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Antennas
Transmitting
Transmitter Antenna
I
Electromagnetic
Transmission Line Wave
Receiving
Receiver Antenna
I
Electromagnetic
Transmission Line
Wave
Ground plane
Linear elements connected
to outer conductor of the
coaxial cable simulate the
ground plane
Loop dipole
Passive elements
Transmitting
Transmitter Antenna
I
Electromagnetic
Transmission Line Wave
1
Transmitter
P( t ) = Req I 2
2
Zg I
1
P( t ) = Rin I 2
2
I Zeq
The receiver represents the load impedance that dissipates the time
average power generated by the receiving antenna.
Zg
ZR → ∞
Vg Open circuit
| I0 |
Zg
|I|
Vg Z0
|I|
| I0 |
E
E
At higher frequency, the current oscillates in the wires and the field
emanating from the dipole changes periodically. The field lines
propagate away from the dipole and form closed loops.
∇ × ∇ × E = − j ω µ ∇ × H = − j ω µ J + ω 2µ ε E
∇ × ∇ × H = ∇ × J + jω ε ∇ × E
= ∇ × J + ω 2µ ε H
∇ × ∇ × E = ∇∇ ⋅ E − ∇ 2 E = ∇ ( ρ ε ) − ∇ 2 E
B=∇×A
∇ ⋅ B = ∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × A) = 0
We have also
∇ × E = − jω µ H = − jω ∇ × A ⇒ ∇ × ( E + jω A) = 0
∇ × ( ±∇φ ) = 0
and then choosing (with sign convention as in electrostatics)
∇ × ( E + jω A) = ∇ × ( −∇φ ) ⇒ E = − jω A − ∇φ
B = ∇ × A = ∇ × ( A + ∇ψ )
∇ ⋅ A + jω µ ε φ = 0
1
∇×H= ∇ × B = J + jω ε E
µ
∇ × B = µ J + jω µ ε E
⇒ ∇ × ( ∇ × A) = µ J + jω µ ε ( − j ω A − ∇φ )
∇ × ( ∇ × …) = ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ …) − ∇ 2 …
∇ × ( ∇ × A) = ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A) − ∇ 2 A = µ J + ω 2 µ ε A − jω µ ε ∇φ
Lorenz Gauge
∇ ⋅ A = − jω µ ε φ ⇒ ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A) = − jω µ ε ∇φ
∇2A + ω 2 µ ε A = ∇2A + β 2 A = − µ J
2 2 2 ρ
2
∇ φ +ω µε φ = ∇ φ + β φ = −
ε
dV '
r' r
y
x Radiating antenna body
− jβ r − r '
µ J ( r ') e
A( r ) =
4π ∫∫∫V
dV '
r − r'
1 ρ ( r ') e− jβ r − r '
φ ( r) =
4πε ∫∫∫V
dV '
r − r'
The integrals are extended to all points over the antenna body
where the sources (current density, charge) are not zero. The effect
of each volume element of the antenna is to radiate a radial wave
− jβ r − r '
e
r − r'
Infinitesimal Antenna
z Observation point
J(0)
ρ (0)
r = r − r'
∆S
r' = 0
∆z
dV ' y
x Infinitesimal antenna body
I = constant ∆ z << λ
phasor
Dielectric medium (ε , µ)
I = ∆ S ⋅ J ( r ') = ∆ S ⋅ J ( 0 ) ∆V ' = ∆ S ⋅ ∆ z
∆V 'J ( r ') = I ∆ z iz
The solution of the wave equation for the magnetic vector potential
simply becomes the evaluation of the integrand at the origin
1
H= µ∇×A
µ I ∆ z e− j β r
A= iz ⇒
4π r E= 1 ∇×H
jω ε
z iϕ
ir
iθ
r
Polar angle
θ
y
x ϕ
Azimuthal angle
iϕ
