CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 THEORY AND ANALYSIS

The method used in achieving Transmission is show in the block diagram

bellow in figure 3.5
POWER SUPPLY

INPUT PRE-AMPLIFIER RADIO FREQUENCY

TRANSDUCER (AUDIO AMPLIFIER) (OSCILATOR)
(MICROPHONE)

MODULATOR/
POWER AMPLIFIER
Fig 3.1
Block diagram of an fm Transmitter

The whole circuit is power by the complete power supply show in figure 3.5
above, microphone (condenser) is used as a transducer which converts the
audio signal (information) into electrical signal, BC547 is used as pre-
amplifier which raise the strength of a weak signal the radio frequency (RF)
oscillator is a frequency generator, 2N3019 NPN transistor was used as
modulator, power Amplifier. For the tank (oscillator) Hartley mode would be
used. Monopole antenna would be used as output transducer.

3.1.2 Power Supply

A power supply is a circuit that provides a dc regulated out put

voltage.

In order to perform function the transmitter and receiver most have

to be powered by a constant DC power supply.

The power supply is constructed using the following elements are chosen.

Step down transformer,

Diode as rectifier

A capacitor as fitter

IC positive voltage regulator

6
 The method used in achieving receiver is shown in the lock diagram in figure
3.5

MIXER IF AMPLIFIER LIMITER DETECTOR

SMOOTHING NETWORK

RADIO FREQENCY LOCAL OSACILLATOR

OSCILLATOR
AUDIO AMPLIFIER

3.2 Fm receiver circuit diagram using discrete component

The above diagram can be reduced by using IC chips TDA 7000 and LM380

RADIO FREQENCY TDA 7000 LM 380

OSCILLATOR

LOCOL OSCILLATOR

3.3 Fm receiver circuit diagram using IC chips.

3.1.3 IDA 7000 (FM Receiver)

This simple one chip FM receiver will allow you to receiver frequencies from
88 to 108 MHZ. TDA 7000 is a great chip because it includes RF input state,
mixer, local oscillator, IF (inter mediate frequency) limiter, If filter, amplifier,
phase demodulator, mute doctor, and various other circuit that are essential
for a receiver system. The figure below shown the data sheep of TDA 7000

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
Figure 3.4 TDA 7000 2
1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Pin 1 is Vec, pin 2 is out put voltage, pin 6 and 5 local oscillators, pin 14 and
13 tank circuit (oscillator), pin 16 is ground. Pin 10 corrector, pin 17
demodulator, and pin 15 IF limiter, pin 10 and 12 & 11 If filter, pin 3 noise
mute, pin 4 loop filter.

7
3.3.3 LM 380 (Audio amplifier)

Lm 380 is an audio amplifier its high power audio amplifier. The output of the
TDA 7000 receiver is connected to the input of the LM 380 (audio amplifier)
the output of the TDA 7000 (receiver) is not enough to driving crystal
earphones or high impendence headphones that is the reason of connecting
the LM380 (audio amplifier).

From the date sheep Lm 380 has the following picture which shown below in
figure 3.8

14 13 12 11 10 9 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 3.5 Lm 380

3.1.4 Transducer (Loudspeaker)

The out put transducer (loudspeaker) is a device which converts electrical

impulses in to sound.

It consists of a coil with many turns placed in strong magnetic field produced
by the polis of a permanent magnet which is joined to a piece of soft iron.
The coil is attached to a cone made from thick paper, and shaped as to make
it flexible varying current from an amplifier is passed into the coil through the
leads. This current produces a varying electromagnetic force on the coil
making it vibrate with the same frequency to the cone attached to the coil.
The cone will then vibrate causing the large mass of air around it to vibrate,
there by producing a loud sound. Figure 3.9 below the diagram

Figure 3.6 a moving coil loud speaker

8
3.2 POWER SUPPLY

3.2.1 TRANSFORMER

Considering equation 3.1 below; this is usually referred to as the basic transformer equation

(Theraja B. L, A. K, 1999)

V = 4FfaBN X 10-8………………………………..3.1

Where:

V = the r.m.s voltage across a considered winding in volts.

