POST LAB AND PRE LAB QUESTIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY
1. DETERMINATION OF pH VALUE OF WATER SAMPLE

Pre lab
1. Define pH of a liquid? What is the relationship between pH and hydroxide ion
concentration?

pH is defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration

(log10 [1/H+]. The pH value or hydrogen ion concentration of water is a measure
of acidity and alkalinity of water.
pH + pOH = 14.

2. What are the methods used to determine pH value of a sample in laboratory?

Colorimetric method and Electrometric method

3. What does it indicate if pH value of a sample is less than 7.

If pH value is less than 7, it indicates that the water is acidic. Also, it indicates the
presence of carbon dioxide.

4. According to IS, what is the permissible limit of pH value for drinking water?
6.5 to 8.5
Post lab
1. What is the significance of pH of water in treatment plants?
The rate of reaction in each treatment process varies with pH of the water. The
lower and higher pH values affect the containers and pipes

2. What is the reason for maintaining a constant moderate temperature in

determining pH of the given sample?
The rate of reaction varies with temperature. So, if the temperature changes, other
chemical reactions take place which impart a pH increment or decrease in a
solution.

3. In a water treatment plant, the pH value of incoming water is 7.3 from one
source. The pH value is 8.5 for another source . What is average pH value of the
water which is entering into a treatment plant?
For one source, 7.3 = - log10[H+] , [H+] = 10-7.3
Another source, 8.5 = - log10[H+] , , [H+] = 10-8.5
10−7.3 + 10−8.5
Average = = 8.425 × 10- 8.5
2
Average value of pH = - log10[8.425 × 10- 8.5]

= 7.5744
2. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL. FIXED, VOLATILE AND SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
Prelab
1. Define a solid with reference to Environmental Engineering?
The term solid refers to the matters either filterable or non-filterable that remains
as residue upon evaporation and drying in oven at 1030C to 1050C.
2. Explain classification of solids?
Total solids- based on particle size.
Suspended solids -particle size more than 1µm
Colloidal solids – particle size between 1µm to 10-3 µm
Dissolved solids – smaller than 10-3 µm
Settleable solids – more than 10 µm

3. What is the permissible and tolerable limits of total dissolved solids according to
IS?
500 mg/l and 1500 mg/l.
Post lab
1. Volatile solids are determined as loss of weight of dry residue at 600⁰C.Why?
At 600⁰C organic solids are converted into CO2 and H2O and inorganic solids
remained as ash

2. The residue and container must be cooled in desiccators after drying or ignition
operation. Why?
If residue and its container is placed in the open air for cooling, moisture would
be picked up from air by residue and container. So it should be cooled in
desiccators where relative humidity is kept zero.

3. What is the best available method to remove dissolved organic solids from water
Biological treatment processes
4. What are the available methods to remove inorganic solids from water?
Reverse osmosis and Electrodialysis.
4. DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY?

Pre lab
1. Define electrical conductivity?
Electrical conductivity is measure of water to carry electrical current due to
presence of dissolved dissociated substances.

2. What is the relationship between electrical conductivity and TDS?

TDS (mg/l) = 0.55 to 0.9 × Conductivity in micromhos/cm.

3. What is the unit of electrical conductivity?

 mhos/cm and siemens/cm
Post Lab
1. Conductivity data is used to assess source of pollution in water distribution.
How?
Collect samples along the length of the pipe at suitable distances, where
pollution is likely to occur and measure electrical conductivity. A sudden
increase in conductivity value at any point is considered as a source of pollution
at that point.

2. What is the range of specific conductivity allowed in IS?

1-24 mhos

3. What are the substances that do not exert electrical conductivity?

a) Silica as SiO2
b) Unionised species of weak acids and bases
c) Uncharged soluble organic materials (glucose) cannot carry current so are
not measured by conductance.
4.DETERMINATION OF TDS
Prelab
1. What is the unit of TDS?
ppm or mg/ l

2. How does the high quantity of dissolved solids affect quality of water?
It increases density and turbidity of water

3. Name some of salts present in natural water.

Carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, and phosphates
Post lab
1. What is the relationship between electrical conductivity and TDS?
TDS (mg/l) = 0.55 to 0.9 × Conductivity in micromhos/cm.