In spherical coordinates
ir r iθ r sin θ i ϕ
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇×A= 2
r sin θ ∂ r ∂θ ∂ϕ
Ar rAθ r sin θ Aϕ
1 ∂ ∂
=
r sin θ ∂ θ
(
sin θ Aϕ −
∂ϕ
)( Aθ ) i r
1 1 ∂ ∂
+
r sin θ ∂ ϕ ∂r
(
( Ar ) − r Aϕ iθ
)
1∂ ∂
+ ( r Aθ ) − ( Ar ) i ϕ
r ∂ r ∂θ
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 19
Antennas
We had
µ I ∆ z e− j β r
A= iz with i z = i r cos θ − i θ sin θ
4π r
j µ β I ∆ z e− j β r 1
⇒ ∇ × A = iϕ 1+ sin θ
4π r jβ r
− jβ r
1 j β I ∆ z e 1
H = ∇ × A = iϕ 1+ sin θ
µ 4π r jβ r
− jβ r
1µ jβ I ∆ z e
E= ∇×H=
jω ε ε 4π r
1 1
× 2 cos θ + ir
jβ r ( jβ r )
2
1 1
+ sin θ 1 + + iθ
jβ r ( jβ r )
2
1 1 2π
1 >> >> ⇒ βr= r >> 1
jβ r ( jβ r ) 2 λ
jβ I ∆ z e− j β r
H ≈ iϕ sin θ
4π r
2π r >> λ
− jβ r
µ jβ I ∆ z e
E ≈ iθ sin θ
ε 4π r
µ
E = H =η H
ε
These are also properties of uniform plane waves.
2
η β I ∆ z 2
= ir sin θ
2 4π r
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 23
Antennas
z
P( t )
Hϕ
θ
J r Eθ
Radiation Patterns
Electric Field and Magnetic Field
Eθ or Hϕ y
z
θ
x x
Fixed r
P( t ) y
z
θ
x x
Fixed r
2π π
Ptot = dϕ∫ ∫0 dθ r 2 sin θ P (t )
0
= 2π
2 2
ηβ I ∆z 2 π 3 4π η β I ∆ z
=
2 4π r
2π r ∫0
dθ sin θ =
3 4π
=4 3
Ptot1 = Ptot 2
Ptot 2
Ptot1
2
1 2 4πη 2π I ∆ z 1 2 2πη ∆ z 2
Ptot = I Req = = I
2 3 λ 4π 2 3 λ
Req
The equivalent resistance of the antenna is usually called radiation
resistance. In free space
2
µo ∆
z
η = ηo = = 120π [ Ω ] ⇒ Req = 80π 2 [ Ω]
εo λ
The total radiated power is also used to define the average power
density emitted by the antenna. The average power density
corresponds to the radiation of a hypothetical omnidirectional
(isotropic) antenna, which is used as a reference to understand the
directive properties of any antenna.
θ
x
Pave
P( t, θ )
2 2 −1
η β I ∆ z
P( t , r, θ ) η β I ∆ z 2
D(θ , ϕ ) = = sin θ
Pave 2 4π r 3 4π r
3 2
= sin θ
2
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 31
Antennas
3 2π
Directivity = max { D(θ , ϕ )} = sin = 1.5
2 2
The directivity gives a measure of how the actual antenna performs
in the direction of maximum radiation, with respect to the ideal
isotropic antenna which emits the average power in all directions.
z P
Pave max
90°
I( t)
− + − + − +
∆z
+ − + − + −
Radiation
pattern
Io
qo
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 34
Antennas
Imax
∆z Io
Io
Io = Imax 2
H ( t ) = Re H e { ≈ i ϕ Re
}
jβ I ∆ z sin θ j (ω t − β r )
jω t
4π r
e
≈ i ϕ Re
β I ∆ z sin θ
4π r
( 2
)
jcos(ω t − β r )+ j sin(ω t − β r )
β I ∆ z sin θ
≈ −iϕ sin(ω t − β r )
4π r
{
E ( t ) = Re E e jω t }
β I ∆ z sin θ
≈ − iθ η sin(ω t − β r )
4π r
Linear Antennas
Consider a dipole with wires of length comparable to the
wavelength.