F = form factor (normally 1.11 for sine wave)

f = input frequency in Hertz (50Hz)

B = flux density in lines per square inch

N = number of turns on a considered winding

a = core area in square inches

A conservative figure for B is 75000 lines per square inch of core area.

V = 4 X 1.11 X 50 X a X 75X103 X N X 10-8

V = 16650X10-5 X N X a

N/V = 6/a…………….3.2

The term N/V is known as the turns per-volt figure for a transformer- that is to say, the

number of turns on the winding for each volt across them. This ratio is the same for each winding

on a transformer.

3.2.2 RECTIFIER AND SMOOTHENING CIRCUIT

9
 The rectifier circuit is needed for ac signal rectification. A full wave bridge rectifier is the

more commonly used rectifier circuit. Its arrangement is shown in figure 3.1 below

D4 D1
Vdc

Vac D2

+
D3 C1
1uF

Fig 3.1 full wave bridge rectifier.

The bridge rectifier consists of four diodes. The operation of the circuit is that two diodes

conduct during any of the half cycle of the ac input voltage the resultant output voltage

waveform is shown in fig3.1

However since a dual power supply is required for this project, the rectifier circuit is

modified as shown fig3.2 where C1 and C2 are the filter capacitors (Theraja B. L, A. K, 1999).

D4 D1

220
+

ac D3 D2 C1
+

C2

Fig 3.2 full wave rectifier with dual supply.

A circuit that converts a pulsating output signal of a rectifier into a smooth dc voltage is

known as a filter to achieve this; a capacitor is used in parallel with the load. This type of filter is

known as CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER. The filtering action of this filter wave is shown in

fig3.3 below.

10
Fig3.3 filtering action of a capacitor filter.

The value of the shunt capacitor is given by

1
C=
4 √ 3 fγR 2 ……………….3.2

Where F = frequency at the main voltage

γ = Ripple factor

R2 = load resistance (Theraja B. L, A. K, 1999)

In order to achieve 100W power with 76.55% efficiency a dual voltage +35v and -35v is needed

(both dc voltage).

Since these voltages are peak voltages therefore their root mean square (r.m.s) will be:

Vr.m.s = Vpeak(dc) ………………3.3

35
=24 . 75
√2 Volts

The conversion from r.m.s value to peak value is practically done using smoothening capacitors.

Since the r.m.s value is pulsating and supplied by a bridge rectifier then the r.m.s voltage will be

transformer r.m.s voltage (ac) less two diode drops since for each half-cycle at the ac voltage two

out of the four diodes of a bridge rectifier conducts.

11
 Transformer r.m.s voltage Trms is given by:

Trms = 24.75 + 1.4 = 26.15v (ac)

Hence, since the power supply is intended to be dual, then transformer has to supply twice the

voltage in the equation. This invariably means the transformer will be a centre tapped type. This

is transformer secondary voltage.

Vs = 52.3v

Recall, the turn per voltage ratio is N/V= 6/a …………………..3.4

Where:

N = number of turns on a considered winding

V = voltage across a considered winding in Volts

a = core area in square meter which has been chosen to be 18cm2 for the primary

winding

V = 4.444fΦNP (Theraja B.L, A.K 1999)

Φ = BA

Where B = 1.2T

A = 4.0 X 4.5cm

A = 18 X 10-4m

NP 1
=
V 222Φ

NP
=2. 085
V

NP= 2.085 X 220

NP = 458.8

 Primary turns = 459 turns

12
For the secondary winding

Vs = 52.3v

NS
=
VS 2.085

Ns = 2.085 X 52.3 = 109.05

 Secondary turns = 110 turns

3.2.3 Transducer (microphone)

Microphone is a device which converts sound in to electrical impulse we have

different types of microphone in this project condenser will be used

Condenser (electrets) microphone it contains permanently embedded static

electric charge in between two parallel plates (which due to high resistance
and chemical stability of the material will not decay for hundreds of years).

