CHAPTER 4

PLASTIC METHOD OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

General

When an elastic analysis forms the basis for a design, a safety factor is applied to ensure that the
stresses which arise when the complete external loading is applied to the element or structure do
not exceed a certain value, called the working stress. This working stress is sometimes called the
permissible or allowable stress. The working stress is based on the elastic properties of steel,
namely, the yield point or guaranteed minimum yield stress of steel, with an appropriate factor of
safety and the deformation within the limit of proportionality. This had led to the idea of limiting
the tensile, compressive, bending and shear stresses in steel members.

The safety factor is thus the ratio of the yield stress of the material to the working stress. In an
element or structure made from a linearly elastic material the safety factor is also the ratio of the
load required to produce this stress, to the working load. This safety factor is usually specified
with due consideration to possible overloading of the structure sometime during its life,
possibility of defects in the materials used, poor workmanship during construction, possibility of
extra stresses resulting due to differential settlement of supports, etc. In practice usually, a safety
factor is specified dependent on the above mentioned factors; then the yield stress of the material
is divided by the factor of safety to obtain the working stress. The working stress as a rule, is
given in standards and codes of practice depending on the material and the working conditions
being considered.

Why Plastic Method?

Sometimes in order to give sufficient margin of safety for a structure the factor of safety can
become so high as to make the design very conservative and wasteful of material. Although an
elastic analysis of a structure is important in order to study its performance under service loads,
the factor of safety applied to the yield point does not give a true picture of the strength reserve
in the member or structure owing to the following reasons:

i. The factor is applied on the minimum guaranteed yield stress determined on a test piece
in tension.

ii. The yield stress is reached only in the extreme fibres in bending and the rest of the cross-
section is under-stressed.

1
 iii. Members are not necessarily subject to axial load as assumed in the determination of the
yield point, and more often than not, subject to flexure or combined axial and flexural
loads.

iv. Steel has substantial reserve of strength beyond the yield point, up to the maximum
tensile strength and finally ultimate fracture.

v. The behavior in compression is different from that in tension and the crippling load is
related to the modulus of elasticity of the material, and not to the yield point.

vi. The “safety” in tension, compression or bending, as per elastic theory is not the same or
uniform; for tension the member can be stressed to ultimate tensile stress, for bending to
limit of lateral buckling and for compression to limit of crippling. Although the factor of
safety is the same for all the above-mentioned cases, in actual practice the strength
reserve is different for the different cases.

From the foregoing therefore, the elastic method based on a factor of safety applied to the yield
stress appears somewhat irrational. It seems reasonable to assess the real load carrying capacity
of a member or structure up till failure and then apply a factor on this load to prevent such a
failure. This factor is called load factor. Considerable research work in different countries has
conclusively shown that there is an extra strength reserve in structures than predicted by the
elastic theory.

PLASTIC THEORY

General

The classical approach in the analysis and design of an engineering structure assumes that the
elements of the structure and the structure as a whole must be able to support external applied
loading (working loads0 and their own self weight without any of the elements or the structure as
a whole undergoing permanent deformation or excessive displacements. The classical approach
is thus based on the small deflection theory of elasticity and Hooke’s law, which states that load
is proportional to extension. The stresses that occur due to the applied loads are then calculated
and the structure is designed such that the stresses due to applied loads will not exceed a certain
permissible value for the material of construction. This stress value as earlier stated is variously
known as the working stress, the permissible stress or the allowable stress.

When the classical approach (elastic analysis) forms the basis of design, permanent deformation
is not permitted in the structure or any of its elements. However, if permanent deformations
occur on removal of the external loading, then some points of an element or some elements of
the structure would have been strained to their yield points. If a structure has a sufficient number

2
of points strained to yield, a situation of imminent collapse is brought about. It is understandable
that any structure can be made to collapse by applying loading of such magnitude to cause
sufficient number of points of the structure to strain beyond yield.

The purpose of the alternative design approach, which has gained increasing acceptance over the
years, is to find the load magnitude that would cause collapse. It is therefore necessary to
understand how structures behave when their material stresses exceed the elastic limit, i.e., attain
the yield point, and what happens at collapse. The behavior of structures beyond yield is
embodied in this alternative analysis and design approach – plastic methods of analysis and
design.

To clearly show the ideas involved in the plastic methods it is necessary to examine the behavior
of mild steel (an excellent example of materials for plastic analysis) tensile test sample as load is
statically applied to it from zero to failure value.

Stress-Strain Curve of Mild Steel

If a test mild steel bar sample is subjected to pure uni-axial tension and plot of extension
(measured as strain) is made for the region of the bar remote from the clamps at each end, the
typical stress-strain curve will be as shown in Fig.4.1.
Stress  ( N / mm2 )
 uts D

 yu A E sh
y C
B

Plastic region
Strain hardening region
Elastic region
E
O
Strain, 
0.0012

0.25
0.014

Fig.4.1 Stress-Strain Curve of Mild Steel

3
The material exhibits linear stress-strain relationship at small strains (region OA). This region is
known as the elastic region and the slope, E is the Young’s modulus. The point A is the limit of
proportionality. On attainment of this limit, there is a rapid drop in stress to point B. Point A is
the upper yield point and B is the lower yield point. The corresponding stress for point A is
 yu and that for point B is  y , called the yield stress. The upper yield point is not of any practical
importance because the residual stresses from the rolling process usually effectively remove
point A. The strain at the yield point stress is about 0.0012.

The portion between B and C is the region where the material undergoes excessive stain without
a change in the yield stress  y and is known as the plastic region. The end of the plastic plateau
C has a typical strain of about 0.014. At this point the strain is thus at least ten times the strain at
the yield point. Beyond point c on the curve some increase in strain is accompanied by increases
in stress but which are smaller than such increases in the elastic region. This is immediately
followed by decrease in stress with increasing strain before the test sample finally fractures. The
region beyond point C is called the strain hardening region. The slope at the initial stage of strain
hardening E sh is about four (4) percent of Young’s modulus, E .

Point D on the curve represents the ultimate tensile strength  uts of the material, at a strain of at
least 0.25. At strains beyond point D the material begins to “neck” and this is closely followed
by fracture.

The Theory

The portion of the stress-strain curve for mild steel that is relevant to plastic theory is the portion
OBC of Fig.4.2.


y B C

O 
0.0012

0.014

Fig.4.2

From the strains shown in Fig.4.2, at the end of the plastic range a test sample would have
undergone at least ten times its strain at the outset of yield. Thus, at the end of the plastic region
4
the test material could be said to have collapsed. It is the ductility property of mild steel that the
plastic theory is based on.

Plastic theory is not always an alternative method to elastic design but should only be considered
where the structure of interest is amenable to its principles. Generally instability should not be
allowed to precede plastic collapse.

For a structure or member to be qualified for design using the plastic theory the following
conditions must be satisfied:

i. Instability is prevented

ii. The material (i.e., steel) must be ductile

iii. The major contribution to plastic action comes from bending, and shear and axial forces
are subservient

iv. Strength is the essential criterion and deflection is secondary.

PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS

A simply supported beam such as shown in Fig.4.3a if subjected to an increasing load W, will
show a linear relationship between the applied load W and the deflection d at the centre of the
beam span as long as the material of the beam remains elastic everywhere.
W

L/2 L/2

(a) Simply Supported Beam Under Load

Moment
Load

B B
Wc  Mp 

W A My A

Deflection Curvature
5
(b) Load-Deflection Curve (c) Moment-Curvature Curve

Fig.4.3
As the load W continues to increase, a point is reached when the most stressed fibers in the beam
can no longer bear increased stresses. The beam at this point ceases to exhibit linear load-
deflection (or moment-curvature) behavior (point A on the curve of Fig.4.3).