z L2 iθ
r' iθ '
θ'
∆z
r
z'
θ
− L1
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 38
Antennas
− jβ r '
µ jβ I ∆ z e
∆ E' = iθ sin θ '
ε 4π r '
θ ≈θ'
r ' ≈ r − z 'cos θ
r'
z L2
θ'≈θ r
∆z
z'
θ This length is neglected if
− jβ r jβ z 'cosθ
µ j β I ∆ z e e
∆ E' = iθ sin θ
ε 4π r − 4π z 'cos θ
you can
neglect here
µ jβ e− j β r L2
E = iθ sin θ ⋅ ∫ I( z) e jβ z cosθ dz
ε 4π r − L1
jβ e− j β r L2
H = iϕ sin θ ⋅ ∫ I( z) e jβ z cosθ dz
4π r − L1
Short Dipole
Consider a short symmetric dipole comprising two wires, each of
length L << λ . Assume a triangular distribution of the phasor
current on the wires
Imax ( 1 − z L ) z≥0
I( z) =
Imax ( 1 + z L ) z<0
The integral in the field expressions becomes
L jβ z cosθ L 2L
∫ −L
I( z) e dz ≈
−L ∫
I( z) dz =
2
Imax
≈1
2π
since max βz = β ⋅ L = L 1 for a short dipole
λ
⇒ e jβ z cosθ ≈ 1
The final expression for far−fields of the short dipole are similar to
the expressions for the Hertzian dipole where the average of the
triangular current distribution is used
− jβ r ∆z
µ jβ e Imax
E = iθ sin θ ⋅ 2 L ⋅
ε 4π r 2
average
current
µ jβ Imax L e− jβ r
= iθ sin θ
ε 4π r
jβ Imax L e− jβ r
H = iϕ sin θ
4π r
Half−wavelength dipole
Consider a symmetric linear antenna with total length λ/2 and
assume a current phasor distribution on the wires which is
approximately sinusoidal
I( z) = Imax cos(β z)
λ 4
jβ z cos θ 2 Imax π cos θ
∫ Imax cos ( β z) e dz = cos
2
β sin θ 2
−λ 4
µ j e− jβ r Imax π cos θ
E = iθ cos
ε 2π r sin θ 2
j e− jβ r Imax π cos θ
H = iϕ cos
2π r sin θ 2
2
µ Imax 2 π cos θ
P( t ) = i r cos
ε 8π r sin θ
2 2 2 2
1 2 µ 1 2π 1 − cos ( u)
Ptot = Imax
2 ε 4π ∫ 0
u
du
≈ 2.4376
1 2 µ
= Imax ⋅ 0.193978
2 ε
Req
The integral above cannot be solved analytically, but the value is
found numerically or from published tables. The equivalent
resistance of the half−wave dipole antenna in air is then
µ
Req ( λ 2) = ⋅ 0.193978 ≈ 73.07 Ω
ε
2
µ Imax
P( t, r, 90°) ε 8π 2 r 2
D= 2
= ≈ 1.641
Ptot 4π r 1 2 µ
I
2 2 max
⋅ 2.4376
8π r ε
I ( z) = Imax sin { β ( L − z ) }
L
∫ Imax sin β ( L − z ) e jβ z cosθ dz =
−L
2 Imax
= 2 { cos ( β L cosθ ) − cos ( β L) }
β sin θ
µ j β e− jβ r L2
E = iθ sin θ ⋅ ∫ I( z) e jβ z cosθ dz
ε 4π r − L1
µ j Imax e− jβ r
= iθ
ε 2π r sin θ
{ cos ( β L cos θ ) − cos ( β L ) }
j β e− jβ r L2
H = iϕ sin θ ⋅ ∫ I( z) e jβ z cosθ dz
4π r − L1
j Imax e− jβ r
= iϕ
2π r sin θ
{ cos ( β L cos θ ) − cos ( β L ) }