A voltage is applied across the metal plates, coursing a small current to flow
through the charge material, when sound is applied on the condenser
microphone applying a varying pressure to the two plates, which causing the
plates to adjust and the voltage across the two plates varies linearly with
distance which cause the voltage at sources varies which producers
electrical signal across the out put resistance.

3.2.4 PRE-AMPLIFIER

Pre- amplifier circuit is a circuit design to raise the strength of a weak signal.
It is used to raise the strength of the weak signal coming from the transducer
and couple to the modulator.

BC 547 is used which has the following characteristics

Voltage gain = 100

Maximum voltage= 45V

VEBO=6V

Collector maximum current=100mA

Power dissipation, Pt= 500MW

In analysis of amplifier the following have to be consider

13
 1- Transistor configuration
We have three types of transistor configuration
Common emitter (CE)
Common collector (CC)
Common base (CB)

2 transistor bias; we have different types of transistor bias. The following

are some

i. Base bias or fixed current bias

ii. Base bias with a emitter feed back
iii. Base bias with collector feedback
iv. Voltage divider bias
1. Frequency response :- we have the following frequency response
i. 1 Audio frequency (AF) amplifier
ii. Intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier
iii. Radio frequency (RF) amplifier
2. Transistor biasing condition
i. Class- A amplifier
ii. Class-B amplifier
iii. Class- C amplifier

Base on the above analysis I would choose the following

1- Common emitter (CE) configuration most of the transistor amplifier are

of CE type because of large gains in voltage, current and power.
Moreover, their input and out put impedance characteristics are
suitable for many application
2- Base bias with collector feed back it is a negative feedback which has
the following advantages, higher fidelity, stabilize gains increase band
with (improved frequency response)and less amplitude, harmonic,
frequency, Noise and phase distortion and also input and out put
impedance can be modified as desired
3- Class- A biasing condition in class A biasing condition the circuit is bias
in such away the collector current(IC) flow at all time during the full
cycle of the input signal that is the transistor most work at the active
region and small amount of collector current.

Vce=1/2 Vcc and small amount of collector current.

Therefore, the amplifier is as shown below

In fig. 3.2

14
 Fig3.2 pre amplifier

3.2.5 RF AMPLIFIER

A Transistor is used to do the following function RF Amplifier, modulator

and power amplifier.

3.2.6 Hartley Oscillator

For the case of this project a Hartley oscillator was chosen as in the tank
circuit targeted to generate frequency between 88MHZ to 108MHZ so that
to avoid capture effect the tank circuit consist of a trimmer capacitor,
inductor the circuit frequency of oscillation is then given by approximately
it is shown in figure 3.3 below
1
F=
2 π √ LC
Where F = frequency

C = capacitance

L = inductance

15
Fig 3.3 tank circuit (RF oscillator)

3.2.7 MODULATION

Modulation ; it is the process of combining an audio frequency (AF) signal

with a radio frequency (AF) currier wave.

During modulation, some characteristic of the currier wave is varied in time

with the modulating signal (AF signal) and is accomplished by combining the
two.

The method of modulation the mathematical expression for a sinusoidal

carrier is

E = Ec sin (wc t + θ) = Ec sin (2πf c+θ) obviously the wave form can be varied
by any of its following three factors or parameters

1 Ec – the amplitude
2. fc- the frequency
3. θ- the phase
In this project only frequency modulation is choose frequency
modulation(FM) -: the information signal changes the frequency of the
carrier wave without changing its amplitude or phase.

If the carrier signal is given by :-

16
ec= Em cos wct wmt and the information signal is given by:-

ei = Em Cos Wmt the modulated output is given by:-

ec= Ec cos Wct (Wct+ ∅ sinWmt)/Ec

∅ = DF (max)/Fm

Where

DF= is the frequency modulation deviation

Fm = is modulation frequency.

3.2.8 Power Amplifier

For power Amplifier common emitter, voltage divider bias with emitter feed
back and class-B is chose as shown in fig 3.4 below

Fig 3.4 Voltage divider

Rb can be calculate by using the following formula

Rb=R1R2/(R1+R2)

3.2.9 Antenna

An antenna is a structure usually mentally object, which provides effective

sending and reception of electromagnetic waves. For efficient radiation, the
impedance of the antenna and circuit has to properly match. The antenna
used in this project is simple monopole.

