DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – anti-bacterial

NUTRITION-Process by which organisms obtain chemicals

and utilize their food. » kill bacteria
There are 3 parts to Nutrition: that enter
1. Ingestion- process of taking food into the mouth with
digestive system so that it food
may be hydrolized or MOUTH
digested. • Chemical and mechanical digestion.
2. Digestion- the breakdown of food (either • Food is chewed (masticated) mechanically.
chemically or mechanically) • A bolus (lump) is formed with saliva and the
in order to utilize nutrients tongue.
3. Absorption - the passage of material through PHARYNX-The back of the throat.
the lining of the intestine into the blood or through a • Larynx- passage for air, closes when we
cell membrane into a cell. swallow.
* Egestion /Elimination – getting rid of wastes • Is approximately 15cm long.
TYPES OF NUTRIENTS: DIGESTIVE GLANDS
• Micronutrients- vitamins, minerals, & • Groups of specialized secretory cells.
water • Found in the lining of the alimentary canal
• Macronutrients- proteins, lipids, or accessory organs.
carbohydrates, etc… PERISTALSIS
• Groups of specialized secretory cells.
• Found in the lining of the alimentary canal
or accessory organs.
STOMACH
• Food is temporarily stored here.
• Gastric juices are secreted.
• Has layers of muscle that line the inside.
• Mechanically and chemically breaks down
food.
GASTRIC JUICES
• Secreted by the stomach.
• Acidic (pH 1.5-2.5) (HCl).
• Pepsin- an enzyme that breaks down large
proteins into amino acids.
INGESTION • Food is further broken down into a thin
• Mouth liquid called chyme.
– mechanical digestion GALL BLADDER
• teeth • Pouch structure located near the liver which
– breaking up food concentrates and stores bile
– chemical digestion • Bile duct – a long tube that carries BILE.
• saliva The top half of the common bile duct is
– amylase associated with the liver, while the bottom
» enzyme half of the common bile duct is associated
digests with the pancreas, through which it passes
starch on its way to the intestine.
– mucin PANCREAS
» slippery • An organ which secretes both digestive
protein enzymes (exocrine) and hormones
(mucus) (endocrine)
» protects soft • ** Pancreatic juice digests all major nutrient
lining of types.
digestive • Nearly all digestion occurs in the small
system intestine & all digestion is completed in the
» lubricates SI.
food for LIVER
easier • Function
swallowing – produces bile
– buffers • bile stored in gallbladder
» neutralizes until needed
acid to • breaks up fats
prevent – act like detergents
tooth decay to breakup fats
SMALL INTESTINE • Extracellular matrix (ECM)
• Most chemical digestion takes place here. made of collagen and
• Simple sugars and proteins are absorbed inorganic salts (calcium)
into the inner lining. • Collagen: Strength
• Fatty acids and glycerol go to lymphatic • Salts: Hard &
system. resistant to crushing
• Lined with villi, which increase surface area • Parts of skeleton form in first few weeks of
for absorption, one cell thick. prenatal development
LARGE INTESTINE
• Solid materials pass through the large • Bones form by replacing connective tissues
intestine. in the fetus
• These are undigestible solids (fibers). • 1. Intramembranous 2. Endochondral
• Water is absorbed.
• Vitamins K and B are reabsorbed with the Four major functions OF BONE:
water. 1. Support & Protection
• Rectum- solid wastes exit the body. 2. Body Movement
Bones can act as levers.
A lever has 4 components:
1. a rigid bar
2. a pivot
SKELETAL SYSTEM 3. an object that is moved
against resistance
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES 4. force that supplies energy

BONE SHAPE- Bones classified according to 3. Blood Cell Formation-Hematopoiesis =

