How chief executives learn and what
behaviour factors distinguish them from
other people
Gerry Beamish
Gerry Beamish is Director of
Beamish Associates, Belfast,
Northern Ireland, UK. E-mail:
www.beamishassociates.com
PAGE 138 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING
Abstract
Purpose – To research how chief executives learn and what behavioural characteristics distinguish
them from other managers.
Design/methodology/approach – The research used a personality profile (DISC) and structured
interviews to compare the behaviours of a sample of chief executives from the public service with a
sample from the private sectors in Northern Ireland.
Findings – The research found three distinguishing characteristics of chief executives and challenged
stereotypes of differences between the public and private sector and between male and female chief
executives.
Research limitations/implications – There were no historic data to compare findings to indicate
whether the behaviours highlighted were intrinsic or learned. Neither were the data differentiated by age
nor was there any indication of how successful chief executives were. Future research might also look at
differences between successful and less successful chief executives or look at other categories of
leaders. An extremely interesting field might be to look at political leaders and compare their profiles with
the chief executives.
Practical implications – The research challenges some of the basis for core competency approaches
to development and reinforces the argument for action-based approaches.
Originality/value – Provides data for the debate on how one can best design and plan the selection and
development of senior executives.
Keywords Chief executives, Learning, Individual behaviour, Competences, Managerialism, Personality
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
This research was carried out using a random sample of chief executives from the Chief
Executives Forum and the Institute of Directors (IoD) in Northern Ireland. The Chief
Executives’ Forum represents chief executives within the public service in Northern Ireland
and the IoD is the local branch of the national organisation. The sample was differentiated as
to which organisation the participants belonged. The number of female participants who
responded also allowed for separate findings for the female chief executives from the public
sector. The work was sponsored by the two organisations above and further assisted by
funding from the Ulster Bank and the Department for Learning and Employment.
The research was carried out using the DISC personality profile and a structured telephone
questionnaire on learning behaviour. The size of the sample and the total population allowed
for an overall interval of 13.96 per cent at 95 per cent confidence level.
Brief background to the research
Discussions between the Chief Executives’ Forum and IoD had highlighted some difficulties
in the traditional competencies approach to developing senior people. The core
competency idea has produced endless lists of competencies for positions at all levels in
j VOL. 37 NO. 3 2005, pp. 138-144, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 0019-7858 DOI 10.1108/00197850510593746
‘‘ . . . It is clear that, whilst some introverted males may make it
to the top, it seems that the boardroom door is still a mighty
obstacle for more introverted females. ’’

organisations, but for various reasons there is no universal agreement as to what they should
be for chief executives. Many chief executives cheerfully admitted that they did not have all
the core competencies, nor did they see the need to acquire them all. They also tend to
believe that their positions are unique to their organisation or industry, therefore many of the
competencies are highly specialised.
The discussions also highlighted the fact that there were many people at a senior level who
seemed to have all the competencies yet they did not rise to chief executive positions. In an
earlier piece of research carried out in Northern Ireland, the author Ken Young had argued
that the relationship between capability and performance is complex and that one does not
determine the other. It requires little evidence for most people to believe that capability is not
a guarantee of performance.
The earlier research concluded that the key elements in the relationship ‘‘are concerned with
the behaviours that the person is predisposed to a degree determined by personality,
values, motives, cognitive power and style.’’

The question was then posed as to what was it that chief executives possessed, or had
learned, that the other others did not have, or had not learned. If these factors could be
isolated, were they inherent or could they be learned? The earlier study had pointed to
personality without exploring in any detail and this became a key element of this study.

The DISC profile

The profile used in the research, DISC, is one of the most used behavioural profiles.
It is based on the work of William Moulton Marston and deals with the behaviours and
emotions of normal people. DISC provides a non-judgmental language for exploring
behavioural issues across four primary dimensions:
(1) Dominance: Direct and Decisive. Ds are strong-willed, strong-minded people who like
accepting challenges, taking action, and getting immediate results
(2) Influence: Optimistic and Outgoing. Is are ‘‘people people’’ who like participating on
teams, sharing ideas, and energizing and entertaining others.
(3) Steadiness: Sympathetic and Cooperative. Ss are helpful people who like working
behind the scenes, performing in consistent and predictable ways, and being good
listeners.
(4) Conscientiousness: Concerned and Correct. Cs are sticklers for quality and like
planning ahead, employing systematic approaches, and checking and re-checking for
accuracy.
The DISC Profile learning instrument helps people assess how much they use each
dimension of behaviour in a particular situation. The version of DISC used breaks down the
four primary dimensions into over 200 sub-dimensions and looks at how individuals move
their behaviours within these sub-dimensions. The profile has been used by over 50 million
people and its validity scores make it an extremely reliable instrument for helping people
understand their own behaviours.