17
The length of the antenna obtains using the relation given by

L= wave lenth/4

Where

L= length of the antenna

3.3.0 RECEIVER

3.3.1 Theoretical Background

After analysis, the following components used in the project were purchased
in our local market; these are transistors, capacitors, resistors, transformer
inductors (coil) and IC such as TDA 7000, LM 380.
Table1: Transistors parameters.

TRANSISTO Vce(volt) Ic(mA) Pmax(mw) Fmax(MHZ) ß(Hfe)

R
2N3019 30 800 800 110 180
BC547 6 100 500 120 100

Table 2: technical specifications

IC Vcc(volt) Fmax(MHZ) P(mA)

TDA7000 2 – 10 70 - 120 8
LM 380 5 – 14 0.002 - 20 7

18
Pre- amplifier

Clas-A amplifier

VceQ= ½ Vcc

But Vcc= 9v

VceQ= ½ x9

VceQ= 4.5v

Choosing Icq very small for amplifier stability

IcQ= 0.95MA and ßQ= ½ ß

ßQ= ½ x100=50

Vce= Vcc-IcRc

Rc = Vcc-Vce/Ic

Rc= 9-4.5/0.95x103 = 4.736x103

Rc= 4.736k Ω

The chooses value of resistor available is the market is 4.7k Ω

Hence Rc=4.7 K Ω

Ic = ß Ib

19
Ib = Ic/ ß

Ib= 0.95/50

Ib=0.019MA

Ib=19µA

Vce=Vcc-IbRb-Vce

Rb= Vcc-Vce/Ib

Rb= 9-4.5-0.3/19x10-6 = 4.2/19x10-6 Ω

=0.2211x106 Ω

The one available in the market is 220K hence RB= 220K Ω choose C=4.7µF
as coupling capacitor

3.4.7 Modulator

Vb= R2/(R1+R2)xVcc

Choosing R1=R2 =10K Ω

Vb= 10/(10+10)x9= 90/20

Vb= 4.5v

Vb-Vbe- IeRe=0

Approximately Ie= Ic

Re=(Vb-Vbe)/Ic

Re=4.5-0.2/Ic

Taken IcQ = 40Ma

Re= (4.5-0.7)/40x10-3

Re = 0.095x103 = 95 Ω

The available resistor in the market is 100 Ω hence Re= 100 Ω

3.4.8 Tank circuit (oscillator) for transmitter

L= inductance

From the formula

L= R2c N2r / {25 (9Rc+10h)}

20
Where L = inductance in µH (micro Henry)

Rc= Radius of the coil in (mm)

Nr= Number of turns

h= the overall length of the winding coil in (mm)

Coil of 0.55mm in diameter was winded on biro tube (4mm diameter) for up
to 15 turns

Rc = 4mm/2 = 2mm

h = 0.55x15= 8.25mm

Nr = 15
L = 22 x 152/ 25 (9x2+10x8.25)

L = 900/2512.5

L = 0.358µH

When F = 88 MHZ by using

1
F=
2 π √ LC
1
C=
4 π F2 L
2

1
C= 2
4 ( 3.142 )2∗( 88∗106 ) ∗0.358∗10−6

C = 9.13 ρ F

When F = 108MHZ
1
C=
4 π F2 L
2

1
C= 2
4 ( 3.142 ) ∗( 108∗106 ) ∗0.358∗10−6
2

C = 6.06 ρ F

21
Choosing trimmer (Variable capacitor) of range 4 to 20 ρ F is suitable for
the range of frequency 88 to 108MHZ.

3.4.7 Antenna (monopole type)

L=¼ λ

Where L = Antenna length

λ = wave length

V=f λ

V = 3.0x108 m/s/104
λ = 2.885m

L = ¼ x 2.885m

L = 0.72m

3.4.8 Receiver Tank circuit (oscillator)

Choosing C = 56 and 82 ρ F in series

56∗82
C=
56+ 82

C = 4592/138

C = 33.29 ρ F

From the formula

L= R2c N2r / {25 (9Rc+10h)}

Where L = inductance in µH (micro Henry)

