Arthur Schopenhauer: Philosophical Pessimism

Chandraveer Saran
2018A4PS0541P

Introduction

Arthur Schopenhauer was born in 1788, in present day Poland. The major philosophical
influences on him were Plato, Kant and the Upanishads. From his college years he was a great
admirer of Kantian philosophy, and built many of his metaphysical theories assuming Kant’s
premises. He was probably the first influential western philosopher to be well versed with
Eastern philosophy, and tried to assimilate many of its best ideas into his own thought system.
Interestingly, we can see a similarity between Buddha and Schopenhauer. Both men were born to
rich families, which they ultimately left after they realized the amount of suffering in the world.
And then they dedicated their life to understanding and resolving the conflict in the world around
them.

We start delving into his philosophy by first understanding the roots of his metaphysics;
exploring how from Kant’s premises he reached the idea of ‘Will’ (an omnipresent “energy: that
drives everything). We then see how he reacted to this picture of reality and how he
characterized the nature of underlying reality as malicious, bounding human life to toil and
suffering. He even goes on to say that we are worse off than animals (in terms of happiness). We
then discuss his critique of Judaism and Old Testament’s belief system in an all-loving Creator.
However, Schopenhauer doesn’t just leave us with a sad and depressing view of reality, he puts
forward principles we can abide by so that we can survive and maybe even enjoy this bleak
existence.
Discussion

Schopenhauer’s picture of reality

He started with Kant’s premises that we view the world with a human perspective; that we are
pre-programmed to view the world in certain ways. Take for example causality. There is no
direct relation between two events following each other, but our mind is programmed to view
correlated events to be causally connected. Other such concepts include our understanding of
space and time. This meant that what we could experience depended not only on what is ‘out
there’ (the thing in itself), but also on the nature of the faculties that we use to experience them.
All experience is subject-dependent.

Schopenhauer elaborates on this further and says that total reality is divided into two. There are
things as they exist in themselves, independently of being experienced. To such things he says,
we have no means of access. Then, there are things as they appear to us (the world of
appearances).

How do we differentiate between objects? We say that two things that exist at different points in
space or those that occur at different times are distinct from one another. However, this method
is based only in the world of appearances. There would be no such concepts outside the world of
experience. From this it follows that the underlying world (assuming there is one) would
transcend space, time and causality. There would be no distinction between things, i.e. the
underlying reality is ONE and undifferentiated. This is a very significant assertion, as this is one
of the core principles of Hinduism and Buddhism. It is also fascinating to note that Schopenhauer
has not imported this idea from the East but has formulated it using reason and the premises of
Western philosophy.

Now the big question is: Can we using the world of experience as our starting point get any hints
about the nature of the underlying reality?

Although we get a very limited amount of knowledge from the world of experience,
Schopenhauer argued that there is one unique physical object we know in a radically different
way, directly from inside. It is our own bodies. He felt this could provide the key to the inner
nature of things. There were two reasons he gave for our bodies being a unique source of
knowledge of our world. Firstly, it exists in the dimension of time, not of space. So, our
experience of it is free from our biases towards the physical world. Secondly, there is an
unconscious element in our actions. We might not be able to control it, but we can study it to
understand the nature of this underlying force that drives us (quite ahead of its time, a century
later Sigmund Freud would develop on this idea to create the field of Psychoanalysis).

It is here that Schopenhauer came up with the concept of ‘Will’. (Note that the use of the word
‘will’ makes things a little confusing, as we usually associate ‘will’ with some conscious being.
A neutral alternative would be the word ‘Energy’). He argued that below the conscious there is
an infra-conscious, a drive, a striving for existence. Many German Idealist of his time were
contending with a similar idea. But, Schopenhauer was original in how he characterized the
‘Will’. He claimed that it was a non-rational force at the base of our instincts, and manifests
itself in all aspects of this world. Hence, matter also has inherent energy (again, ahead of its
time!). He argues that ‘Energy’ is the ultimate thing in this world of experience; and the
underlying metaphysical truth is whatever manifests itself as this energy. And the nearest we can
come to experience what that is the energy/will we feel inside ourselves.

Schopenhauer’s attitude towards this picture of reality

On the sufferings of the World

Schopenhauer was struck deeply, seeing the enormous amounts of suffering in world. Also, what
is troublesome is that a lot of it was born out of needs and necessities inseparable from life. Just
take for example, how animals are bound to prey on each other in order to survive. And you can
be sure that pleasure-pain is not a zero-sum; just observe one animal killing and eating the other,
how animals murder the children of a female in order to reproduce with her. All this, and the
added turmoil of human existence, led Schopenhauer to argue that suffering is the ‘direct and
immediate object’ of life.

(Note: We define certain concepts in terms of pairs, the duality of presence and absence. For
example, light and darkness; one might say that light is primary thing and darkness is the
absence of light. In this case, light becomes a positive substance (not in a value/moral sense but
in the sense that it is primary, direct and immediate), and darkness becomes a negative one).

Usually, philosophers, religions and other ethical systems define good/happiness as positive
concepts (in the sense described above) and pain/suffering as negative concepts (i.e.
suffering/despair is the absence of happiness/joy). But, Schopenhauer argues the opposite by
proclaiming suffering to be essential and positive. All happiness is relief in the absence of pain
or a state of pain brought to an end or a desire fulfilled.