The bending moment to which the beam is subjected at this stage is the moment My, that causes
first yield in the most stressed fibres of the beam. An increase in the magnitude of the load W
beyond the value that caused the first yield will cause the next fibres at the location of the most
stressed fibres to reach yield stress value. The load-deflection (or the moment-curvature) curve
will no longer be linear but will be as depicted by region AB in Fig.4.3. Beyond point B,
attempts to increase the load W merely result in increasing deformation without any further
increase in the load carried by the beam. The load Wc at which this happens is the limit of the
beam to carry load and it is known as the collapse load. The corresponding bending moment is
designated as Mp and is known as the plastic moment of resistance of the beam section. At this
stage the beam would have suffered excessive deformation such that upon removal of the load, it
can no longer return to its original un-deformed state. This permanently deformed beam will
exhibit a kink at the point of load application. The excessive deflection beyond point B of
Fig.4.3 may be thought of as due to the rotation of a hinge (that has formed) at the location of the
kink. This imaginary hinge is called a plastic hinge and since it occurs at the point of the beam
maximum moment and at the limit load, its formation occurs when the external bending moment
equals the fully plastic moment Mp. In general when the external bending moment at any section
in a structural element attains the full plastic moment of resistance of the section, a plastic hinge
forms at that location.

Within the context of the simple plastic theory the facts observed from the tensile test of Fig.4.1
and the loaded simply supported beam of Fig.4.3 can be summarized thus:

i. Indefinite straining occurs without increase of stress beyond the yield stress  y

ii. Large deflections would result without any corresponding increase in load above Wc
(Fig.4.3b)

iii. Curvature would increase without further increase in the moment above the value of Mp
(Fig.4.3c).

The following conclusions follow from the above observations:

i. The maximum stress which may be induced is the yield stress of the material  y

6
 ii. The maximum load which can be supported is represented by Wc which is known as the
collapse load.

iii. The maximum bending moment which can be resisted is known as the full plastic
moment Mp.

Neutral Axis in Bending

The elastic neutral axis of a section lies on its centroidal axis, whilst the plastic neutral axis of
the section lies on its central axis. The centroidal axis of a section can be defined as the centre of
its moment of area, and the central axis can be defined as its centre of area (equal area axis).
These positions are obtained by considering equilibrium along the axis of the beam, where in
elastic theory, the stress distribution is uniform across the section. The centroidal and central
axes will lie at the same positions for sections which are symmetrical about both axes, such as
for rectangles, ellipses, RSJs, etc.

Whatever the state of a section, be it elastic, partially plastic or fully plastic, equilibrium of
forces must always be maintained, i.e. at any section the tensile forces on one side of the N.A.
must equal the compressive forces on the other side, thus:

 stress x area above N.A. =  stress x area below N.A.

Put in other words, whatever thje state of a section, the resultant force on the cross section must
be zero, i.e.,  dA  0 .
A

From this equation the position of the neutral axis can be obtained. In the fully plastic condition
therefore, when the stress is equal throughout the section, the above equation reduces to:

 areas above N.A. =  areas below N.A.

It may be more convenient to use the following equation:

Area above or below N.A. = ½ Total area.

PLASTIC MOMENT OF RESISTANCE (Mp) OF A SECTION WITH SYMMETRY

ABOUT BOTH AXES

Fig.4.4a shows the cross-section of a rectangular beam subjected to pure bending (i.e. without
axial force) and Figs.4.4b to 4.4e show the stress distributions as the applied moment M is
progressively increased.

7
In Fig.4.4b, the entire section is elastic, and the bending stresses  are given by the usual
My
bending formula   , where I is the second moment of area and y is the distance from the
I
neutral axis to the point most distant from the neutral axis.

In Fig.4.4c, the extreme fibre stresses just equal the yield stress, and the bending moment carried
is called the yield moment My:

 M y  h   I  bh 2
 y     or M y  y  y (4.1)
 I  2  (h / 2) 6

In the above equation bh 2 / 6 is the elastic section modulus Z. As the moment is increased
beyond My, the extreme fibre strain will continue to increase and the maximum strains will
exceed the yield strain  y , but the maximum stress will remain constant at  y , as in Fig.4.4d. As
the bending moment is increased further, more and more fibres become plastic until finally
(Fig.4.4e) the entire cross section becomes plastic. The bending moment at full plasticity is
called the plastic moment of resistance, or simply the plastic moment Mp.

 y y y y
b

C   y bh / 2
h
h/2

T   y bh / 2
 y y y y
M  My M  My My  M  Mp M  Mp
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig.4.4 Stress Distributions at Critical Sections

  y bh  h   y bh
2

From Fig.4.4e, M p      (4.2)

 2  2  4

The stress distributions in Figs.4.4 (b) to (e) are based on the assumption that plane sections
remain plane in pure bending irrespective of whether stresses are elastic or plastic, provided the
deformations are continuous.

8
In plastic analysis, the plastic modulus, Zp, of a section is defined as the quantity which, when
multiplied by the yield stress of the material will give the value of the plastic moment Mp. From
Eqn. (4.2), it can be seen that for a rectangular section, Z p  bh 2 / 4 . The ratio of the plastic
moment Mp of a section to its yield moment My is called the shape factor. From Eqns. (4.1) and
(4.2), the shape factor for a rectangular section is as follows:

Mp (bh 2 / 4)
Zp
   1.5 (4.3)
My Z (bh 2 / 6)

It is thus clear that the shape factor is solely a function of the shape of the cross section. For
instance the shape factor for a circular section is 1.7, for British universal I-beams it is about
1.15, etc. Indeed the shape factor is the cross-section reserve over and above the elastic limit.
The shape factor is often denoted by the symbol  .

PLASTIC MOMENT OF RESISTANCE (Mp) OF A SECTION WITH ONE AXIS OF

SYMMETRY

The section of a beam shown in Fig.4.5(a) is symmetrical about one axis and a steadily
increasing bending moment is applied. If the stresses are below the yield stress  y , the neutral
axis will pass through the centroid of the section O. In Fig.4.5 (b) the top edge has just reached
the yield stress  y . The elastic section modulus Z  I / y max , and the moment at yield is given
 yI
by: My    y Z , as in the case of a section with two axes of symmetry.
y max

y y y y

A
2

yc
Elastic N.A.
 y Plastic N.A.
A  t
2
y y

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig.4
9
The effect of increasing the bending moment is shown in Figs.4.5(c), (d) and (e). In Fig.4.5(c),
part of the upper portion of the section has become plastic but the whole of the section below the
neutral axis is still elastic. Yield has taken place over part of the bottom portion of the section in
Fig.4.5(d). Finally, in Fig.4.5(e) the beam has reached what is known as the fully plastic bending
moment. It should be noted that there has been a steady shift of the neutral axis towards the
bottom edge of the beam. This would not occur if the beam was of a completely symmetrical
section. The neutral axis will finally divide the section into two equal areas. The value of the
fully plastic moment will be required and can be calculated in terms of the yield stress  y . Since
the axial force is zero in the case under consideration, the neutral axis in the fully plastic
condition divides the section into two equal areas, and the resultant tensile and compressive
forces are each equal to A y / 2 , forming a couple equal to the ultimate moment, given by:

A y
Mp  ( y c  yt ) (4.4)
2

where yc and yt are respectively the distances of the centroid of the compression and tension
areas from the neutral axis in the fully plastic condition. Since M p   y Z p , it follows that
A
Zp  ( y c  yt ) . The shape factor  is again obtained by dividing the plastic moment by the
2
Mp Zp
elastic moment. Thus:    .
My Z

Example 4.1

Determine the shape factor for the I-section shown in Fig.4.6

150

20
10
190

20

Fig.4.6

10
Solution

Since the shape factor is the ratio of the plastic to the elastic modulus, for the solution of the
present problem we first determine the elastic and the plastic moduli of the section. To evaluate
the elastic modulus, it is necessary to compute the second moment of area of the section. This
can be done in a number of ways. One such way is to compute the second moment of area for a
rectangle of height 190mm and width 150mm and subtract the second moment of area of an
inner rectangle of height 150mm and width 140mm from the result. Thus:

15  19 3 14  153
I   8573.75  3937.5  4636.25cm 4
12 12

Another way of obtaining the second moment of area for the I section is to break up the section
into its component three rectangles, determine their respective second moments of area about
their respective centroidal axes and sum them up using the parallel axes theorem. Thus:

1  153  15  2 3 
I    2  15  8.5 2   2  4636.25cm 4 , as before.
12  12 

I 4636.25
Therefore Z    488cm 3
y max 9.5

To obtain the plastic section modulus we add up the values of the moments of areas about the
equal area axis of the section. Thus:

Z p  2  15  2  8.5  1 7.5  3.75  2  566.25cm 3

Alternatively we consider an outer rectangle and an inner one, directly employing the formula
bh 2 15  19 2 14  15 2
Zp     566.25cm 3 , as before.
4 4 4

Mp Zp 566.25
Therefore the shape factor      1.16
M Z 488

11
Example 4.2

Determine the shape factor for the t section shown in Fig.4.7 (a). Compute also the value of the
plastic moment of resistance of the T beam section if the yield stress of the material is
250 N / mm2 in tension and in compression.

60

10 1 X X
10

80
y  53.5

2
X1 X1
(a) (b)
Fig.4.7

Solution

In order to determine the shape factor of the section, it is necessary to obtain both the elastic and
the plastic moduli of section. To evaluate the elastic modulus of the section we first calculate the
position of the elastic neutral axis, as well as the second moment of area of the section about its
centroidal axis IX. We now demonstrate two alternative procedures of doing this.

Procedure 1

Position of the elastic neutral axis

y
 Ay  (6  1)(7.5)  (7  1)(3.5)  45  24.5  69.5  5.35cm
A (6  1)  (7  1) 13 13

Second moment of area

6  13 73 1
IX   6  1  2.15 
2
 7  1  1.85 2  80.879129cm 4
12 12

I X 808791.29
Hence, Z el    15117.59mm3  15cm 3
y 53.5

12
Procedure 2

In this procedure it is convenient to present part of the calculations in a tabular form. For that
purpose we prepare the data in Table 4.1. In this Table, the entire T section is divided into its two
component rectangles as shown in Fig.4.7 (b).
Table 4.1

Section A(cm2) y(cm) Ay(cm3) Ay2(cm4) i(cm4)

1 6 7.5 45 337.5 0.5

7 3.5 24.5 85.75 28.58

2

 13 - 69.5 423.25 29.08

Position of the elastic neutral axis

From Table 4.1, the position of the elastic neutral axis from the reference axis X1-X1 is:

y
 Ay  69.5  5.35cm
 A 13
Second moment of area

I X 1   Ay 2   i  423.25  29.08  452.33cm 4

But I X 1  I X  y 2  A (parallel axes theorem)

 I X  I X 1  y 2  A  452.33  5.35 2  13  80.2375cm 4

IX
Hence, the elastic section modulus Z el   15cm 3 , as before.
y

Next, we evaluate the plastic modulus of the section Zp. In order to do this we first determine the
position of the plastic neutral axis y p for which purpose we equate the force to the left to the
force to the right. This is in effect the same as equating the area above an axis of the beam (i.e.,
the plastic neutral axis) to the area below that axis since the yield stress is the same across the
entire section, as shown in Fig.4.8 (b).
60
13
 y

10 h Plastic Neutral Axis

10
80
yp

y
(a)
(b)
Fig.4.8

Force to the left = Force to the right

 y  y p  1   y 6  1  h  1  1

Or y p  1  6  1  h  1  1

But h  8  y p

 y p  6  7  y p  2 y p  13

Or y p  6.5cm

Hence h  8  6.5  1.5cm

The plastic section modulus is obtained by summing up the moments of areas of components of
the section about the equal area axis (i.e., about the plastic neutral axis. Thus:

Z p  6  1 1  0.5  1 0.25  6.5  1 3.25  27.25cm 3

Z p  27.25cm 3

Mp Zp 27.25
The shape factor      1.82
M Z el 15

  1.82

The plastic moment is the product of the yield stress and the plastic section modulus. Thus:
14
M p   p Z p  250  27250 Nmm  250  27250  10 6 kNm  6.8125kNm

Alternative Procedure

An alternative way of determining the plastic moment is simply by determining the moment arm
A
and noting that M p   y Z p , and Z p  ( yt  y c ) , where the quantity ( yt  yc ) is the moment
2
arm. Once the equal area axis is determined, the centroids of the area above and the area below
the axis are determined and the distance between the centroids (which is the moment arm) is
multiplied by A/2 and  y to give Mp. Referring to Fig.4.8 (a), the centroid of the area abive the
central (or equal area) axis can be obtained as follows:

1  6  1  0.5  1  0.25
 0.942cm from the axis.
1  6  0.5  1

The centroid of the lower area is midway since the lower area is a rectangle. It is thus equal to
6.5 / 2  3.25cm . The moment arm is thus ( yt  yc )  3.25  0.942  4.192cm

Noting that A  13cm 2  1300mm2 and  y  250 N / mm2 , we have:

1 1
Mp  A y ( yt  yc )   1300  250  41.92  6.812  10 6 N .mm  6.812kN.m
2 2

LOAD FACTOR

Load factor is the plastic theory equivalent of safety factor used in elastic theory. It is the ratio of
the load causing collapse to the working load.

Wc
Load factor,   (4.5),
W

where Wc  collapse load;

W  working load.

Since the working stress is dependent on the shape of the section, i.e., on the I and Z values, so
also the collapse load is dependent on the shape of the section; therefore the load factor is
dependent on the shape of the section. To appreciate how the load factor depends on the shape of
the cross-section, consider the following illustration.

Let  w be the working stress in the material and M w be the working bending moment. Then:

15
M w   w Z el .

Mp
By definition   , or M p  M w (a)
Mw

It is however already known that M p   y Z p (b)

Equating (a) and (b), we have:

M w   y Z p

Or M w   w Z el

 yZ p
  (4.6)
 w Z el

For mild steel the value usually employed for the allowable stress in bending is 1.5, i.e.,
y y
b  or  1.5 ; where  b is the allowable bending stress or working stress.
1.5 b
Zp
Consequently,   1.5  1.5 (4.7)
Z el

For a rectangular section,   1.5 and   1.5 1.5  2.25

For a universal I beam section for which   1.15;   1.5 1.15  1.725

The above is true for a statically determinate structure. This is because in a statically determinate
structure having a set of working loads W applied, the bending moment at any point will be some
function of W. If the loads are all increased by the same factor  , the bending moments will all
increase by  .