Rc= Radius of the coil in (mm)

Nr= Number of turns

h= the overall length of the winding coil in (mm)

Rc = 8mm/2 = 4mm

h = 8mm

Nr = 5

L = 42 x 52/ 25 (9x4+10*8)

L = 400/2900

22
L = 0.138µH
1
F=
2 π √ LC
1
F= 2
2( 3.142)∗√ 0.138−6∗33.29∗1012
1
F=
1.3∗10−8
F = 78MHZ

Choosing trimmer (Variable capacitor) of range 4 to 20 ρ F series with 18

ρ F and Variable inductor 200µH

So that the maximum and minimum capacitances are

18∗20
C=
18+ 20
360
C=
38

C = 9.47 ρ F

And
18∗4
C=
18+ 4
36
C=
20

C =1.8 ρ F

Two Channel (Band) Graphic Equalizer

23
Fig3.4 Pre-amplifier and tone control

C2,C3,C4,C5,R1,R2,R3,R4,R5 and R6 constitute the Maxwell tone control circuit. The configuration

of this tone circuit is standard as such only the component value will differ for designs done by

different designers R1 and R3 are related by

Bass Control Section

6.5 ≤ R2 ≤ 12 ………………………………..3.5

Where R4 and R6 are individually less than R5 practically a good choice is

R2
=10 = ………………………………….3.6
R1

Choosing R1 = 10KΩ then equation 3.6 becomes

R3 = 10 R1 = 10 X 10K = 100KΩ

24
The ratio R3/R1 gives the maximum gain at the bass control section of the tone control. Hence,

the voltage gain is 10(or 20dB).

Treble Control Section

VR 2
6.5 ≤ ≤ 12 …………………………..3.7(a)
R6

R1
But R5 < .............................…...........3.7(b) and
3

R1
R5 < …………………………..3.7(c)
3

R1
If = 10
3

And R5 = 680Ω then

R4 = 10 R5 = 6.8KΩ

R1
The ratio is the voltage gain of the treble control section of the tone control circuit.
3

VR1 and VR2 are linear taper 100K potentiometers.

For roll off at 33Hz, the reactance Xc3 of C3 must be equal to R2, which is 100KΩ

1
C3 =
2 π fX C 3 …………………………….3.8

1
C3 = =0 . 048 μf
2 π ×33×100 K

25
C3 = 0.048μf

For break point and around 600Hz-730Hz, the reactance XC2 of C2 must be equal R1 that is 10K.

1
C2 =
2 π fX C 2 ……………………………3.9

Where f break point frequency = 730Hz

1
C2 = =0 . 022 μf
2 π ×730×10 K

C2= 0.022μf

The bass cut and bass boost via R 2 Which provides full bass cut when the slider is moved

towards VR1, while full bass boost is obtained when the slider is moved towards R1.

For a roll off at upper frequency of 20 KHz the reactance Xc4 of C4 must be equal to R5 that is:

1
C 4=
2 π fX C 4 ……………………..3.10

1
C 4=
2 π×20 K ×680

C4 = 0.0111μf ≈ 0.01μf

High frequency response starts when the reactance Xc5 of C5 = R4 that is 6.8K

1
C5 =
2 π fX C 5 ……………………..3.11

26
Where f = 1 KHz

1
C5 =
2 π×1K ×6. 8

C5 = 0.023μf

C5 = 0.022μf

Depending on its position R8 will produce treble boost or treble cut. C6 is a feedback capacitor

which presents low resistance path to all frequencies within the audio range. The practical value

of C6 is 10μf. C7 is about half of C6 hence C7 is approximately 2.2μf C7 provides the interaction of

the tone control section and the amplifier hence it is a coupling capacitor.