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 General conclusions of the research
The general descriptions are based on a composite profile of all respondents but at a factor
level there are some characteristic so strongly marked that we can confidently base
inferences on them.
If the composite profile was an individual, the individual would be described as a strong
willed, forceful person with great determination, highly competitive, aggressive with an
inquisitive streak and not afraid to take chances. The individual would also be confident,
optimistic, independent with a stubborn streak, opinionated and unsystematic. They also
see themselves as inspiring, convincing winners.
The combined groups have profiles that predict that their motivation to learn is based on
three characteristics. They are more interested in learning about ‘‘What’’ to do, rather than
‘‘How’’; they look for direct benefits to themselves and their careers; they are interested in
areas or activities that will flatter their image. Trainers who have looked at the results were
convinced that this backed up their own experience of working with chief executives. For
example, they found it hard to persuade chief executives to attend skill-based training
programmes but less difficult for events that dealt with strategic questions. It also explained
the somewhat reluctant attendance at any mandatory legislative type training and the
willingness to sometimes attend prestige events.
The interest in ‘‘what’’ rather than ‘‘how’’ stems from the extrovert nature of the majority of
chief executives in the study (see Table I).
The difference between the group and the general population is well marked but the
difference between females in the sample and the general population is even more marked.
The group of female chief executives from the CEF was big enough in numbers against the
total of female chief executives in the whole of the public service to support the idea that their
characteristics were representative. In that case, it is clear that, whilst some introverted
males may make it to the top, it seems that the boardroom door is still a mighty obstacle for
more introverted females.
The general characteristics are reinforced by factors on vision, paperwork and detail. The
chief executives scored highly on vision both as a natural behaviour and an adapted one,
but low on interest in paperwork and attention to detail. From a learning viewpoint it is clear
that this group will have a preference for options rather than opinions, hence ‘‘what’’
questions will stimulate debate, but ‘‘how’’ questions are more likely to lead to disagreement
and defending of positions. Discussion will be more fruitful, from the chief executive’s
viewpoint, if it takes the form of asking for facts, evidence, and options rather than views,
opinions and recommendations.
The combined style of the group in its natural version is strongly dominant indicates not only
an interest in results, but also an interest in personal results. They see themselves as
winners; hence information is filtered against its usefulness in creating a winning situation.
Their profile shows ambition to succeed and a willingness to pay the price of success in
terms of hard work. Humbleness is not a characteristic that shows in their preferences and
their natural style is also low on compliance. On the factor analysis they have adapted a

Table I Extroversion v. introversion

Group Extroversion (%) Introversion (%)

General population 46 54
Sample 66 34
Chief Executive Forum (CEF) 64 36
CEF male 58 42
CEF female 83 17
Institute of Directors (IoD) 67 33
IoD male 69 31
All female 77 23

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‘‘ The DISC Profile learning instrument helps people assess how
much they use each dimension of behaviour in a particular
situation. ’’

higher degree of decisiveness and results orientation than they would naturally suggesting
that this is a learned behaviour. The low compliance levels combined with factor analysis that
indicates low levels of following procedures may result in others viewing some of their
decision making as inconsistent. For example, a meeting may have decided on a particular
course of action to solve a problem. However, if the chief executive receives new information
or sees a better course, there may be a change of plans, without necessarily communicating
this to all concerned in the meeting.
The need for good image and novelty stems from those parts of the profile that indicate a
desire for favourable working conditions and the need for recognition. There are, of course,
many different ways that these goals can be achieved. In the public service sector it is
codified through regulations on office space, furnishings, travel and accommodation. The
private sector also has its distinguishing features not only in salary but also in various other
conditions and perks. However, these considerations can have a pronounced effect on the
learning environment. The attractiveness of a learning event will be partially determined by
the provider, the venue, the cost, and other delegates attending. This combined with the
likelihood that the event will help achieve results will influence the decision on whether to
attend or how much time to devote. Unless the evidence that the event will produce a result is
overwhelming, it is likely that status will be the determining factor. Again trainers have little
difficult empathising with the results from their own experience although the individual
definition of some of the factors may vary. For example, on an anecdotal basis, status may be
based on the cost of an event. Too low a price may be as big a deterrent as too high. Status
may also be concerned with other attendees but perversely in some cases, too many people
of similar status may be as big a deterrent as too few. Status may be a factor of the venue or
location. Some will lean towards location away from home or country as defining status,
others will consider the ease of returning to work.