Using these load factors would mean that the working load for a statically determinate case
would be the same whether elastic or plastic design is used. In a statically indeterminate
problem, using elastic design the bending moment at any point is a function of the load applied,
but using plastic design the bending moment would be a different function. In general however,
the allowable working load is greater using plastic design.

16
BEHAVIOUR OF A LOADED BEAM ALONG ITS LENGTH

Consider the beam of Fig.4.9 which has a constant cross-section with both its ends built-in and
carries a uniformly distributed load throughout its span.

w/m

Fig.4.9

From the elastic theory it can be shown that the maximum bending moment occurs at the ends of
the beam and that the value of the bending moment at each of the ends is twice its value at mid-
span of the beam. The ends of the beam are therefore the critical sections and the maximum load
that is allowed to be carried by the beam is governed by the working stress not being exceeded at
the ends. If the load is continually increased yield stress is soon reached at the supports. Further
load can still be applied without the beam collapsing, even though the beam is undergoing
elastic-plastic deformations. As the load is further increased plastic hinges will form at the ends
of the beam. Even when the plastic hinges at the beam ends are fully developed the value of the
bending moment at the centre of the beam will not have been large enough for the yield stress to
be attained there. Loading could in fact be continued until a plastic hinge forms at the centre of
the beam. The beam at this stage is transformed into a mechanism. Under any additional load this
mechanism would collapse.

The above illustration shows that there is still a considerable reserve of strength in a statically
indeterminate structure even though the yield stress may have been reached at some point. A
study of the mechanism of failure and the knowledge of the magnitude of the collapse load are
necessary to determine the load factor in analysis. Alternatively, if the load factor is specified,
the structure can be designed so that its collapse load is equal to, or higher than the product of the
load factor and the service load.

PLASTIC HINGE AND THE COLLAPSE MECHANISM

The concept of plastic hinge as well as the plastic collapse mechanism can be further explained
with the aid of a beam with built-in ends and loaded as shown in Fig.4.10 (a).
W

(a) A B
C
17
 MC

(b)
MB
MA

(c) A   C

B
MP

(d)
MP MP

Fig.4.10. (a) Given loaded beam; (b) Elastic Bending Moment Diagram (BMD);
(c) Collapse Mechanism; (d) Plastic BMD.

Let the beam be of uniform rectangular cross-section. When the applied load W is of such a
value that the beam is entirely elastic, the stress distribution at support A, up to the yield stress
 y will be as shown in Fig.4.11 (a). Further increase of the load W will cause the outermost
fibres at support A to first become plastic, as this is the part of the section with the maximum
bending moment. The stress distribution in the partially plastic state is shown in Fig.4.11 (b),
where some of the stresses are in the elastic zone whilst others are in the plastic zone.

A still further increase in the magnitude of the load W will cause more plastic penetration to take
place, until eventually, the stress distribution at support A of the beam becomes fully plastic, as
shown in Fig.4.11 (c). If W is now increased, the section at support A will start to rotate as
though a hinge had been inserted in the beam, because the stresses cannot increase at this section,
so that the moment of resistance will not be able to increase either. The result of this will be that
there is a redistribution of bending moment, so that the sections at B and c will start to become
plastic. Eventually when W reaches the collapse load Wc, the bending moment distribution will
be as in Fig.4.10 (d), and all three sections at A, B and C will have developed fully plastic
moments of resistance Mp, as shown in Fig.4.11 (c).

18
 y y y

y y y
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.4.11 Stress distributions across the beam’s sections

(a) Elastic; (b) Partially plastic; (c) Fully plastic

At this stage any additional increase in load will cause catastrophic failure, as shown in

Fig.4.10 (c), where the beam will become a mechanism, the hinges of the mechanism being at
points A, B and C. These hinges are called plastic hinges.

In general, the number of hinges required for the failure of a beam or a frame will be more than
that required to make the structure statically determinate. For example the built-in ends beam of
Fig.4.10 (a) is statically indeterminate to the second degree, so that three hinges are required to
convert the beam into a mechanism. If the same beam were simply-supported at its ends, then
only one hinge would be required to convert it to a mechanism.

GENERAL COLLAPSE CONDITIONS

There are three conditions that must be satisfied when a structure is on the point of collapse. Any
analysis using plastic theory must therefore satisfy them. The conditions are:

1. Equilibrium Condition. The bending moment distribution must be in equilibrium with

the applied loads.

2. Yield Condition. The bending moment at any point on the structure must not exceed the
plastic moment of resistance Mp.

3. Mechanism Condition. The bending moment must be equal to Mp in a sufficient number

of points such that the structure, or at least part of it, becomes a mechanism.

If a system of bending moments can be found which satisfies these three conditions, then that
system defines the true collapse load.

19
BASIC THEOREMS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS

There are three basic theorems which incorporate the above three conditions. A set of working
loads is postulated and a load factor  is determined with certain conditions applicable. The
theorems are as follows.

1. Lower-bound or Safe Theorem (also known as Static Theorem)

This theorem states that if a distribution of bending moments can be found for which the
structure is in equilibrium under the external loading and the plastic moment of
resistance, M p is not exceeded anywhere, then the load factor,  is greater than or equal
to the collapse load factor, c and the structure will not collapse under the loading.

In other words, if a load factor is found for which equilibrium and yield are satisfied, then
a safe solution has been obtained. This means that M p has not been exceeded anywhere,
but it is also possible that the structure has not yet collapsed since there may not be
sufficient number of plastic hinges to cause collapse. In this case it would require the
application of further load for collapse to occur. Here:   c .

2. Upper-bound or Unsafe Theorem (also known as Kinematic Theorem)

This theorem states that for a given structure subjected to a given loading, the magnitude
of the loading which is found to correspond to any assumed collapse mechanism must be
either greater than or equal to, but cannot be less than the true collapse load. In other
words, if a load factor is found such that a mechanism is formed, then possibly an unsafe
solution has been obtained. It may well be that for the chosen mechanism the bending
moment at some other point in the structure is greater than M p . The yield condition has
not been catered for. If this is so, then the chosen mechanism is not correct and a different
mechanism would have formed at a lower load. Here:   c .

3. Uniqueness Theorem

This theorem states that if a bending moment distribution can be found which satisfies the
three conditions of mechanism, equilibrium and yield, the load factor,  is equal to the
collapse load factor, c (   c ) and the load which corresponds to such a moment
distribution will be the true collapse load. It is not possible to obtain a bending moment
distribution, at any other load factor, which satisfies all three conditions simultaneously.
The value of the load factor is therefore unique.

The above three theorems can be represented using the following schema for easy memorization.
20
 Mechanism Condition Upper-bound Theorem

Uniqueness Theorem Equilibrium Condition

Lower-bound Theorem
Yield Condition

METHODS OF COMPUTING THE COLLAPSE LOAD

There are two main methods of calculating Wc. They are the statical (or free and reactant
bending moments) method, and the kinematical method (also known as the work method or the
virtual work method or the mechanism method). The statical method is based on the lower bound
theorem. We reiterate here that the theorem states that a load computed on the basis of the
assumed equilibrium moment diagram in which the moments are not greater than Mp is less or
equal to the true ultimate load. The method aims to establish an equilibrium moment diagram in
which M  M p and a failure mechanism is formed.

The kinematical method is often preferred to the statical method especially if the positions of the
hinges are known. If incorrect assumptions are made for the positions of the hinges however, the
kinematical method will underestimate the value of Mp. This method is based on the upper
bound theorem. Consequently, when using the kinematical method, it should be ensured that all
the possible mechanisms are investigated, and the chosen value of Mp should be the maximum.