The small signal amplifier-voltage divider bias will be designed below:

Vcc = 12v

Choosing RE = 1.2KΩ

IE = VE/RE ………………………3.12

But VE = 1/10 Vcc = 1/ 10(12) = 1.2v

 IE = 1.2/1.2K = 1mA

If IE ≈ IC; Vcc = 6v

V RC V CC −V CE−V E
RC = =
IC IC ……………………..3.13

27
 12−6−1 .2
RC =
1 mA

4.8
RC = =4 . 8 K Ω
1mA

VB = VBE +VE …………………………3.14

VB = 0.7 + 1.2

VB = 1.9v

Since

R2 ≤ 10βRE

R2 ≤ 1/10(120) (1.2K)

R2 = 14.4KΩ

Also

R2
V B= V cc
R1 +R 2 ……………………….3.15

( 14 . 4 K )( 12 )
V B =1. 9=
R1 +14 . 4 K

1.9R1 + 27.36K = 172.8K

145. 44 K
R1 =
1 .9

28
R1 = 76.55KΩ

1
C 9=

2π fR E at f = 16Hz

1
=
2 π ×16 Hz×1 . 2 K

≈ 1μf

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

+35V
D1
R4
D2

Q3

C1 R1 R8
V2 Vo2
+ Q1 Q2
C2 R2 Vo1

R3
R6
R7
R5
D3
+

C3

-35V

Fig 3.5 The differential amplifier circuit

The two diodes D1 and D2 hold the base of transistor Q3 at 1.4 volts below the positive supply
voltage. The emitter of Q3 is thus at 0.7v below the supply voltage.Q3 is a current source.

29
For low noise, performance is stable. The collector current of Q3 has been chosen to be 2mA.
Since Q1 and Q2 are matched pairs with large hfe then IB3 can be neglected and so therefore-
IC3 = IE3

Hence,

R4 = VE/IE = 0.7/2X10-3 = 350Ω

However

hfe/hie = gm

Where hfe = current gain of the transistor

hie = input impedance

But gm = 40IC3

gm = 40 X 2 X 10-3

gm = 80mA/v

hie = hfe/gm

hfe for Q3 = 100

hoe for Q3 = 25 X 10-6 or 40K

hie = 100/80m = 1.25K

The open circuit loading of hoe on the transistor Q3 is 25μs the voltage gain:

Av = -gmRL ……………………….3.16

Hence

Av = - (80 X10.3) X 40 X 10.3

Av = -3200

The output resistance Rout is given by

Rout = hoe + R2 (1+ Av)

= 40 X 103 + 47 (1+3200)

= 40 X 103 + 150447000

= 15084700

30
Rout = 1.50mΩ

Hence the output impedance of the current source is 1.50mΩ

Since Q1 and Q2 are matched pairs, then;

IC1 = IC2 = ½ IC3

IC1 = IC2 = ½(2 X 10.3) = 1mA

Practically the voltage drop VR3 across R3 is not supposed to exceed two diode voltage drops. A
good choice is VR3 = 0.73v

Therefore;

R3 = VR3/IC1 = 0.7/1m = 700

Because of standardization R3 = 680Ω

To achieve a balance in the operation of the differential amplifier R5 has to be equal to R3

R5 = Vcc – 2VBE – VEE …………………………..3.17

To ensure sufficient base drive of Q3, IR7 has to be at least 100IB3

But IB3 = IC3/hfe

IR7 = 100 IB3

…………………….3.18

R7 = 34.3KΩ

Resistor, R2 is chosen based on the resistance value that forces the base voltage of Q1 to zero
volt. A good value of R2 is 33K.