shape: blood cell formation

Long, short, flat, irregular, or sesamoid (bone Marrow - connective tissue in medullary
imbedded within tendon) cavities, spongy bone and central canals
LONG BONE STRUCTURE Red Marrow - red blood cells
1. Expanded ends of bones that (erythrocytes), white blood cells
form joints with adjacent bones are called (leukocytes), and platelets
epiphyses. Color comes from hemoglobin
Found in spongy bone of the skull, ribs,
2. Articular cartilages (hyaline sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, and pelvis
cartilage) cover the epiphyses
3. The shaft of the bone is the diaphysis. 4. Storage of Inorganic Salts
4. Periosteum - a tough layer of AXIAL SKELETON
vascular connective tissue that covers the bone • Supports & protects organs of head, neck, and
SHORT BONE STRUCTURE trunk
Cubelike, length and width equal - Skull – protects brain
FLAT BONE STRUCTURE - Hyoid bone
Platelike with broad surface - Vertebral column (vertebrae and intervertebral
IRREGULAR BONE disks) – protects spinal cord
Variety of shapes, usually connected to several other - Thorax (ribs and sternum) – protect heart and
bones lungs
SESAMOID(ROUND) BONES APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Small, nodular (bumpy), embedded within tendons • Anchor limbs to axial skeleton
adjacent to joints • Include bones or upper & lower limbs
Compact bone: diaphysis - the pectoral girdle (scapulae and clavicles)
Spongy bone: epiphyses (reduces weight of the - upper limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
skeleton) metacarpals, and phalanges)
- Diaphysis: hollow cavity lined with endosteum - pelvic girdle (coxal bones articulating with the
(thin layer of connective tissue) and filled with sacrum)
marrow (tissue, produces red blood cells) - lower limbs (femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals,
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE metatarsals, phalanges)
• Osteocytes (bone cells) - JOINTS
located in lacunae • Place where two bones meet = joint
• Lacunae form concentric • Enable wide variety of body movements
circles around central • Classified according to degree of
canals (Haversian Canals) movement possible
- Immovable
- Slightly movable
 - Freely moveable SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTION
• Classified according to type of tissue that Origin and Insertion
binds them together - The immovable end of a muscle is the origin,
- Fibrous while the movable end is the insertion;
- Cartilaginous contraction pulls the insertion toward the origin.
- Synovial - Some muscles have more than one insertion or
origin.
INTERACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Prime Mover: the one doing most of the
work
- Synergists: Helper muscles
- Antagonists: Opposing muscles