THE STATICAL METHOD

In this method the reactant moments are selected and the simple beam bending moments are also
drawn. The final bending moment is obtained by superimposing the free moment (i.e., simple
beam moment) diagram on to the reactant moment diagram in such a way that a mechanism is
formed. The value of the collapse load is then computed using the geometry of the bending
moment diagrams, or from statics.

The free and reactant moment procedure is however limited to beams where the bending
moments at collapse can be drawn using some simple rules. These rules are:

1. Generally hinges form at restrained ends of beams.

2. Hinges form under point loads

3. If the beam is “n” times indeterminate, it will require (n+1) hinges to form a mechanism.

21
The collapse load is thereafter obtained using the geometry of the BMD at collapse.

Example 4.3

Using the statical method, determine the collapse load for the simply supported beam loaded as
shown in Fig.4.12.
W

(a)

L/2 L/2

WL/4 
Plastic hinge

(b) (c)

Fig.4.12 (a) Given beam; (b) BMD; (c) Collapse mechanism

Solution

Since the beam is statically determinate only one plastic hinge is needed to convert it to a
mechanism. This hinge will form at the point of maximum BM and consequently collapse occurs
when the maximum BM equals the plastic moment of the beam.

WL
Moment at mid-span 
4

When the moment attains its full plastic value, we have:

Wc L 4M p
Mp  , or Wc 
4 L

Example 4.4

Determine the collapse load of the fixed-ended beam subjected to a uniformly distributed loading
(udl) as shown in Fig.4.13 (a). Determine also the load factor given that the beam has I cross-
section.

22
 w
(a) A B
C
L

+ Mp
(b) Mp Mp wL2/8
- -

Fig.4.13 (a) Given beam; (b) BMD at collapse

Solution

Collapse load

The ultimate state is reached when three plastic hinges (2 over the supports + 1 at mid-span)
have formed. At beam mid-span, from the geometry of the BMD at collapse (Fig.4.13 (b)), we
have:

wc L2 w L2
Mp Mp  or M p  c
8 16

16M p
Hence the collapse load wc 
L2

Load factor

In elastic analysis the capacity of the system is assumed to be exhausted when the extreme fibres
of the cross-sections over the supports yield.

wL2 12M el
The moment at the supports is given by: M  or wel 
12 L2

wc w pl 16M pl L2 16M pl 16 M el
We can now write:   2
   
wel wel L 12M el 12M el 12 M el

23
 w pl
Or      Load factor (4.8)
wel

16
where   shape factor, and    1.33
12

On the average, for I-cross sections, the shape factor   1.14 . The load factor in this example is
thus as follows.

    1.14 1.33  1.52

The above result shows that the total strength reserve over and above the elastic limit is 152%.

Note: In general for beams and frames the following exist:

a. Plastic cross-section reserve, known as shape factor  . This is available in all cross
sections whether used for determinate or indeterminate structures.

b. Plastic system reserve,  . This is available only in sections used for indeterminate
structures.

Alternative procedure for the determination of the collapse load in Example 4.4

Strictly speaking, the method used for the determination of the collapse load in the above
example is the free and reactant BM method. We now show how to apply pure statics for the
solution of the same problem. To do this we recognize that hinges will form at the fixed ends and
at the centre of the span. This essentially means that the moments at those sections are known
and each of them is equal to the plastic moment. That fact reduces the beam to a statically
determinate system to which application of statics easily yields the ultimate or collapse load.

We now pass a section at the mid-span of the beam, obtain an expression for the shear force to
the left of the section, Ql and another to the right of the section, Qr . Since the shear is
continuous at that section, i.e., the beam mid-span, by equating the two expressions for the shear
force, we obtain the collapse load. We consider the equilibrium of the left and the right segments
of the beam in turn.
Mp
Left segment w Ql
M p A C

L/2
Equilibrium of moments about point A yields the following:
24
 L wc L L
Ql     2M p
2 2 4

wc L2
Ql L  4M p 
4

4M p wc L
Or Ql   (a)
L 4
Qr Mp
Right segment w Mp
 
C B
L/2

Equilibrium of moments about point B yields the following:

L wc L L
Qr     2M p  0
2 2 4

wc L2
Qr L   4M p
4

wc L 4M p
Or Qr   (b)
4 L

Equating the right hand sides of (a) and (b) we have:

4M p wc L wc L 4M p
  
L 4 4 L

8M p wc L

L 2

Mp
Or wc  16 , as before.
L2

Example 4.5

Determine the collapse load of a fixed-ended beam loaded as shown in Fig.4.14 (a).

25
 Wc

(a) C
a b
L

Mp

(b) Mp +
Mp
- -

Fig.4.14 (a) Given beam; (b) BMD at collapse

Solution

At collapse the BMD at C will be Mp. From the geometry of the BMD at collapse we have:

Wc ab 1 W ab 1
2M p  , or M p   c  Simple beam moment
L 2 L 2

2M p L
Hence Wc 
ab

Example 4.6

Use the free and reactant BM method to determine the collapse load Wc of the propped
cantilever loaded as shown in Fig.4.15 (a).
W Mp Wab
+ Mp
- L
(a) A B (b)
C
a b
M pb
L x
L
Fig.4.15 (a) Given beam; (b) BMD at collapse

Solution

As in the previous examples the free BM value at the point of application of the concentrated
load is obtained; in this example it is equal to Wab/L. Next, the reactant moment diagram is
superimposed on the free BMD. The value of the reactant moment x, under the point load, can be

26
found by considering the similar triangles formed by the reactant moment diagram. The value is
found as follows:

x b M pb
 x
Mp L L

Wc ab M p b
Mp  
L L

Wc ab
M p 
Lb

M p ( L  b)
Or Wc 
ab

Alternative procedure

The collapse load in this example can also be obtained using strictly static equilibrium
considerations. For this purpose a section will be passed at the position of application of the
point load, i.e., at C, to divide the beam into two segments. Again by equating the expressions
for the shear forces to the left and to the right of the section at C, we solve for the collapse load.
Note that in writing the equilibrium equations for the left and the right segments of the beam, the
point load W should be applied only once, either at the right tip of the left beam segment or at
the left tip of the right beam segment. Note also that only two plastic hinges are necessary in this
case for collapse to occur. The hinges are at A and B. Therefore the moments at those points are
known and are each equal to the plastic moment. The propped cantilever hence has become
statically determinate. We now consider each segment in turn.

Left beam segment

W
Ql
Mp
A
 C
a

Sum of moments about point A gives:

Ql a  Wc a  2M p

Ql a  2M p  Wc a

27
 2M p  Wc a
Ql  (a)
a

Right beam segment

Qr Mp
 B
C
b

Sum of moments about point B gives the following equilibrium equation:

Qr b  M p

Mp
Hence Qr   (b)
b

By equating the right hand sides of (a) and (b) above we have:

2M p  Wc a Mp

a b

2M p b  Wc ab  M p a

Wc ab  2M p b  M p a

2M p b  M p a
Wc 
ab

M p (a  2b)
Wc 
ab

M p ( L  b)
Or Wc  , which is the same as before.
ab

Example 4.7

Obtain an expression for the collapse load of a propped cantilever loaded with udl as shown in
Fig.4.16 (a). What is the ratio of the plastic moment to the maximum simple beam bending
moment for the given loading?