Considering Q1;

but hfe of Q1 = 100

31
The input impedance of the differential amplifier is:

………………………..3.19

So,

Where f = lower 3dB frequency = 16Hz

C1 = 1.99μf

It is of practical importance to increase the upper 3dB point of the differential amplifier so as to
reduce the rise time. For an upper 3dB frequency at 33 KHz, the rise time is:

Rise time

But rise time is also equal to 10R1C2; therefore:

10R1C2 = 10.6 X 10-6

C2 = 10 x 10-6

10 x 33 x 103

C2 = 30pf

3.4.3 DRIVER AND OUTPUT STAGE

32
 +35V

Q7
Q9

R11 R13 R15

R16
R12 R14
L1
C4
Q8
V2 Q6
-35V

FIG3.7 The Driver and output stage of the power amplifier

The diodes D1, D5 arrangement ensures Q6, Q7, Q8 and Q9 are at threshold point at conduction so
as to delimitate cross over distortion. Point V1 is maintained at 1.4v (Mischa. S. 1981)

VR11 = VBE7 = 0.7v

For TR11 = 2mA, then

R11 = 330Ω

R11 =R12= 330Ω

R13 and R14 ensure that Q6, Q7 and Q8, Q9 do not conduct simultaneously. Under signal condition
and a good value is 0.33Ω

That is R13 = R14 = 0.33Ω

R13 and R14 also ensure thermal stability due to the heat dissipated by Q8 and Q9 are
placed on the heat sink to ensure thermal equilibrium.

R15 is a current limiter and in conjunction with L1, R16 and C4 helps to remove parasitic
oscillation. The values of R15, R16, L1 and C4 have been standardized to the following:

R15 = 10Ω

L1 = 10μh

R16 = 4.7Ω

C4 = 0.1μf

Now to have an ac voltage swing of 33.9v peak at the output with 0.33v peak at the
differential amplifier, a closed loop gain G at 100 is needed.

33
 The average supply current is:

1 VO
=
I supply
π R2

33 . 9
= =1. 349 A
3 .142×8

Where Vo is the output voltage swing

The average power drain from the supply is:

Psupply = Isupply X 2Vcc

= 1.349 X 35 = 94.406W

The average power delivered to R2 is

1
V 2O
2 1 33 . 92
P2 = = × =71. 83 W
R2 2 8

P2
×100
Efficiency, η =
P SUPPLY

71 . 83
= ×100
94 .405
=76 . 98

34
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 TEST AND RESULT

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The circuit design was implemented and tested to ensure compliance with the design
specifications. The methodology in carrying out the test and results obtained are also contained
in this chapter.

PROCEDURE FOR TEST

In order to measure the input resistance of the circuit, the voltage divider method was
used as shown in fig4.1 below. The box represents the circuit under test.

35
 BOX

Fig4.1 Resistance Box

The value at the resistance box, R was adjusted to obtain a convenient value at V1 for a
known value at V1 for a known value at Vs

V 1=
[ ] R in
R in +R
Vs
……………………………4.1

V 1=
[ V1
V S −V 1 ] R
……………………………4.2

For Vin = ½ Vs and Rin = R

The input frequency was 1 KHz

The gain was measured over a frequency range with a fixed input voltage for all the
measurements. The frequency response of plot of gain against frequency (in dB) was obtained.

The current was measured by connecting an ammeter in the supply line. The power
dissipated was calculated from the product of supply voltage current drawn by a circuit at no
load from the supply.

Pd = IsVcc …………………………………..4.3

All measurements except frequency were done at 1KHz structure. All values were
ascertained based on the oscilloscope and determined within limits for all circuits.

Quiet a number of amplifier parameters can be measured using a signal generator, an

oscilloscope and other equipment. The most important parameter measurements carried out on
the amplifiers are:

Voltage gain

36
Input and output impedance

The output power

Distortion of the output waveform

37
4.3 VOLTAGE GAIN

To determine the voltage which when applied to the input terminal as an amplifier,
distortion of the output waveform

Fig4.2 Circuit for measurement of power amplifier voltage gain

The frequency of the generator was set to a test value of 1KHz the generator output
voltage (sinusoid) was increased steadily from zero unto the onset of distortion noticed. The
input signal to the amplifier was then reduced a little while the distortion at the scope disappears.
The voltage gain (that is the closed loop gain of the amplifier is the ratio of the output voltage to
the amplifier input voltage.