2. What is the value of TDS, if electrical conductivity of water is 2.35 mhos and
constant 0.8?
TDS = 0.8 × 2.35 × 106 = 1.88 × 106 mg/l

3. Which is the IS code which gives the standards of drinking water?

IS 10500 :1991

5.DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY
Pre Lab
 1. What are the causes of turbidity in water?
Turbidity in water is due to the presence of organic and inorganic suspended matter
such as clay, silt, colloidal metal ions and oxides of various cations, silica, and humic
acids. Pigments of plant decay and metabolites may also cause turbidity in water.
2. What are the units generally used to measure turbidity?
mg/l, Jackson turbidity unit, Nephelo turbidity unit
3. What is the basic difference in principle involved in Jackson Turbidimeter and
Nephelo turbidimeter?
Jackson Turbidimeter is based on light absorption and Nephelo turbidimeter is based
light scattering

Post Lab

1. What is the general coagulant used to remove turbidity in water?

Alum
2. What is the permissible limit of turbidity for drinking water by various
organizations?
BIS ----- 10 NTU
ICMR 5 NTU
WHO 5 NTU
3. What are turbidity standards for packaged mineral water?
2 NTU

6.DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN BY PROBE METHOD

Pre Lab
1.What are the methods used to determine dissolved oxygen content of a sample?
Winkler’s method and probe method
2.What is the minimum D.O. required for survival of aquatic life?
4 mg/l
3.What processes affect the DO content in the water?
Reaeration, photosynthesis, oxidation of wastes and deoxygenation.

Post Lab
1. What is the relationship between DO and temperature?

Dissolved oxygen content is inversely proportional to temperature.

As the temperature increases, dissolved oxygen gets reduced.

2. What is the importance of DO content in waste water treatment?

If DO content in wastewater is less than 4 mg/l it indicates that the water is
polluted and the wastewater contains biological matter. So proper biological
 treatment methods have to be adopted before disposing the wastewater to
natural resources.

7.DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM COAGULANT DOSE BY USING JAR TEST

APPARATUS
Pre Lab
1. Specify the advantages of using a coagulant in water treatment.
The coagulant help in removing (1) true and apparent colour (2) harmful
bacteria, algae, and other planktons(3)taste and odour producing substances
2. What is the difference between coagulation and flocculation?
The term coagulation denotes the destruction of colloidal particles by charge
neutralisation and formation of minute flocs. The flocculation denotes the
agglomeration of flocs.
3. What is the cause of alkalinity reduction in coagulation process?
The coagulation of metallic salts releases hydrogen ions, and these ions
neutralise alkalinity.
Post lab
1. Low alkalinity water samples must be artificially buffered in coagulation
process. Why?
Optimum pH value is required for best coagulation (7.5-8.5)
2. What is the purpose of rapid mixing in the Jar test?
With rapid mixing the coagulant is uniformly dispersed throughout the mass
of water.
3. What is the importance of slow mixing in Jar test?
Slow mixing is the hydrodynamic process which results in the formation of
large and readily settleable flocs.
 CYCLE-II
1. DETERMINATION HARDNESS BY EDTA METHOD
Pre Lab
1. Define hardness?
Hardness is that characteristics of water which prevents the format
ion of sufficient lather or form with soap. Hardness is defined as the ability of
the water to cause precipitation of insoluble calcium and magnesium salts of
higher fatty acids from soap.
2. What are the constituents that cause hardness?
Hardness is caused by the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates ,
chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium.
3. How do you classify the water based on hardness?
0-75 mg/l --Soft
75-150 mg/l --Moderately hard
150-300 mg/l –Hard
300 mg/l and above - Very hard
Post Lab
1. What is the permissible limit of total hardness for drinking water?
300 mg/l
2. Why and how the pH value is adjusted to 10 in EDTA method?
At higher pH values, CaCO3 or Mg(OH)2 may get precipitate and the indicator may change
its colour. At lower pH values, The Mg indicator complex becomes unstable and a sharp
endpoint cannot be obtained.
The pH value is adjusted to about 10 by using buffer solution of NH4Cl/NH4OH
3. What are the methods to be used to remove temporary hardness?
Boiling and lime treatment
2. DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY
Pre Lab
1. What is meant by alkalinity in water and waste water?
It is the capacity of substances contained in water to take up hydroxium (H3+O) to
reach a defined pH value (4.3 to 14)
2. What are the constituents that cause alkalinity to water?
Bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxides of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
potassium
3. At what pH range alkalinity is present in water?
4.3 to 14
Post lab
1. How is alkalinity removed from water?
Neutralisation with H2SO4 or HCl
2. What is the permissible limit of alkalinity in water to be used for RCC works.
250 mg/l
3. A water does not give pink colour when phenolphthalein indicator is added but it
change colour from yellow to orange when titrate against acid using methyl orange
indicator. What type of alkalinity present in the sample?
 It indicates that carbonate and hydroxide alkalinity is absent and only bicarbonate
alkalinity is present in the sample

4. DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDES
Pre Lab
1. What are the sources chlorides in waste water?
Dissolution of salts, discharge effluents from chemical industries, oil well operations,
sewage discharges, seawater intrusion.
2. What are the harmful effects of chlorides if it exceeds the permissible limits?
Prolonged use may cause hyper tension
Post lab
1. What is the permissible limits of chlorides for drinking water purposes?
250 mg/l
2. What are the treatment methods to remove chlorides from wastewater?
Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis, Solar distillation
4. DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE
Pre Lab
1. Why do you determine residual chlorine in water treatment practice and water supply
mains?
Residual chlorine is measured to ensure effective disinfection without wastes of
chlorine in water treatment plant.

