Ac DC Drive

AC & DC Drives
Element 1
Select, connect and operate DC Drive for given applications
After completing this unit you will be able to :
Understand the working of DC Motor, its working principles.
Understand the principle of speed control of a DC Motor and its

applications in industries.
Understand the principle of DC Drive.
Select, Connect & Program the DC Drive.
Operate, Test and Run the DC Drive.
Understand important safety rules.
CRISP Learning Material IATC 1

AC & DC Drives
Introduction
Most of the Production equipment used in modern industries consists of

three important components, namely, the prime mover the, the energy
transmitting & regulating device and actual working machine that
performs the desired operation. The function of the first two components is
to impart motion and operate the third one. The most commonly prime
mover is, of course, an electric motor, since it is far superior in performance
to others. Electric motors are, often, operated directly from a supply line,
under their own inherent speed-torque characteristics and their operating
conditions are directed by the mechanical loads, connected to them.
However, in many applications, the motors are provided with control
equipment by which their characteristics can be adjusted and their
operating conditions with respect to mechanical load varied to suit
specific requirements. The most common control adjustment is of motor
speed, but torque and acceleration or deceleration can also be
adjusted.
The aggregate of electric motor, the energy transmitting shaft and the
control equipment by which the motor characteristics are adjusted and
their operating conditions with respect to mechanical load varied to suit
particular requirements, is called an electrical drive. The drive together
with the load constitutes the drive system.
A block diagram of a drive system is given below.
Figure 1.1
DC motors have been available for nearly 100 years. In fact the first
electric motors were designed and built for operation from direct current
power.
Where does DC drive fit into the industrial drive picture of the future?

AC & DC Drives
In order to supply the answer, it is necessary to examine some of the basic
characteristics obtainable from DC motors and their associated solid-state
controls.
1. Wide speed range.
2. Good speed regulation.
3. Compact size and light weight (relative to mechanical variable
speed).
4. Ease of control.
5. Low maintenance.
6. Low cost.
• To get the speed variation as well as to have a good regulation at the

set speed, we require a control system, which is called as D.C. Drive.
1.1 BASICS OF D.C. MOTOR
The 'Motor' is a device that takes electrical energy as input and gives a
rotational mechanical energy as output.
The DC Motor requires electrical energy in 'DC' form.
Typical features of DC Motor are as follows:

Very good starting torque.
Easier speed variation technique.
Easier speed control mechanism.
There are 3 basic types of DC Motors. They are compared in the table
given below:

AC & DC Drives
• Normally in industries where speed variation and control are desired,

a separately excited type of D.C. motor is used where instead of
connecting armature and field in parallel (as in case of a shunt
motor), they are separately excited, meaning field and armature
winding are provided with supply from separate sources.
• Let us see the basic equations of D.C. motor.
Figure 1.2
• The figure above indicates typical configuration of a separately

excited D.C. motor.
• VT is terminal voltage applied to the armature.
• Ia the current following through the armature winding.
• Ra is the resistance of armature winding.
• Vf is voltage applied to the field winding.
• If is current flowing through field winding.
• If will produce magnetic flux = Ф.
• Ф α If hence φ α Vf.
• When current If flows through armature winding it will also produce

its own magnetic field that will interact with field flux. The resultant
magnetic field will develop torque on the armature.
• Rotation of armature in the magnetic field will induce back e.m.f.

(Eb) in the armature due to generator action.
• Considering the dynamic condition we can write the following

equations.
1> VT = Eb + Ia Ra
AC & DC Drives
2> Eb α N x Ф
3> Torque 'T' α Ф Ia where again Ф α If Vf.
4> Speed of motor N α Eb / Ф
5> Ia α Mechanical loads on the motor.
6> Power P = VT Ia ------------- input power to armature.
= Eb Ia -------------- useful power.
= 2 II NT ------------ mechanical power.
1.2 PRINCIPLE OF SPEED CONTROL
• We know that VT = Eb + Ia Ra
• Normally Ra is a very low value and therefore Ia Ra drop can be

neglected.
• Hence is nearly equal to Eb.
• As N α Eb
• We can say that N α VT i.e. voltage applied to armature.
• Thus by varying terminal voltage VT we can vary the speed of the

motor.
• Since rated armature voltage of the motor is the limitation of VT, we

cannot increase the speed of the motor above the rated speed
(Rated terminal voltage gives rated speed).
• For this reason to get speeds above the rated speed another
method is used. We know that the N α I / Ф, so if Ф is decreased, N
will increase.
• Thus by weakening the flux Ф we can increase the speed even

above the rated speed of the motor. However it should be noted
that the speed above tha rated speed is at the cost of torque as T α
Ф Ia.
• Thus the two possible methods of speed variations are
a> Armature control method wherein the voltage applied to

armature is varied to get variable speed. This method is preferred
for speed variation from 0 to rated speed of the motor.
b> Field control method where the voltage applied to field winding
is reduced from its rated value. This method is used to get speeds
higher than the rated speed of the motor.