Fig4.3 Circuit for measurement of output Impedance of the amplifier

The output impedance of the amplifier was measured using a similar technique, the
arrangement being shown in fig4.5

Rout = R – R2

R obtained to be 8.040 Ω

Therefore Rout = 8.040 – R2

However R2 – 8 Ω

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 Rout = 8.040 – 8 = 0.04 Ω

4.3.1 OUTPUT POWER

The signal generator was set to a test frequency of 1KHz and its output voltage was
steadily increased until distortion of the output sine wave displayed on the oscilloscope screen
was obtained. The voltage of the signal generator was then reduced slightly until no distortion of
the signal was observed. The peak voltage across the dummy load resistance was then measured
and found to be 33.9v

4.3.2 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION

To determine the total harmonic distortion of the designed and constructed amplifier a
sinusoidal signal at peak value 0.24 at 20Hz was generated using a function generator. This was
fed into the power amplifier, the output of which was further applied to a spectrum analyzer. The
harmonic components of the fundamental frequency were then observed on the oscilloscope.

In this way the amplitude of each harmonic component relative to the fundamental
amplitude was determined. The percentage harmonic distortion was then calculated using the
relation of equation 4.4
1

THD = [ 1 2 1 2 1 2
(V 2 ) +( V 3 ) +( V 4 ) +… ] 2
×100 …………………….4.4

Where V2', V3' etc are the relative amplitude of each harmonic component.

4.3.3 INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

The voltage delivered by the signal generator to the amplifier was set to some convenient
nature (less than the value which causes distortion of the output waveform that is 0.4v). This is
illustrated in fig4.4

39
Fig4. Circuit for measurement of input impedance of an amplifier

Rin
E
V=
R s + R in s ………………………….4.5

Where Rs = output impedance

Es = emf of the signal generator

Rin = amplifier input impedance to be determined.

A variable resistance R was then connected in series with the input impedance until the
input voltage (0.339v) has fallen to one half its original value (0.2v) therefore

V ES Rin
=
2 R S + R+ R in ……………………………4.6

From 4.5 and 4.6

2(Rs + Rin) = Rs + R + Rin

Hence;

Rin = R – Rs

R3 = 0.6KΩ

R = 20.8KΩ

Therefore Rin = 20.8 – 0.6 = 20.2KΩ

There was a variation between the calculated value and measured value by 0.2; this was
due to error in measurement of R.

4.4 DISCUSSION

For a good design, the results obtained are most often very close to the theoretical values,
exceptions may be used in certain circuits due to some impractical assumptions. The maximum
theoretical efficiency of a power amplifier was gotten to be 76%. The gain of the various circuits
agreed with the designed values.

40
CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

The design of power has been undertaken in this project and the performance of the
individual units that make up the system showed an appreciable level of success in the
implementation of the design. It can therefore be asserted that the function of the system as given
by the specification has been achieved by the coupled system. The complete circuit diagram of
the 100W power amplifier with a pre-amplifier and a mixer console is presented in fig3.22. all
sections of the audio amplifier were designed and complemented.

RECOMMENDATION

Improving the power of the amplification which will improve the distance between the
receiver and transmitter also the function of the amplifier could be increased from the mono to
stereo, muting, wireless microphones and more channels of operations.

REFERENCES

1) BRUCE AC (1984) Communication System An Introduction To Signals And Noise In

Electrical Communication, Mc Graw-Hill book company, Singapore.

2) Theraja B.L A.K(1999): A Textbook Of Electronics Technology

3) Mischa (1981): Information, Transmission modulation and noise Mc Graw-Hill book

company Singapore

4) Stephen R Fleeman (1990): Electronic Discrete And Integrated Preventive New York

5) Caholts A (1978) Electronic Circuits, Digital And Analogue John Wiley and Sons inc USA.

6) Horowitz P. W. (1980) The Art Of Electronics Cambridge University press New York.

7) Millman ICC Integrated Electronics Mc Graw-Hill book company Japan

8) Mallam Ladan Maijama’a Lecturer Analoque Electronics Note Book, Electrical Electronics
Engineering Department Federal Polytechnic Bauchi

9) D.C. Kulshreshtha: Electronics Devices And Circuits.

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