28
 Mp
w w
(a) A C B C
x Rc
L
(c)
B

Mp Mp

(b) y

Fig.4.16

Solution

From the bending moment diagram shown in Fig.4.16 (b), it is seen that two peaks of moment
are possible, one at A and one at B somewhere in the span. The point B is not well defined, but
may be located graphically, by trial, or by statics. For example, at failure M A = MB = Mp, so that
considering the free body diagram of part BC of the beam shown in Fig.4.16 (c), we can write:

wx 2
 M B  Rc x  2
Mp 0

Since point B is the point of maximum moment, the shear force at that point must be zero. Thus:

RB   Rc  wx  0

Or Rc  wx

Substituting the value of Rc in the BM equation, we have:

wx 2
wx 2  Mp 0
2

wx 2
Or M p  (a)
2

For the complete beam, taking moments about A,

wL2
 M A  Rc L  2
Mp 0

29
 wL2 wx 2
wxL   0 Or wx 2  2wxL  wL2  0
2 2

(2wL  2.83wL)
Hence x 
2w

Or x  0.414L (b)

Substituting the value of x from Eqn. (b) to Eqn. (a), we have:

w(0.414 L) 2
Mp   0.0857 wL2 (4.9)
2

Mp Mp
Or w  2
 11.66 (4.10)
0.0857 L L2

Alternatively, the collapse load may be found by first obtaining the simple beam moment at B
and making use of the geometry of the BMD of Fig.4.16 (b). Thus:

wL w(0.414 L) 2
With the distance x known, M B   0.414 L 
2 2

 0.207wL2  0.0857wL2

 0.1213wL2

From the geometry of the BMD of Fig.4.16 (b), we have:

y Mp
  y  0.414M p
0.414 L L

0.414M p  M p  0.1213wL2

1.414M p Mp
wc   11.66 , as before.
0.1213L2 L2

The maximum simple beam bending moment is obtained as follows:

wL2 Mp 0.0857 wL2

M max   0.125wL2    0.686
8 M max 0.125wL2

30
 wL2
Or M p  0.686M max  0.686 (4.11)
8

The above analysis shows that for a propped cantilever the maximum bending moment due to
uniformly distributed load is equal to 0.686 times the simple beam moment and occurs at a
distance of 0.414 times the span, from the propped end. This fact is very useful in the analysis of
continuous beams by plastic theory. This also shows the importance of determining the point of
maximum bending moment along the span by elastic analysis before determining the collapse
mechanism, collapse moment, and the collapse load for such beams.

CONTINUOUS BEAMS

A continuous beam resting on a number of supports can be taken as a combination of fixed beam
and a propped cantilever. The end spans are propped cantilevers and the intermediate spans are
fixed beams. A continuous beam over two supports can be treated as two propped cantilevers.
Each span may have a different section and thus plastic moment. At a support between spans the
bending moment is common to the beam on both sides of the support.

In addition to the three (3) general rules given earlier, for continuous beams the following rules
also apply.

1. At a support between spans the plastic hinge forms at the plastic moment of the weaker
member.

2. It is not likely that every span of the beam will fail at the same time and so every span
must be checked individually. The span, or spans, with the least collapse load determines
the collapse of the entire beam.

Example 4.8

Determine the value of the plastic moment in Fig.4.17 such that collapse just occurs under the
loading system.
3W
W

(a) A B C
D E
L/3 L/2
L L

31
 Mp Mp

2Mp/3
(b) A
B C

(c) A B C
D


2WL/3

WL/4
Mp
Mp
(d) A Mp/2 C
B

(e) A B C
E


Fig.4.17 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) BMD at collapse if span AB collapses first; (c)
Collapse mechanism if span AB collapses first; (d) BMD at collapse if span BC collapses first;
(e) Collapse mechanism if span BC collapses first.

Solution

There are three possibilities for a maximum BM, i.e., at point B and under the two point loads.

32
Span AB collapses first

Let us assume that span AB collapses first and that plastic hinges form at points B and D. This
represents the collapse of span AB. The BMD at collapse will be as shown in Fig.4.17 (b) and
the collapse mechanism will be as shown in Fig.4.17 (c). The free BMD under the point load is
obtained as for a simply supported beam. From the geometry of the collapse BMD for span AB
(Fig.4.17 (b)), we have:

2M p 2Wc L
Mp  
3 3

5M p 2.5M p
Or Wc  
2L L

Span BC collapses first

If span BC collapses first, plastic hinges will form at points B and E. The BMD at collapse will
be as shown in Fig.4.17 (d) and the collapse mechanism will be as shown in Fig.4.17 (e). From
the geometry of the collapse BMD for span BC (Fig.4.17 (d)), we have:

Mp Wc L
Mp  
2 4

6M p
Or Wc 
L

From the above analysis it can be seen that the safe value of W is the lesser of the two values,
i.e., Wc = 2.5Mp/L and corresponds to the collapse mode or collapse mechanism of Fig.4.17(c).

Hence the plastic moment is as follows:

Wc L
Mp 
2.5

Example 4.9

Compute the plastic moment of the beam shown in Fig.4.18 (a).

33
 w = 20kN/m
(a) A C
D B E
L = 6m L = 6m

Mp
Mp Mp

(b)

Fig.4.18 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) BMD at collapse

Solution

Here we treat the continuous beam as two propped cantilevers. The maximum moment along the
span occurs at points D and E and its magnitude is as follows:

wx 2
M D  M E  wx  x 
2

At collapse, M D  M E  M p

wx 2
 M p  wx 2 
2

But x  0.414L

 M p  0.1714wL2  0.0857wL2  0.0857wL2 ( 0.686wL2 / 8) , which is the same as earlier

obtained in Eqns. (4.9) and (4.11).

 M p  0.0857  20  6  6  61.7kNm

VIRTUAL WORK METHOD OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS (ALSO KNOWN AS

MECHANISM OR KINEMATICS METHOD)

The method of plastic analysis of structures discussed so far had been based on the superposition
of free and reactant bending moments at points of attainment of plastic moment by the structure.
When such points become sufficient the frame collapses. At the point of collapse relationships
34
are established between the applied loads and the plastic moment. The above method, known as
the statical method relies on the ability to correctly decide the mechanism and the BMD at
collapse. For highly indeterminate structures, the number of possible collapse mechanisms
increase, and the construction of correct equilibrium moment diagrams becomes more difficult.
Consequently, the use of the statical method which is usually convenient in the treatment of
beams becomes more difficult for frames.

The virtual work method is an alternative procedure for the analysis of structures whether the
structure is a beam or a frame. It is particularly suitable for frames, for which it is not easy to
predict their collapse mechanisms. This is because a frame may collapse by being pushed
sideways by horizontal load, an individual beam component may collapse due to vertical loads,
or the frame may collapse by some combination of both types of collapse modes. In such
circumstances, the virtual work method provides a powerful tool for analysis. The mechanism
method however, is based on the upper bound theorem. As earlier explained the theorem states
that a load computed on the basis of an assumed mechanism is either greater or at best equal to
the true collapse load. The correct mechanism is therefore the one which results in the lowest
possible load for which the absolute value of the moment M does not exceed the plastic
moment M p at any section.

The principle of virtual work states that if a rigid body in equilibrium is given a set of small
rigid-body displacements, then the work done by the external loads acting on the structure
moving through the external displacements is equal to the work done by the internal forces
moving through the internal displacements.

WE = WI, where:

WE = external work; WE = internal work.

The method of virtual work is based on the following premises:

1. When a framed structure collapses all deformation of the structure occurs by rotation at
the plastic hinges.

2. The principle of virtual work can be applied to these deformations.

3. At collapse, the BMs remain constant as the structure deforms.

4. All axial load effects are ignored.

The analysis consists of the following steps:

35
1. Determination of the number of plastic hinges necessary for the formation of a
mechanism. The number of hinges h is given by: h  i  1 , where i is the degree of
statical indeterminacy.