AC & DC Drives
Speed Regulation
• In a variable speed D.C. drive wherein there is no provision for

speed regulation, the speed of motor deviates from the set speed
or required speed due to
a> Fluctuations in input supply voltage.
b> Fluctuations in load on the motor.
• Let us first analyze the effect of fluctuations in input supply voltage

on speed of motor.
Eb VT - IaRa
We know that N α ---------- = ---------------
φ φ
With constant field flux and load on the motor, any charge in incoming
supply voltage will change the voltage delivered to the armature of the
motor.
• Any change in voltage supplied to armature causes the speed of

motor to change.
• The following graph illustrates this effect.
Figure 1.3
• Let us now analyze the effect of fluctuations in load on the speed of

the motor.
• If the incoming supply voltage and field flux are steady but load on
the motor fluctuate, then this will alter the current taken by the
armature.
• Change in load changes the current taken by armature which in
turn changes the Eb level. (Since = VT - Ia Ra)

AC & DC Drives
• Since N α Eb, change in load causes speed to deviate from the set
or required value.
• The following graph illustrates this effect.
Figure 1.4
∗ If we want the speed to remain steady at the set value even with
fluctuations in incoming supply voltage or load on the motor or with
both, then we shall need an electronically controlled variable
spe3ed D.C. drive with actual speed and current feedback.
∗ In such a drive, any deviation in actual speed from the set value is
immediately corrected by changing the voltage provided to the
armature of motor. The new VT brings Eb to the previous level and
thereby adjusts the speed feed back to the set value. This
correction is automatically done by the electronic control system.
∗ The following graph illustrates this effect.
Figure 1.5

AC & DC Drives
Typical Characteristics Curve
The following graph shows the relationship of power, armature current,

torque and armature voltage against speed at constant speed.
Figure 1.6
1.3 LOAD: TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
The process of selecting an electrical adjustable speed drive is one where

the load is of primary consideration. It is important to understand the
speed and torque characteristics as well as horsepower requirements of
the type of load to be considered. When considering load characteristics,
the following should be evaluated:
⇒ What type of load is associated with the application?

⇒ Does the load have a shock component?
⇒ What is the size of the load?
⇒ Over what speed range are heavy loads encountered?
⇒ How fast is the load to be accelerated or decelerated?
Motor loads are classified into three main groups, depending on how their
torque and horsepower vary with operating speed. The following
paragraphs deal with the various motor load types usually found in
process, manufacturing, machining and commercial applications.
AC & DC Drives
Motor Load Types
Constant Torque Load
This type of load is frequently encountered. In this group, the torque

demanded by the load is constant throughout the speed range. The load
requires the same amount of torque at low speeds as at high speeds.
Load of this type are essentially friction loads. In other words, the constant
torque characteristic is needed to overcome friction. Figure 1.7 shows the
constant torque and variable horsepower demanded by the load.
As seen in Figure 1.7, torque remains constant while horsepower is directly

proportional to speed. A look at the basic horsepower equation also
verifies this fact.
Hp = Torque x speed / 5250
Where Torque is measured in lb-ft, Speed is measured in rpm.
5250 is proportionality constant.
Examples of this type of load are conveyors, extruders and surface
winders. Constant torque capability may also be used when shock loads,
overloads or high inertia loads require special drive sizing.
Figure 1.7

AC & DC Drives
Constant Horsepower Load
In this type of load, the horsepower demanded by the load is constant

over the speed range. The load requires high torque at low speeds. Form
the previous formula; you can see that with the horsepower held
constant, the torque will decrease as the speed increase. Put another
way, the speed and torque are inversely proportional to each other.
Figure 1.8 shows the constant horsepower and variable torque

demanded by the load. Example of this type of load is center-driven
winders and machine tool spindles. A specific example of this application
would be a lathe that requires slow speeds for rough cuts where large
amounts of material are removed, and high speeds for fine cuts where
little material is removed. Usually very high starting torqueses are required
for quick acceleration. Constant horsepower range is usually limited on
an AC drive from base speed to 1.5 – 2 times base speed
Figure 1.8