2. Why it is necessary to maintain 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l residual chlorine in water distribution
main?
To prevent further contamination in distribution system
3. Give the chemical formula of bleaching powder.
Ca(OCl)2
Post Lab
1. What is the % of active available chlorine in bleaching powder?
20 to 30 %
2. Name any three disinfectant which can commercially be employed in water
treatment?
Chlorine, Ozone, Ultraviolet radiation
3. Free available chlorine is more effective than combined chlorine.Why?
Diffusion of HOCl into cell wall of bacteria is quite high as compared to combined
available chlorine.
5.DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXGEN
Prelab
1. What are the factors affecting dissolved oxygen content in surface water?
Reaeration, photosynthesis, Deoxygenation and oxidation of waste

2. Write significance of DO determination in water.

If DO level drops below the level necessary to sustain normal life , then the aquatic
system is called as polluted

Post lab
1. Explain the reason for taking 203 ml instead of 200 ml sample in DO test.

When 300 ml bottles are used in DO test, 2 ml of Mn SO4 and 2 ml of alkali-KI

solutions are added. When we add this 4 ml , it is displaced from the bottle.A
correction should be made for this. 200×300/(300-4) = 203 ml.

[1 ml of 0.025N sodium thiosulphate is equivalent to 0.2 mg of Oxygen.

If we take 200 ml of sample for titration, then 0.2 × 1000/200 = 1 mg/l of Oxygen.
Then 1 ml of sodium thiosulphate = 1 mg/l of DO]

2. Two samples were collected at the same spot in the river. One is analysed
immediately and the other one is checked for DO in the laboratory. Which one give
you lower result? Write reason.
The one is analysed in laboratory. Biological activity of bacteria consumes DO, for
oxidation of organic matter during transport to the laboratory.

6. DETERMINATION OF IRON
PRELAB
1. What are the effects if iron if it is present in water?
Water become turbid, stains in wash basins, red spot in clothes, promote growth of
iron bacteria

2. What level of iron is recommended for drinking water?

0.3 mg/l

Postlab
1. What are the health effects of iron in drinking water?
Higher concentration of iron in drinking water causes Hemosidrosis(liver disease)

2. How can iron be removed from water?

 Aeration followed by precipitation with lime
Oxidation with Cl2 or potassium permanganate followed by filtration
7.DETERMINATION OF FLUORIDE
PRELAB
1.What are the methods used to determine fluoride content of sample?
Spectrophotometer and ion electrode method
2.What is the minimum fluoride required for life?
1 mg/l
3.Fluoride is called as a two edge sword . Why?
Fluoride in low dosages cause dental caries (<1 mg/l) and higher dosages cause dental and
skeletal fluorosis.

POST LAB
1. What are the methods available to remove fluoride from water?
Adsorption on activated carbon and activated alumina
Nalgonda technique using alum and lime
Ion exchange resin beds
2. Which are the states facing excess fluoride problem in ground water in India?
Andrapadesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamilnadu

3.How can you increase fluoride concentration in drinking water with deficiency of fluorine?
By adding sodium silicofluoride, sodium fluoride, calcium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid

8.DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND OF WATER

PRE LAB
1. Define BOD.
BOD is defined as the quantity of dissolved oxygen which is able to oxidise the organic
components in the water with assistance of microorganism under special experimental
conditions.

2. Which type of organic matter is measured in BOD test?

Biodegradable carbonaceous organic matter
POST LAB

1. Light must be excluded from the incubator in BOD test.Why?

To prevent growth of algae in the BOD bottle , which produce oxygen
 2. Why was the 5 day incubation has been selected for BOD determination?
Complete oxidation of oraganic matter requires 20 days, practically it is not possible
70 to 80% BOD exerted in days
Beyond 5 days growth of nitrifying bacteria will occur
9.DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
PRE LAB

1. Define COD.
COD can be defined as the amount of oxygen required to oxidise the organic matter
by strong oxidising agent under acidic conditions
2. Why do COD analysis and BOD usually give different results for the same waste
water?
COD gives a measure of total oxidizable organic matter and BOD is a measure of
biodegradable organic matter

POST LAB
1. What are the major limitations of the COD test?
COD test does not differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable
organic matter
It does not provide any evidence of the rate at which the biologically active material
would be stabilised under conditions that exist in nature
2. What is the BOD to COD ratio of wastewater?
It varies with different types of wastewater. If it is greater than 0.68 , the wastewater
is biodegradable

10.INTRODUCTION TO BACTEREOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

1. Define MPN.
The most probable number may be defined as that bacterial density which it had been
actually present in the sample under examination.
2. What are the reasons for E-coli as indicator organism of pathogenic bacteria?
Pathogenic bacteria and E-coliform bacteria are the human intestinal origin
These groups always present when pathogens are present
These group has longer survival time outside animal body than pathogens.