Origin – immovable end of muscle

Insertion – movable end of muscle

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Function:
The excretory system eliminates nonsolid wastes
from the body.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM • Nonsolid wastes are eliminated through
Organs: Muscle tissue (skeletal, smooth, and lungs, skin, and kidneys.
cardiac) • Lungs exhale carbon dioxide and water
Function: Moves bones at joints and pushes vapor.
substances such as blood, food, and fluids • Sweat glands in skin release excess water
throughout the body. and salts.
- All movements require muscle which are The ureters are tubes that carry urine from the
organs using chemical energy to contract. pelvis of the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
- 3 types of muscle: skeletal, smooth, and
cardiac The urinary bladder temporarily stores urine
Myosin (thick protein filament) and Actin (thin until it is released from the body.
protein filament) The urethra is the tube that carries urine from
the urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
The outer end of the urethra is controlled by a
- Muscle contraction involves shortening of
circular muscle called a sphincter.
sarcomeres, and pulling of muscle against its
attachments.
KIDNEY
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
• The principal function of the kidney is to
• Myosin (thick) filaments combine with
filter blood in order to remove cellular waste
Actin (thin) filaments, forming actomyosin
products from the body.
• Filaments slide past each other
• At any given time, 20 % of blood is in the
• Reaction between actin & myosin generates
kidneys. Humans can function with one
force of contraction.
kidney.
SMOOTH MUSCLES
• If one ceases to work, the other increases in
- Elongated with tapered ends, lack striations and
size to handle the workload.
have a undeveloped sarcoplasmic reticulum
TYPES OF SM
1. Multiunit smooth muscle The kidneys are fist-sized, bean shaped
- blood vessels and iris of eye, fibers structures.
separate rather than in sheets
2. Visceral Smooth Muscle – two layers: medulla and cortex
– Sheets
– filtering units called nephrons
– found in the walls of hollow
organs – renal artery and renal vein
– fibers stimulate one another
The kidney can also excrete other waste
(rhythmicity)
products, such as :
– responsible for peristalsis in
• 1) urea a nitrogenous waste produced in the
hollow organs and tubes
liver from the breakdown of protein. It is the
CARDIAC MUSCLE
main component of urine
- Only found in heart
• 2) uric acid usually produced from
- Mechanism of contraction is almost same
breakdown of DNA or RNA
as skeletal and smooth muscle
- Branching, striated, cells interconnected
 • 3) creatinine waste product of muscle
action.
Nephrons clean the blood and produce urine.
• Nephrons are the filtering units in the
kidneys.
• They clean and rebalance the blood to
produce urine.
• There approximately 1 million nephrons in
each kidney
Nephrons clean the blood in a three-step process.
FILTRATION
Water, electrolytes, amino acids, glucose, urea,
and other small molecules diffuse out of the
blood, creating the filtrate.
REABSORPTION
As the filtrate enters the rest of the tubule, most
of the materials are reabsorbed into the blood.
Materials not reabsorbed make up the urine,
which flows into the loop of Henle.
EXCRETION
In the loop of Henle, water can be reabsorbed one
final time to reduce the volume of urine. The
remaining urine flows into a collecting duct that
leads to the ureter.
Disorders of the Excretory System
UTI-URINARY TRACT INFECTION
• Is a very common disorder. If the bladder
has become infected, it is known as cystitis.
If the urethra is infected., it is called
urethritis.
• Symptoms include painful urination burning
sensation), frequent urination (even if no
urine present) and bloody or brown urine.
• This can lead to chills, fever, nausea,
vomiting and upper abdomen tenderness.
KIDNEY INFECTION
• Result when an infection reaches the
kidneys and becomes known as
pyelonephritis.
• Common causes can be infection from
elsewhere in the body or obstruction of the
prostate gland (usually in older men).
• For children, infection can be caused by the
tube that drains urine from the kidneys and
the bladder.
KIDNEY STONES
Crystals formed from minerals in urine.
They can be found in the kidney, ureter or bladder.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• The respiratory system consists of the
lungs, a pair of elastic organs housed in the
chest cavity, and the air passages leading to
them. The air inhaled into the lungs provides
oxygen to cells throughout the body. Air
forced out of the lungs removes carbon
dioxide from the body.
• Air enters the respiratory system through the
nose or mouth. It then travels through the
larynx (voice box) and into the trachea
(windpipe). At about the middle of the chest,
the trachea divides into two tubes, the right
and left bronchi. The right bronchus carries
air to the three lobes of the right lung. The
left bronchus supplies air to the two lobes of
the left lung.
FUNCTIONS
• 1. intkae of oxygen
• 2. removal of carbon dioxide are the
primary functions of the respiratory system,
• 3. respiratory system helps regulate the
balance of acid and base in tissues, a process
crucial for the normal functioning of cells.
• 4. respiratory system also houses the cells
that detect smell,
• 5. and assists in the production of sounds for
speech
Phases of Respiration
• The first phase of respiration begins with
breathing in, or inhalation. Inhalation brings
air from outside the body into the lungs.
Oxygen in the air moves from the lungs
through blood vessels to the heart, which
pumps the oxygen-rich blood to all parts of
the body. Oxygen then moves from the
bloodstream into cells, which completes the
first phase of respiration
• The second phase of respiration begins with
the movement of carbon dioxide from the
cells to the bloodstream. The bloodstream
carries carbon dioxide to the heart, which
pumps the carbon dioxide-laden blood to the
lungs. In the lungs, breathing out, or
exhalation, removes carbon dioxide from the
body, thus completing the respiration cycle.
STRUCTURE
• The organs of the respiratory system extend
from the nose to the lungs and are divided
into the upper and lower respiratory tracts.
The upper respiratory tract consists of the
nose and the pharynx, or throat. The lower
respiratory tract includes the larynx, or voice
box; the trachea, or windpipe, which splits
into two main branches called bronchi; tiny
branches of the bronchi called bronchioles;
and the lungs, a pair of saclike, spongy
organs. The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and bronchioles conduct air to and
from the lungs. The lungs interact with the
circulatory system to deliver oxygen and
remove carbon dioxide.
Diaphragm and Respiration
• As the diaphragm contracts and moves
downward, the pectoralis minor and
intercostal muscles pull the rib cage
outward. The chest cavity expands, and air
rushes into the lungs through the trachea to
fill the resulting vacuum. When the
diaphragm relaxes to its normal, upwardly
curving position, the lungs contract, and air
is forced out.