AC & DC Drives
Variable Torque Load (Cubed Exponential)
With this type of load, the torque is directly proportional to some

mathematical power of speed, usually speed squared (Speed 2).
Mathematically:
Torque = Constant ( Operating speed

_____________
)
Nameplate speed
2
Horsepower is typically proportional to speed cubed (Speed 3). Figure 1.9

shows the variable torque and variable horsepower demanded by the
load. Examples of loads that exhibit variable load torque characteristics
are centrifugal fans, pumps and blowers. This type of load requires much
lower torque at low speeds than at high speeds.
Figure 1.9

AC & DC Drives
Other Functional Considerations Shock Loads
Drives for crushers, separators, grinders, conveyors, winches, cranes and

vehicular systems often must man-age loads which range from a small
fraction of the rated load to several hundred percent. Under these
conditions, a drive has two fundamental tasks: move the load, and
protect the prime mover and driven equipment. If the prime mover is an
electric motor, as is the case with a large number of industrial drives, shock
loads can damage components such as bearings and speed changers,
as well as components of the drive control circuitry, by inducing signal
irregularities and electrical overloads in the power converter.
Size of the Load
The size of the load determines the type of drive chosen. Adjustable speed
drives (AC, DC, Eddy-Current, fluid, traction, etc.) range from fractional
horsepower to many thousand horsepower. However, not all types of
drives can be manufactured in the full range. Generally, power
semiconductor technology is the limiting factor in what is practical or
economical to manufacture for any given type of electrical drive.
Duty Cycle
Certain application may require continuous reversals, long acceleration

times at high torque due to inertia loads, frequent high rate acceleration,
or cyclic overloads which may result in severe motor heating if not
considered in the selection of the drive. Most drives with 150% overload
capability will operate successfully if there are compensating periods of
operation where motor temperatures can be normalized.

AC & DC Drives
1.4 DC DRIVE BLOCK DIAGRAM
Major function blocks and working principles:
DC drives, because of their simplicity, ease of application, reliability and

favorable cost have long been a backbone of industrial applications. A
typical adjustable speed drive using a silicon controller rectifier (SCR)
power conversion' section, common for this type unit, is shown in Figure .
The SCR, (also termed a thyristor) converts the fixed voltage alternating
current (AC) of the power source to an adjustable voltage, controlled
direct current (DC) output which is applied to the armature of a DC
motor.
SCR's provide a controllable power output by "phase angle control", so

called because the firing angle (a point in time where the SCR is triggered
into conduction) is synchronized with the phase rotation of the AC power
source. If the device is triggered early in half cycle, maximum power is
delivered to the motor; late triggering in the half cycle provides minimum
power, as illustrated by Figure 3. The effect is similar to a very high speed
switch, capable of being turned on and "conducted" off at an infinite
number of points within each half cycle. This occurs at a rate of 60 times a
second on a 60 Hz line, to deliver a precise amount of power to the motor.
The efficiency of this form of power control is extremely high since a very
small amount of triggering energy can enable the SCR (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier) to control a great deal of output power.
Figure 1.10

AC & DC Drives
Figure 1.11
Block Diagram of -1-Phase DC Drive in Single Quadrant Operation

AC & DC Drives
• The D.C. drive that we are going to discuss is capable of varying
the speed of a D.C. motor as well as regulating the speed at set
value.
• Broadly we can say that any D.C. drive that is required to work
according to the functions discussed earlier should be having the
following features.
o Unit to get variable D.C. from fixed A.C. supply called
power converter .
o Provision to vary the speed of motor with soft start/stop
circuit called Ramp Function Generator.
o A speed control loop for correcting the speed and hence
regulating it called speed controller.
o A current control loop for torque correction and limiting Ia
within the safe limit called current controller.
o Circuit to provide gate pulses to trigger SCRs in power
converter called gate control set.
o A circuit to generate field supply and which also gives
protection against field failure called as field supply and
field failure protection circuit.
o A circuit for protection of the drive against mains under
voltage called under voltage protection and pulse
blocking circuit.
• To say in one sentence what all these functional blocks together
do, one can say that it determines the correct position of firing
pulse that triggers the SCR so as to make the motor rotate at the
required set speed all along and provide the necessary
torque/power to the load in a safe manner.
Figure 1.12