To understand this claim, we must understand that the positive quality as described above always
makes its existence felt directly. Referring to our own lives, notice how painful moments are
always more direct, have an essential nature of their own. That is why pain always turns out to be
graver than we expected, whereas happiness always underwhelms us. Also, we can point to the
temporary nature of joyous moments, contrasted with the permanent presence of hardship and
toil.

He further goes on to argue that the situation is worse for humans, presenting three arguments.

 We experience less pleasure from a pleasurable moment and more pain from a painful
one. It is due to our proclivity to hope and anxiety. These are consequences of our
abilities to reason, reflect and imagine.
Hope makes us anticipate a happy future event. It is a way of experiencing the pleasure of
it beforehand. This pleasure would inevitably be borrowed from the future. And hence
when the moment arrives it is not whole and satisfying. Anxiety makes us fear upcoming
danger and our attempts to evade it make the inevitable mishaps more and more dreadful.
And when it is experienced, the grievance is highly magnified.
On the other hand, the animal functions in the present. It faces pain just as it is; and
enjoys pleasure in its fullest. “The brute is the present personified”. It is why people keep
pets - to experience the tranquility of something content in the present moment.
 The material basis of misery is in bodily pleasure and pain. Now these arise out of our
basic physical desires for food, shelter and sex; which are the same for both humans and
animals. To this human have added much more difficulty in satisfying these needs. By
the desire of luxury- delicate clothing, delicious food, and finest specimens of the
 opposite sex – humans have pushed themselves further in the depths of misery. And even
if they achieve some of it, they are never satisfied. There is always more luxury. This is
not the case with the animals.
 Additionally, for greater sources of pleasure (hence of pain), humans have formulated
mental aspects of pleasure and pain. Concepts such as ambition, status and honor that
revolve around the opinion others have of him.

This rightfully earns Schopenhauer the title of ‘Pessimist’.

Rejection of God

Schopenhauer rejects the Judaist and Old Testament belief in an all wise, all good Creator. He
denies its existence by pointing to two irrefutable realities- the existence of enormous amounts of
evil and the imperfection of the (so-called) greatest creation i.e. the human. Furthermore, these
two realities lead us to an opposite world-view. Our existence is an error, an unwelcome ripple in
the tranquility of a world of nothingness. We come into this world with a burden of sin upon us,
and to we are bound to continually atone for that sin. “It is the grievous sin of the world that has
produced the grievous suffering of the world.”

Hinduism and Buddhism had been saying this for centuries. Hindus believe that Brahma created
the world as a mistake, and this condemned him to remain in this world, atone for that folly and
work out his redemption. Interestingly, we can draw a parallel between Schopenhauer’s theory
and the present scientific evidence for a Big Bang, setting the world into motion. What was
before it? - Tranquility, perfect nothingness.

Schopenhauer’s Ethics

Aestheticism and Moral Awareness: Accustom yourself to view this world as a prison. There is
a deep humility and maturity in this view which might not be visible at the surface. Firstly, it
frees you from the disappointment and fear at every bad incident; as you come to understand it
not an anomaly but the norm of this world. It helps you adjust your expectations accordingly.
Everyone has a share in this suffering.

Secondly, it helps us develop sympathy for the fellow human. We would look at the moral or
intellectual failings of the neighbor not with indignation and scoff; but with sympathy and the
knowledge that the same nature exists in us, it is just that it has not showed itself in us yet. We all
share the shortcomings of humanity. The most important thing in life which we all need, and
which we all owe to our neighbor is tolerance, patience and love.

He also says that we must give attention to the aesthetic appreciation of art and beauty. By
indulging ourselves in experiencing the Platonic ‘forms’ in everyday life we could get us a short
relief from the ugliness of the world around us.

Asceticism: Schopenhauer concedes that aestheticism is only temporary escape from the
everyday world. To salvage ourselves from the sufferings of the world, Schopenhauer says we
must turn our back towards the world. We must reject the ‘will to live’- the driving force in us
that creates all desire and pointless striving. Schopenhauer prescribes an attitude of resignation,
combined with tranquility. This reminds us of the Buddhist concept of Nirvana; to give up maya
and strive for moksha. The way to reduce one’s frustrations is to reduce one’s desires, to
experience the present to the fullest and to detach ourselves from the world.

We need to recognise the independent existence of Schopenhauer’s metaphysics and his ethics.
One need not accept his body of work as a whole, in order to find utility in it.

Conclusion:

These and other ideas of Schopenhauer have influenced many great philosophers. The most
notable of them include Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Each of
whom, revolutionized the fields of Existentialism, Psychoanalysis and Linguistics respectively.

It is an assumption made by religions people and ‘optimists’ of our age that we need to ignore
reality and fool ourselves in order to find meaning in life. But, Schopenhauer destroys this myth.
It is fascinating how from the harshest facts of life, Schopenhauer comes up with the profoundest
principles to live life by. By denying the existence of a faith based creator and acknowledging
the hardships of life, he comes up with the message of ‘love thy neighbor’ and humility over our
imperfection. By encouraging us to develop a keen eye for beauty and art, he shows the minds
capacity for producing joy in this world of adversity. By the proclamation to turn our backs to
the world, he empowers the individual and urges us to live a life of tranquility and freedom.

References:

Schopenhauer, A. (1890) Studies in Pessimism, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

Wicks, Robert, "Arthur Schopenhauer", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/schopenhauer/>.

Mann, T. (1939) The Living Thoughts Of Schopenhauer, London, Cassell And Company

Schopenhauer, A. (1818) The World as Will and Representation