2. Selection of possible collapse mechanisms.

3. Computation of the collapse load for every possible collapse mechanism.

4. Selection of the lowest collapse load as the true ultimate load.

5. Checking to confirm that the condition M  M p does not occur anywhere in the
structure.

Example 4.10

Determine the collapse load of the simply supported beam with a central concentrated load
shown in Fig.4.19 (a).

(a) A B
C
L/2 L/2

Wc
A  
(b) L B
2  2
C

Fig.4.19 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) Collapse mechanism.

Solution

The collapse load of the beam can be calculated by equating the external and internal work
during a virtual movement of the collapse mechanism.

36
Let each half of the beam in Fig.4.19 (b) acquire a virtual rotation  , so that the
corresponding rotation at the hinge is 2 , and the downward displacement of the load Wc is
L / 2 .

Equating the work done by Wc to the work of the moment Mp at the plastic hinge, we obtain:

Wc L
 M p (2 )
2

4M p
Or Wc  , as obtained earlier in Example 4.3 using the statical method.
L

Example 4.11

Determine the collapse load of the fixed ended beam loaded with u.d.l of intensity w, as
shown in Fig.4.20 (a).

w
(a) A B
C
L

A  
(b) B
 2
C

Fig.4.20 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) Collapse mechanism

Solution

wc L L w L2
External virtual work =   c , where:
2 2 4

wc L
is the fraction of the total resultant load acting at the section at the mid-span end of
2
each half of the beam; and

L wL
 is the common displacement of the beam mid-span due to c .
2 2
37
Internal virtual work WI  M p (  2   ) , where  , 2 and  are the virtual rotations at
A, C and B, respectively.

The virtual work equation is therefore as follows:

wc L2
  4M p
4

16M p
Or wc 
L2

Example 4.12

Determine the collapse load for the propped cantilever with a point load positioned as shown
in Fig.4.21 (a).
W

(a) A B
C
L-x x

 
(b) 
d
  
C

Fig.4.21 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) Collapse mechanism

Solution

The collapse mechanism is shown in Fig.4.21 (b).

Considering part AC of the beam (Fig.4.21 (b)), we can write: d   ( L  x) (a)

Considering part BC of the beam we have: d  x (b)

Equating the right hand parts of Eqns. (a) and (b), we have:

 ( L  x)  x
38
  ( L  x)
Or  
x

 The total rotation at C is given by:

 ( L  x) x   ( L  x) L
     
x x x

The work equation is therefore as follows:

Wc d  M p  M p (   )

Substituting the values of d and of (   ) into the above equation we have:

L
Wc  L  x   M p (  )
x

L xL
Wc ( L  x)  M p (1  )  M p ( )
x x

Wc x( L  x)
M p 
( x  L)

M p ( x  L)
Or Wc  (c)
x( L  x)

The required value of Wc is the minimum necessary for collapse to occur. Thus:

dWc
dx
 
 0  M p xL  x 2  M p x  L)L  2 x   0

x 2  2 xL  L2  0

Or x  0.414L

Substituting this value of x into Eqn. (c), we have:

M p 0.414 L  L 
Wc 
0.414 LL  0.414 L 

5.828M p
Or Wc 
L
39
Example 4.13

Find the collapse load for the propped cantilever loaded as shown in Fig.4.22 (a).

w
(a) A C
B
L-x x
L

(b) A  B
d L
 x
C
Fig.4.22 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) Collapse mechanism

Solution

Just as in Example 4.12 two hinges will form at collapse. It is obvious that one will be at A,
the built-in end. The other will presumably occur at the point of maximum bending moment.
Let us assume that the point of maximum BM (and hence position of hinge) is at a distance x
from B. If the hinge at A rotates through  , the hinge at C will rotate through L / x . The
work equation will be:

wL 
1
L  x   M p  M p L
2 x

2 M p L  x 
w (a)
LxL  x 

The minimum w to cause collapse will be:

dw
 0  x 2  2 Lx  L2  0
dx

Or x  0.414L

Substituting x in Eqn. (a), we have:

40
 2M p L  0.414 L  2.828M p L 11.66M p
w  
L  0.414 LL  0.414 L  0.2426 L3 L2

Mp
 w  11.66 , as earlier obtained in Example 4.7 (Eqn.4.10).
L2

Example 4.14

Calculate the collapse load for the propped cantilever loaded as shown in Fig.4.23 (a).

Wc
0.6Wc

(a) A B
C D
L/3 L/3 L/3

0.29WL
0.24WL

Mp Mp

(b)

2 2 L L 
(c)  3 3


0.29WL
0.24WL
Mp Mp

(d)

L 2 L 2
(e)  
3 3


Fig.4.23 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) BMD assuming hinges at A and C; (c) Collapse
mechanism for case (b); (d) BMD assuming hinges at A and D; (e) Collapse mechanism for
case (d).

41
 Solution

At collapse the beam will develop a plastic hinge at A and a second at either C or D. Since
the position of the second hinge is not obvious, a trial and error approach is required.

Second hinge forms at C

We assume the second hinge forms at C. Using the virtual work equation we have:

2 L L
0.6Wc   Wc   M p (2 )  M p (3 )
3 3

0.4Wc L  0.33Wc L  5M p

 0.73Wc L  5M p

Mp
Or Wc  6.85 (a)
L

Second hinge forms at D

We assume the second hinge forms at D. The work equation is as follows:

L 2 L
0.6Wc   Wc   M p ( )  M p (3 )
3 3

0.2Wc L  0.67Wc L  4M p

 0.87Wc L  4M p

Mp
Or Wc  4.6 (b)
L

The true collapse load is the lower of the two loads given by Eqns. (a) and (b) above. Thus
the true collapse load is:

Mp
Wc  4.6 . This means that the second hinge actually forms under the load applied at D.
L

Example 4.15

Determine the value of the plastic moment in Fig.4.24 (a) such that collapse just occurs under the
loading system.
42
 3W
W

(a) A B C
D E
L/3 L/2
L L

2L L
(b)
 
3 2  2
 2
 3

Fig.4.24 (a) Given beam and loading; (b) Collapse mechanism

Solution

Observe that this question had been solved earlier in Example 4.8 using the statical method. Two
possible collapse scenarios will be considered, viz: (1) Span ADB collapses with hinges at B and
D; and (2) Span BEC collapses with hinges at B and E.

Span ADB collapses with hinges at B and D

The work equation will be as follows:

2L
3Wc   M p (3 )  M p (2 )
3

2Wc L  5M p

Mp
Or Wc  2.5
L

Span BEC collapses with hinges at B and E

The work equation here will be as follows:

L
Wc   M p ( )  M p (2 )
2

Wc L
 3M p
2

43
 Mp
Or Wc  6
L

Therefore, as earlier obtained using the statical method, the true collapse load is the smaller of
Mp
the two loads determined above, i.e., Wc  2.5 . This means that span ADB will actually
L
collapse first following the formation of hinges at B and D.

PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF PLANE FRAMES

As in the case of beams, in the plastic analysis of frames a sufficient number of plastic hinges
are introduced at assumed locations to form a mechanism. The corresponding collapse load is
computed using virtual work equation. Expectedly therefore, the value of the collapse load so
computed will be an upper-bound. In fixed and continuous beams, as evident in the examples
considered earlier, it was a relatively simple matter to identify failure mechanisms. For
frames however, the identification of the correct failure mechanism is not so straightforward
because several possible failure mechanisms exist. The total number of independent or
elementary mechanisms, m, is given by the relation:

m  h  r ; where:

h = number of possible plastic hinges; and

r = number of redundant or degree of statical indeterminacy of the frame.

