portion of the heat generated was used to form the weld nugget, and what portion was
dissipated into the work metal, electrodes, and surrounding air?
- The heat required to melt this volume of metal is Hw 70.7*(12.0) = 848 J.

- The remaining heat, 2880 - 848 = 2032 J (70.6% of the total), is lost into the
work metal, electrodes, and surrounding air. In effect, this loss represents the
combined effect of the heat transfer factor f1 and the melting factor f2
Ex. Power source in resistance welding
The unit melting energy for a certain sheet metal to be spot welded is 9.5 J/mm3. The thickness
of each of the two sheets to be welded is 3.5 mm. To achieve required strength, it is desired to
form a weld nugget that is 5.5 mm in diameter and 5.0 mm thick. The weld duration will be set
at 0.3 s. If it is assumed that the electrical resistance between the surfaces is 140 μΩ, and that
only one-third of the electrical energy generated will be used to form the weld nugget (the rest
being dissipated into the work), determine the minimum current level required in this
operation.
Solution: Hm = UmV
V = πD2d/4 = π(5.5)2(5.0)/4 = 118.8 mm3
Hw = 9.5(118.8) = 1129 J
Required heat for the RSW operation H = 1129/(1/3) = 3386 J
H = I2Rt = I2(140 x 10-6)(0.3) = 42 x 10-6 I2 = 3386 J
I2 = 3386/(42 x 10-6) = 80.6 x 106 A2
I = 8.98 x 103 = 8,980 A

Power source in oxyacetylene welding
The flame in OAW is produced by the chemical reaction of acetylene and oxygen in
two stages.
Total heat liberated during the two stages of combustion is 55 x 106 J/m3 (1470
Btu/ft3) of acetylene. However, because of the temperature distribution in the
flame, the way in which the flame spreads over the work surface, and losses to
the air, power densities and heat transfer factors in oxyacetylene welding are
relatively low: f1 = 0.10 to 0.30.
Power source in oxyacetylene welding
The flame in OAW can be produced by the chemical reaction of different gases
Ex. Power source in OAW
An oxyacetylene torch supplies 0.3 m3 of acetylene per hour and an equal volume rate
of oxygen for an OAW operation on 4.5-mm-thick steel. Heat generated by
combustion is transferred to the work surface with a heat transfer factor f1 = 0.20. If
75% of the heat from the flame is concentrated in a circular area on the work surface
that is 9.0 mm in diameter, find (a) rate of heat liberated during combustion, (b) rate of
heat transferred to the work surface, and (c) average power density in the circular area.

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Exercise on Welding

Prof. Pasquale Russo Spena

P = PD x A = 9000 x π x (0.2)2 / 4 = 283 W = 283 J/s

To a reasonable approximation, this quantity of heat can be estimated by the

(a) From Table, Tm for aluminum = 930 K

(b) From Table, Tm for plain low carbon steel = 1760 K

heat transfer factor f1 , (from 0 to 1)

melting factor f2, (from 0 to 1)

heat energy available for welding, Hw

heat transfer factor f1

RHw rate of heat energy delivered to the

Tm for titanium is 2070 K

Um = 3.33 x 10-6 x (2070)2 = 14.29 J/mm3

Aw = πr2/2 = π x (4.5)2 / 2 = 31.8 mm2

V = Aw L = 31.8 x (200) = 6,360 mm3

Hw = Um V = 14.29 x (6360) = 90,770 J

(b) H = Hw / (f1 f2) = 90,770 / (0.86 x 0.57) = 185,200 J

Solution: Aw = bh/2 = 4.5 x (4.5) / 2 = 10.125 mm2

From Table, Tm = 1700 K

Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1700)2 = 9.62 J/mm3

Rh = Um x Aw x v / (f1 x f2) = 9.62 x (10.125) x (5.0) / (0.8 x 0.58) = 1260 J/s =

(b) Volume of weld = Awv = 39.8(4.0) = 159 mm3/s

Solution: From Table f1 = 0.9 for FCAW.

From Table, Tm = 1670 K for austenitic stainless steel.

Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (1670)2 = 9.29 J/mm3

v = f1 f2 E I /Um Aw = 0.9(0.6)(21)(185)/(9.29 x 75) = 3.01 mm/s

H heat generated, J (to convert to Btu divide by 1055);

- The heat required to melt this volume of metal is Hw 70.7*(12.0) = 848 J.

V = πD2d/4 = π(5.5)2(5.0)/4 = 118.8 mm3

Required heat for the RSW operation H = 1129/(1/3) = 3386 J

H = I2Rt = I2(140 x 10-6)(0.3) = 42 x 10-6 I2 = 3386 J

I2 = 3386/(42 x 10-6) = 80.6 x 106 A2

I = 8.98 x 103 = 8,980 A

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