AC & DC Drives
• The block diagram of a D.C. drive is given on the following page.
• In the following pages the function of each block is briefly discussed.
Please note that to facilitate understanding of basic concepts in
speed variation and regulation, in the explanation reference is
taken of analog control. It should be further noted that in a digital
drive the functions of analog circuits are carried out by a
microprocessor and the program instructions.
Ramp Function Generator
• Whenever we give the facility of speed variation we should control

the rate of change of the speed i.e. we must control acceleration
and deceleration for the safe operation.
• It is achieved by a circuit, which is called as Ramp Function
Generator (RFG).
• This functional block comes between the speed reference
potentiometer and the speed controller.
• The communication with regard to the required speed is provided
using a 10-turn potentiometer, which provides speed reference
voltage of 0 to 10 V or 0 to 10 V (for four quadrant operation).
• The output of ramp function generator is the control input to speed
controller.
• The action of ramp function generator can be graphically shown as
follows.
Figure 1.13
• There is provision in the circuit to independently control the ramp-up

and ramp-down time.
• Thus RFG block controls the rate of acceleration and deceleration.
AC & DC Drives
Speed Controller
• This functional block comes between the RFG and Current

controller.
Figure 1.14
• To regulate the speed at set level is a job by itself.
• The control system should be very accurate for that purpose.
• Following are the reason for possible deviation of the speed from
the set value.
1> Supply Voltage Variation.
2> Variation in load on the motor.
• To achieve an ideal speed torque characteristics, it is essential to
incorporate a speed feed back for speed correction and thus the
regulation.
• The circuit block consists of a simple PI controller, which has two
inputs.
1> Set speed value
2> Actual speed value
Figure 1.15
• To monitor the actual speed one can make use of tacho generator
or D.C.P.T. as a speed sensor.
• We select the speed sensor depending upon the accuracy required
and facility for tacho mounting.

AC & DC Drives
• The tacho generator provides a voltage that is linearly proportional
to the speed of the motor. This voltage is used as actual speed
value by the controller.
• The D.C.P.T. is basically an armature voltage transducer. We know

that
Eb = VT – Ia Ra
N α Eb
• The D.C.P.T. circuit provides a control signal corresponding to Eb

value by subtracting Ia Ra drop from VT.
• Wherever shaft extension is not available for mounting of tacho,

D.C.P.T. transducer is used for the actual speed feedback signal.
• Thus the speed controller sees the two inputs given to it and
calculates the error signal, which is proportional to the deviation in
the speed.
Set speed – Actual speed = Speed deviation.
• Considering to the difference between these parameters an error

signal is generated.
Error signal α Speed deviation
• This error signal, which is the output of a speed controller, controls

ultimately the power converter so as to compensate for the speed
deviation.
• We know that the speed of the D.C. motor is directly proportional to

the back e.m.f. Generated in the armature winding. The equation
for the armature circuit is as follows:
VT = Eb + Ia x Ra
Or
Eb = VT – Ia x Ra
• Now as the mechanical load on the motor changes, the armature

current will also change, as it is the function of load on the motor.
• As Ia changes the Ia Ra drop will also change.
• Thus Eb will tend to change as terminal voltage VT is still the same

and Ia Ra drop is changing A change in Eb means change in speed.
• So if we want to achieve a good speed regulation against variation

in the mechanical load on the motor, we should make a provision
AC & DC Drives
to adjust the VT depending upon the Ia Ra drop in such a way that Eb
and thus the speed of the motor remains constant despite
fluctuations in load.
• The speed controller does the job of bringing Eb to the desired level.
The change in Ia causes Eb to change meaning the speed to
deviate. The change in actual speed input to the controller makes
the controller to act in such a way that the actual speed is made to
match the set speed. This is done by adjusting VT in such a way that
Eb returns to the original value. Thus the speed is maintained
constant even with variations in Ia.
• The other possible reason for the speed deviation is variation in the
mains voltage. When the mains input to the power converter gets
changed at the same firing angle, the output voltage of the
converter will also change. Again from our equation VT = Eb + Ia x Ra
it can be seen that for the same load if VT changes, Eb will also
change as Ia Ra drop remains constant.
• The change in Eb means change in speed. Here also the speed
controller computes the error signal and accordingly the current
reference gets changed. Due to this the firing angle of the
converter changes, bringing VT back to the required level for
maintaining the speed constant.
• The manner and the speed of control action i.e. action of
correction is determined by the controller. Here basically the two
parameters that determine the above stated action are P gain (Kp)
and reset time or correction time (Tn). The controller circuit sets the
values of these two parameters.
• How Kp and Tn values are selected/decided will be discussed in
optimization
• The output of speed controller is called "current reference" (Iref).
• The figure below shows the control loop of speed controller.
Figure 1.16

AC & DC Drives
• Actual Speed Controller has got the response as shown below.
Figure 1.17
Current Controller
• We know that Torque is function is function of armature current Ia

and further that.
T α φ Ia
• We know that Ia at a particular speed exclusively depends upon

mechanical load on the motor.
• This means that there are two possible reasons for change in Ia.
1> Change in speed required, mechanical load on the motor

remaining unchanged.
2> Change in mechanical load on the motor, speed requirement

remaining unchanged.
• In both the cases the current taken by armature will change.