The elementary mechanisms in effect constitute a series of guesses for the true collapse
mechanism. Some of the elementary mechanisms can be combined to obtain other
mechanisms. Each of the mechanisms gives an estimate of the collapse load factor. In
consideration of the upper bound theorem, the lowest estimate is closest to the actual collapse
load factor. Although it is not necessary to draw for every mechanism, the bending moment
diagram to ascertain whether or not the yield condition is satisfied, it is essential to draw the
BMD for the mechanism with the least load factor. If the plastic moment is not exceeded
anywhere in the frame, it is a confirmation that the true collapse mechanism and collapse
load factor have been found. If however there exist(s) a point or points on the frame with
moment value(s) greater than the plastic moment value, it means that the mechanism so
checked is not the true collapse mechanism and that the load factor is not the collapse load
factor. It however helps in providing a range for the collapse load factor.

44
 It should be noted that in some problems the load factor may not be required; instead
everything is given in numerical values except the plastic moment. In such a case, the true
collapse mechanism is that which yields the greatest plastic moment of resistance.

Example 4.16

Obtain suitable sectional modulus for each member of the frame shown in Fig.4.25 given that
the plastic moment of resistance of the beam is twice the value of the plastic moment of
resistance of the columns. Take:   5 ;   1.15 ;  y  275N / mm2 .

15kN
3m 3m
5kN
2M p

6m Mp Mp

Fig.4.25

Solution

Experiments have been used to show that the above frame has three different failure
mechanisms. They are:

a) beam mechanism,

b) sway mechanism; and

c) combined mechanism.

The above-mentioned mechanisms are respectively shown in Figs.4.26 (a), (b), and (c). Observe
that the hinges in the beam mechanism occur in the adjacent columns because the columns are
the weaker at the beam/column joints.

45
 5kN
15kN  
     
 2
 

 
(a) (b)

15kN
5kN


 2


 
 
(c)

Fig.4.26 (a) Beam mechanism; (b) Frame (or Sway) mechanism; (c) Combined mechanism

We now consider each of the possible collapse mechanisms in turn using the virtual work
equation.

Beam mechanism

Since the beam is two times indeterminate, three hinges are required for its collapse. The hinges
are shown in Fig.4.26 (a). Equating the work done by the 15kN load to the work done by the
plastic hinges, we have:

15  3  M p  2M p  2  M p

45  6M p

M p  7.5kNm

46
Frame (or Sway) mechanism

Since the frame is three times statically indeterminate, four hinges are necessary for a
mechanism to form. The hinges are shown on the swayed frame in Fig.4.26 (b). Again using the
work equation, we have:

5  6  M p  4

30  4M p

M p  7.5kNm

Combined mechanism

This mechanism, which is a combination of the beam mechanism and the sway mechanism, is
also a frame mechanism. Since the frame is three times statically indeterminate, four plastic
hinges, as in the case of the sway mechanism, is necessary for a mechanism to form. The
mechanism and the necessary hinges are shown in Fig.4.26 (c).

15  3  5  6  M p  2M p  2  M p  M p  M p

75  8M p

M p  9.375kNm

For this combined mechanism, observe that the rotation of the left hand column and the left hand
end of the beam are such that the members continue to be at right angles to each other. The
implication is that there was no plastic rotation at that point and as such the plastic hinge at the
left hand beam-column junction is removed from the beam and sway mechanisms. The work
equation for the combined mechanism is therefore obtained by adding the work equations for the
beam and sway mechanisms and then subtracting the work done by the hinge (which has been
removed) from the internal work. The resulting equation which is in effect the same as the one
written above now appears as follows:

15  3  5  6  6M p  4M p  M p  M p

Or 75  8M p , as above.

Since the combined mechanism yielded the greatest plastic moment of resistance, that is the true
collapse mechanism and the moment is the true plastic moment of resistance.

47
Design plastic moment M p  9.375kNm    9.375  5  46.875kNm

Design working moment M  M p /   46.875 / 1.15  40.76kNm

M 40.76  10 6
The sectional modulus Z    148218mm3 (for the columns); and
y 275

Z  2  148218  296436mm3

Example 4.17

Fig.4.27(a) shows a portal frame with hinged feet. A horizontal point load of 50kN acts as shown
and the beam carries a mid-span point load of 150kN. Using a load factor of 1.8, determine the
collapse mechanism and obtain the plastic moment. Also draw the final bending moment
diagram of the frame at collapse to confirm its static admissibility.

150kN 150kN x 1.8 =270kN

4m 4m
50kN 50kN x 1.8 =90kN E
B C
Mp Mp


Mp Mp Mp
5m

5m

Mp

A D

(a) (b)
 
270kN 90kN  

     

 2
 

(c)

(d)
48
 270kN 2
90kN
1  
 2 
2

 

(e)

Fig.4.27 (a) Given frame and loading; (b) Frame with collapse loads; (c) Beam mechanism; (d)
Sway mechanism; (e) Combined mechanism.

Solution

Total number of elementary mechanisms m  h  r

Here r = 3; m = 1  m  3  1  2 elementary mechanisms.

The two elementary mechanisms are: (i) Beam mechanism (Fig.4.27 (c)) and (ii) Sway
mechanism (Fig.4.27 (d)). The third mechanism is a combined mechanism in which the hinge at
B is eliminated (Fig.4.27 (e)). Using the virtual work equation for each mechanism, we obtain:

Beam mechanism

270  M p  M p (2 )  M p

270  4  4M p (   4 )

M p  270kNm

Sway mechanism

90  M p  M p

90  5  2M p (   5 )

M p  225kNm

49
Combined mechanism

2701  90 2  M p (2 )  M p (2 )

270  4  90  5  4M p

M p  382.5kNm

The collapse mechanism is therefore the combined mechanism (Fig.4.27 (e)) and failure is due to
formation of plastic hinges at C and E. The plastic moment M p  382.5kNm .

Check on the static admissibility

To confirm static admissibility means to show that the yield condition is satisfied. This in other
words means to ensure that M  M p throughout the frame. To establish this, we draw the final
BMD of the frame for which purpose we obtain the thrust at D as follows:

M C  0;
Mp
C
5H D  M p
5m

Mp 382.5
Or H D  
HD 5 5
D
H D  76.5kN

To obtain HA we consider the horizontal equilibrium of the entire frame.

90kN B C F x  0;

H A  76.5  90
5m

HA 76.5kN H A  13.5kN
A D
8m

The moment at B can now be obtained as follows:

M B  13.5  5  67.5kNm

To find the vertical reaction at D, we take moment about A as follows:

50
 270kN
90kN B C M A  0;

8RD  270  4  90  5  0

5m
13.5kN 76.5kN RD  191.25kN
A D
8m
RA RD

From vertical equilibrium consideration, we have:

RA  270  191.25  78.75kN

Finally, we now draw the bending moment diagram at collapse (Fig.4.28).

Mp
M p  382.5kNm
M p  M B  67.5kNm -
- Mp

+
+

+ Mp

Fig.4.28 Bending moment diagram at collapse (kNm)

An examination of the BMD shown in Fig.4.28 above shows that the plastic moment is not
exceeded anywhere in the frame thereby confirming that the yield condition is satisfied. Thus the
static admissibility of the BMD is confirmed.

51