05-08-2019

Optical Fiber Basics

Basic principles of light propagation

Dr Amit Rathi
Dept. of Electronics and Communication
Engineering
Manipal University

24.01.2006 Lecture 2 1

Properties of light:-
There are three theories are used to explain light:

• Ray theory

• Wave theory

• Quantum theory

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Dual Nature of Light

Raytheory:-
Waves
 It state that light is a stream minute particles and travel in a straight line .
Electromagnetic radiation consisting of
 A beam of light is a group of rays called as ray congruence. propagating electric and magnetic fields
 A ray is the thinnest pencil of light with a well defined boundaries with out Photons
diffraction.
Quanta (मा ा) of energy
aperture The two views are related: the energy in a
photon is proportional to the frequency of
the wave.
Light patch

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Wave theory of light:- Introduction

• Light is considered as an electromagnetic radiation. It
consists of two components i.e., the electric • Light thought of as a wave
component and the magnetic component which
•Electric field component (E) can be expressed mathematically as
oscillate perpendicular to each other as well as to the
E=E0 cos( t – kx +  )
direction of path of radiation. where
•E0= amplitude of electric field (V/m)
•=2f=angular frequency (rad/s)
•f=optical frequency (Hz)
•t=time (s)
•k=2/=wavenumber or propagation constant (rad/m)
•x=distance (m)
•=optical wavelength (m)
• It propagates in a particular direction according to •=phase constant (rad)

this E&H components knoPwrofn.ByaomsakepshoMlaahrapizatraation.

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Wave Propagation
Introduction
Electric and magnetic fields are at right
• Light thought of as a wave angles to each other and to the direction of
travel.
•Velocity of propagation
This is called a transverse
v=f=c0/n
where electromagnetic (TEM) wave
•c03x108 m/s velocity of the light in free space Wavelength () is the distance the wave
•n=refractive index of the medium in which light is propagating travels in one period (T).

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A light wave consists of electric and

magnetic fields Propagating Wave

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A Single Photon
Quantumtheory:-
Max Planck proposed Quantum theory by considering light to possess
particle nature.
1)Energy is emitted due to vibrations of charged particles in the black
body.

2)The radiation of energy is emitted or absorbed discontinuously in the

form of small discrete energy packets called quanta.

3)Each quantum is associated with definite amount of energy which is

given by the equation E=hν.
Where
h = planck's constant = 6.625 x
10-34 J. sec = 6.625 x10-27 erg.
sec

ν= frequency of radiation

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Photon Energy BASIC OPTICAL-MATERIAL PROPERTIES (Refractive Index)

 The basic optical property of a material, relevant to
E = hf optical fibers, is the index of refraction.
 The index of refraction (n) measures the speed of light in an
E = energy of 1 photon in Joules (J) optical medium.
h = Planck’s constant: 6.62610-34 J-s  The index of refraction of a material is the ratio of the speed of
light in a vacuum (c= 3 X 108 m/s). to the speed of light in the
f = frequency in Hz material (v) itself.
 The speed of light (c) in free space (vacuum) is The speed of
light is the frequency (f) of light multiplied by the wavelength
of light. When light enters the fiber material (an optically
dense medium), the light travels slower at a speed (v). Light
will always travel slower in the fiber material than in air. The
index of refraction is given by:

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Refractive Index Lecture 2 16

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BASIC PRINCIPLE

When a light ray travelling in one material hits a different

material and reflects back into the original material without
Light Propagation In any loss of light, total internal reflection is said to occur.
Optical Fiber Since the core and cladding are constructed from different
compositions of glass, theoretically, light entering the core is
confined to the boundaries of the core because it reflects back
whenever it hits the cladding.

For total internal reflection to occur, the index of refraction of

the core must be higher than that of the cladding, and the
incidence angle is larger than the critical angle.
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Angle Summary

 Three important angles

 The reflection angle always equals the incident angle

Refraction Angle

Incident Angles

Reflection Angle

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Critical Angle Index of Refraction

 If light inside an optical fiber strikes the cladding too steeply,
the light refracts into the cladding - determined by the critical  n = c/v
angle. (There will come a time when, eventually, the angle of c = velocity of light in a vacuum
refraction reaches 90o and the light is refracted along the
v = velocity of light in a specific
boundary between the two materials. The angle of incidence Light bends
medium
which results in this effect is called the critical angle). away from
 light bends as it passes from one medium to normal - higher
n1Sin X=n2Sin90o another with a different index of refraction n to lower n

air, n is about 1
glass, n is about 1.4

Light bends in towards normal -

Critical Angle lower n to higher n

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EM wave in Media
Index of Refraction (n)
• Refractive index of a medium is defined as:

c velocity of light (EM wave) in vacuum 

n = c (speed of light in vacuum)
n     r r
v velocity of light (EM wave) in medium
 r : Relative magnetic permeability
 0 0
[2-12] v (speed of light in a given medium)
 r : Relative electric permittivity
c = 3.0 x 108 m/s
• For non-magnetic media (  r  1) : n a 1
V
n  r [2-13] The bigger the n value, the slower the
light travels.
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i > r i < r
Fast to Slow Slow to Fast Snell’s Law
N N  The angles of the rays are measured with respect to the
normal.
 n1sin 1=n2sin 2
Qi Qi  Where
fast slow  n1 and n2 are refractive index of two materials
 1and 2 the angle of incident and refraction respectively

slow Qr fast
refracted refracted
ray bends Qr ray bends
toward N
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Critical Angle Calculation

Total Internal Reflection
 The angle of incidence that produces an angle of refraction
of 90° is the critical angle
 n1sin(qc) = n2sin(90°)
Q1 Q
 n1sin(qc) = n2 n1 = Refractive index of the core
n1 sin Q1C  n2 sin 90
o n2 = Refractive index of the cladding
C 3  qc = sin-1(n2 /n1)
 n2
 Light at incident angles
n1 n  greater than the critical
Q1C  sin-1  2 
n2  n1  angle will reflect back
90 Note that n1  n2 is necessary for into the core
totalinternal reflection
Critical Angle, qc

Critical Angle is only defined when n2/n1≤1.