General personality types

The DISC profile divides respondent’s preferred behaviours into natural and adapted
categories. The natural category is the more basic response and the adapted style is how
they have responded to their environment. We tend for the most part to adapt behaviours
that are successful in our own terms. Some people show little or no difference in their natural
and adapted style, others may have a considerable difference. A large gap may indicate
that these people may feel some pressure using the adapted style, or that they will behave
very differently in different situations. In the research most of the participants had little
significant difference between their styles.
DISC in its first order of description assigns a predominant quadrant to participants. In the
language of the profile people become ‘‘High Ds’’, ‘‘High Is’’, ‘‘High Ss’’, or ‘‘High Cs’’. Our
behaviour is rarely so simply defined as we are capable of behaviours from all the quadrants. In
the general population only 1.2 per cent display purely D behaviours, 1 per cent I behaviours,
0.9 per cent S behaviours and only 0.03 per cent purely C behaviours.
The participants in the survey showed a natural style that falls mostly in the D or Dominance
quadrant. Their behaviour would be described with words like competitive, confrontational,
direct, results-oriented, sense of urgency, and a change agent. For the behaviour that is
moving towards the I quadrant descriptive words would be process-oriented, quick to
change, independent and optimistic. The natural style of the majority of the respondents fell

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 within that range. However, the adapted style showed some softening of the confrontational
dominance approach with more emphasis on trust, contact, working with people, verbalising
and projecting self-confidence. There is no data available for respondents as to how
dominant their style may have been some years ago so it is not possible to show whether this
is a recent learning process or a longer term one. The general population data indicates that
there is a falling in these characteristics and on an anecdotal basis there seems to be little
doubt that direct, authoritarian style are on the wane. Legislation in terms of equality, job
security and human rights would tend to promote a more influencing persuading style as
leaders realise that their ultimate authority comes from their followers.
Given the level of confidence in the study there is still a significant difference between the
percentage of participants displaying high D behaviours in the male CEF group, the CEF
female percentage of high I behaviour and the percentage of IoD males displaying high S
behaviours compared to the general population (see Table II).
One of the most interesting differences is the high score for the female group in the I quadrant.
This would seem to contradict the traditional stereotype that says that women have to be
harder and more aggressive than men to make it in a male dominated world. Their use of a
predominantly influencing approach coupled with a low compliance may indicate that they are
more successful in getting around rules or are less concerned about them than men. It is also
clear that introspective high compliant women have little chance of making it to the top.
The percentage of high D behaviours in the male respondents is partly a reflection of some
general tendencies. Although S and C types predominate in the general population they
tend not to be proportionally represented in managerial positions. There are several possible
explanations for this. People with D and I behaviours tend to more interested in shaping their
environment and more openly ambitious. They are not slow to draw attention to their
achievements and may put themselves before the team. They also tend to be more articulate
which comes across better in the traditional interview situation. These factors may help them
rise more quickly than S or C types who depend on the quality of their work to speak for itself.
These explanations are of course dependent on a level of competence and do not indicate
that the ability to articulate successes is the only factor in moving up the promotion ladder.
Some of the difference in the CEF and IoD scores in the S quadrant may be explained by the
relative ease of measuring success in financial terms in a commercial environment. Other
factors including confidence may be involved and 61 per cent of respondents described
themselves as most confident, 58 per cent were most competitive and 85 per cent described
themselves as being most aggressive in handling challenges.
In comparing the natural and adapted styles, the main lessons seem to be that CEOs have
learned that the lower compliance of their natural style needs to be modified.
We may only speculate as to the reasons for this. It may be that the ultimate authority for what
is happening in an organisation demands more respect for rules and regulations. Some
evidence points to the need to find ways around rules at a lower level, especially when there
is someone to protect or camouflage. It seems somewhat paradoxical that holding the
ultimate authority may reduce the room for exercising it freely.