At n2/n1≥1 then arcsine is not defined
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Index of refraction n1sin A1= n2sin 90o

N1sinθc = n2

n1sin A1= n2sin A2

how a light ray the condition that

that any light ray
passing from exists when A1 is at the
material 1 to critical angle and angle incident at an angle
material 2 is refracted A2 is at 90. The light is greater than critical
in material 2 when directed along the Angle A1 of will be
A1 is less than the boundary between the 2 reflected back into
critical angle.(q<qc) materials. (q=qc) material 1 with A2
equal to A1.
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Acceptance Angle and NA

 The angle of light entering

a fiber which follows the
critical angle is called the
acceptance angle, a

a = sin-1[(n12-n22)1/2] n1 = Refractive index of the core

n2 = Refractive index of the cladding

 Numerical Aperature
(NA) Acceptance Angle, a
describes the light-
gathering ability of a fiber

NA = sina Critical Angle, qc

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24.01.2006 31 The cone thus form is called acceptance cone

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Numerical Aperture Acceptance Cone

 The Numerical Aperture is the sine of the largest angle contained  There is an imaginary cone of acceptance with an angle a
within the cone of acceptance.
 The light that enters the fiber at angles within the
 NA is related to a number of important fiber characteristics.
acceptance cone are guided down the fiber core
 It is a measure of the ability of the fiber to gather light at the
input end.
 The higher the NA the tighter (smaller radius) we can have
bends in the fiber before loss of light becomes a problem.
 The higher the NA the more modes we have, Rays can bounce Acceptance Angle, a
at greater angles and therefore there are more of them. This
means that the higher the NA the greater will be the dispersion
Acceptance Cone
of this fiber (in the case of MM fiber).
 Thus higher the NA of SM fiber the higher will be the
attenuation of the fiber
Typical NA for single-mode fiber is 0.1. For multimode, NA is between
0.2 and 0.3 (usually closer to 0.2).

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Numerical Aperture
•The acceptance angle for a fiber defines its numerical aperture (NA)

n
NA  sin q i   n12 - n22

n= 1 for air
n -n
NA  n - n  n1 - n2  n1  n2   2 n 1 2
2
1
2
2
2
1
n1

•The NA is related to the critical angle of the waveguide

and is defined as:
n1 - n2
NA  n1 2   NA  sinqi   n12 - n22
n1

• Telecommunications optical fiber n1~n2,

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Formula Summary
Example: Glass Rod in Air  Index of Refraction c
n
v
n2 =
1.0
Snell’s Law
n1 sin q1  n2 sin q 2

n1 = 1.6 Q1C  n2 
q c  sin -1  
Critical Angle  n1 

1.0 
Q1C sin-1   
a  sin -1 n12 - n22 
1.6  Acceptance Angle

38.68o Numerical Aperture NA  sin a  n12 - n22

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Q: A fiber has the following
characteristics: n1 = 1.35 (core
index) and  =2%. Find the
N.A and the acceptance
Solved Problem (1) : A fiber has the following
characteristics: n1 = 1.35 (core index) and 
=2%. Find the N.A and the acceptance angle.
n1 = 1.35 ;  = 2% = 0.02
W.K.T N . A  n1  (2)
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angle.
= 1.35  (2  0.02)1/2 = 0.27

qa = sin – 1 (N.A) = sin – 1 (0.27) = 15.66

Acceptance angle = 2qa = 31.33

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Solved Problem (2) : A silica optical fiber has a core refractive

Solved Problem (2) : A silica optical index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine
fiber has a core refractive index of 1.50 (i) the critical angle at the core – cladding interface, (ii) the N.A
for the fiber and (iii) the acceptance angle for the fiber.
and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine (i) the critical angle at the n1 = 1.50 ; n2 = 1.47
n 
core – cladding interface, (ii) the N.A The critical
-1

 
 1.47 
q c  sin -1  2  = sin  1.50   78.5


 n1 =
for the fiber and (iii) the acceptance angle
The numerical
2 2
N . A  (n1 - n2 )1 2
angle for the fiber. aperture
(1.50 2 - 1.47 2 )1 2
 0.30
The acceptance angle = 2qa = 2 sin – 1 (N.A) = 2 sin – 1 (0.30) = 34.9
Critical angle = 78.5º ; N.A = 0.30 ; Acceptance angle = 34.9

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Exercise (1) : Calculate the numerical aperture

and acceptance angle of fiber with a core index of
1.52 and a cladding index of 1.50.
Exercise (1) : Calculate the numerical aperture
Hint: n1 = 1.52 ; n2 = 1.50
and acceptance angle of fiber with a core index of
1.52 and a cladding index of 1.50. 2
N. A  (n1 - n2 )1
2 2
= 0.246 and
qa = sin – 1 (N.A) = 1414;
Acceptance angle = 2qa = 2828

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Exercise (2) : The relative refractive index difference

for an optical fiber is 0.05. If the entrance end of the
fiber is facing the air medium and refractive index of
core is 1.46, estimate the numerical aperture
Exercise (2) : The relative refractive index difference
for an optical fiber is 0.05. If the entrance end of the
fiber is facing the air medium and refractive index of Hint: n1 = 1.46 ; Δ = 0.05 ;
core is 1.46, estimate the numerical aperture
1
N.A  n1  ( 2)1 2  1.46  ( 2  0.05) 2  0.46

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