Table II Population comparisons of the four main behavioural types

Behavioural type D (%) I (%) S (%) C (%)

General population 18 28 40 14
Combined study 30 36 20 14
Chief Executives Forum 30 34 26 10
CEF male 33 25 29 13
CEF female 24 59 17 0
Institute of Directors 29 40 13 18
IoD male 29 40 13 18
All female 22 52 17 9

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 Other characteristics
At the next level of grouping there were some differences between the IoD sample and
the CEF males. The biggest grouping was of behaviour that looks for respect and a good
image but also likes to build on what has already been accomplished. There was a small
group of male CEF members who were closer to the traditional stereotype for public
servants. They displayed behaviours that preferred certainty to ambiguity, did not seek
radical change, tended towards low risk and enjoyed accuracy and privacy. There were
no women who exhibited these characteristics. It may be that this group represented an
older generation but as there was no age data in the research we can only speculate. The
IoD group also seemed to have a higher tendency towards needing complete control,
using assets to the fullest and more concern about finance and operations. This may
reflect the cultural differences between private and public sector but the female group of
CEF participants showed more tendencies towards this group than they did towards their
male colleagues.
At the lowest level of generalisation, 94 per cent of the sample perceived themselves as
aggressive in their response to challenges and able to take action. This seems to be one of
the distinguishing characteristics of chief executives; 81 per cent also perceived themselves
as decisive. The second biggest factor was their ability to inspire, which was supported by a
high percentage who thought they were convincing. The other common perceptions were of
an adaptable confident leader 76 per cent, determination 74 per cent, competitive 72 per
cent calmness, open-minded and charming, all 72 per cent.
The least perceived characteristics concerned popularity, vigour, self-control and trust.
The most interesting question might be that if these characteristics are truly the important
factors, can they be distinguished at an early stage of a career or can they be learned? The
characteristics can be tested at any stage but can they be learned? Many would argue that
at least some of the characteristics like competitiveness or confidence could be learned.
There is little doubt that confidence can be built through the successful completion of
challenging tasks. It may be that development programmes need to concentrate on this type
of activity rather than the simple accumulation of knowledge. Many respondents,
responding to the structured interview, spoke of the importance of the largely informal
mentoring that allowed them to experience success. They also spoke of the value of visiting
successful organisations as a means of learning.
In questionnaires the most accurate information is often not what people see themselves as,
but what they perceive themselves not to be. The group do not see themselves as
soft-spoken, easily led, timid, animated, assertive, humble or obedient. They may see
themselves as charming but they do not see themselves as cheerful. Is it their personality not
to be cheerful or is it the pressures of life at the top? Most of these correlate well with their
positive descriptions except for the distinction between aggressive and assertive
behaviours. Either the group are not assertive, which seems unlikely, or they understand
the difference and are putting themselves firmly in the aggressive camp!
All these characteristics were compared with some data for managers below the level of
chief executives and the distinguishing features from the general population were largely
mirrored in the comparisons with managers. However, it was not possible to calculate the
size of the comparative population for managers, so no real significance can be
attributed.

‘‘ Many respondents, responding to the structured interview,

spoke of the importance of the largely informal mentoring that
allowed them to experience success. ’’

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 ‘‘ Legislation in terms of equality, job security and human rights
would tend to promote a more influencing persuading style as
leaders realise that their ultimate authority comes from their
followers. ’’

Structured interviews
The final part of the research used a structured interview to consider some of the methods
used by chief executives in their learning. On average they read or scan three professional
magazines per month, spend four days training per year (90 per cent thought they now
spent more time training than they did at a lower level of management). As a group they do
not read books on general management and less than half even read articles on general
management. For those who have promoted the internet as the learning method of the future
there will be disappointment that chief executives have not received this message; less than
10 per cent of them use the internet for learning.
Ninety per cent claimed to have been influenced by a formal or informal mentoring process
but only 10 per cent could remember a speaker who had significantly influenced their
development. They were however a little more positive on training programmes and 40 per
cent mentioned them as significant whilst the rest quoted particular life experiences as being
the most important.
In terms of personality traits, the most quoted traits in influencing success were, not doing
the ordinary thing, drive and determination.

Implications
There are many implications in the research for the way we approach development. If we
believe that the behaviours are inherent then our efforts should be concentrated in
identifying these at an early stage and promoting those who have them. If we believe they
can be learned then we need to change our approach to management development to give
them priority. We can argue that it is more important to equip people with a wide set of
thinking skills and a few core behaviours than to concentrate on knowledge and a list of core
competences. In terms of methodology it would appear that the current trend towards more
mentoring and coaching is probably on the right track. The big difficulty for many providers
is that the economics of the training business push us towards the traditional events and the
individual approach is more expensive for the customer and less profitable for the
institutional provider.

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