AC & DC Drives
• Let us see what happens if VT is kept constant and Ia varies.
We know that Eb = VT – Ia Ra
With VT constant, if Ia varies then Eb will vary.
We know that N α Eb and therefore speed will deviate form the

desired (set) speed value.
To keep the speed of motor at set speed value, VT should be so

adjusted that change in Eb due to change in Ia gets
compensated, and Eb is maintained constant.
• The action sequence is as follows: -
Iact , Eb (with same VT), Nact, Iref till Iref = Iact.
When this happens the speed returns to the set speed value.
• Similarly if the motor is drawing rated current at some speed lesser

than rated speed and one tries to increase the speed then due to
increase in load torque requirement the current in the armature will
increase beyond the rated level. This is dangerous to the motor, the
drive should therefore provide current limit to the power delivered to
the armature.
• To achieve this, actual current should be sensed and continuously
compared with current reference coming from speed Controller.
• This comparison loop is called as current feedback loop and the
total circuit is called Current Controller.
• The circuit block used for this purpose is again a simple PI controller
having two inputs.
• First is the current reference (Iref) outputted by the Speed Controller.
• Second is the actual current value can be sensed by two methods.
1> With C.T. on A.C. side.
2> With D.C.C.T. put in series with armature. This is also called as a
armature current transducer. Working on the principle of
saturable core reactor.
3> Shunt on D.C. side.
• The most popular method for sensing the actual current feedback is
using C.T. on A.C. side.
• Current Controller continuously compares both the inputs.

AC & DC Drives
• The figure below shows the current control loop.
Figure 1.18
• Actual Current Controller has got the response as shown below.
• The error signal calculated by the current controller is the
information about the deviation in armature current from the
required current (Iref.).
Iref – Iact = Armature current deviation.
• Error signal is proportional to the armature current deviation. The
control signal given out by Current Controller is called Voltage
Reference.
• This is called 'Voltage Reference' because this voltage level decides
the output D.C. voltage of the Power Converter.
• The voltage reference signal is given to Gate Control Set, which
generates gate pulse, whose position i.e. firing angle then decides
the output D.C. voltage.
• Proportional gain (Kp) and reset time (Tn) required is decided by the
electrical time constant of the armature circuit etc and the required
current correction rate.
Figure 1.19
AC & DC Drives
NOTE:
• With a view to regulate the speed at set speed value and keeping
the current in the armature within the safe limit, the speed controller
and current controller have to work together.
• The current reference to current controller is provided by speed
controller and hence speed controller is referred to as super
ordinate controller whereas current controller as subordinate
controller.
• To understand it further let us take reference of load torque and
motoring torque.
• The load torque is a function of the load on the motor and the
desired speed of its rotation.
• Change in any of this causes the load torque requirement to
change.
• The torque developed by the motor has to be made equal to load
torque if we want the load to be rotated at set or required speed.
• The motor must produce the required load torque, any deviation in
that will result in speed of the motor/load to deviate from the
required value.
• The following graph illustrates this action.
Figure 1.20
• With the above graph we can see that if the torque developed by
the motor is less than the required load torque, the motor will rotate
at a speed lower than the required speed and vice versa.

AC & DC Drives
• Let us study the following figure to understand how the controller

achieves this.
Figure 1.21
• The controller understands the load torque requirement through Nref

and Iref and it reads the actual torque produced at the motor shaft
from Nact and Iact values. The control action of the drive results in
making Nref = Nact and Iref = Iact which makes the motor/load to
rotate at the required speed. i.e. making load torque = motoring
torque.
• This functional block comes between the current controller and

power converter.
Figure 1.22
• After discussing about the speed and current correction

phenomenon we should see how the actual power control is
achieved.
• Let us consider that SCRs are used as power converter.
• To control the output of this converter one has to control the

conduction time of thyristors used in power converter.

AC & DC Drives
• This is achieved by means of firing angle control.
• The firing pulses given to make the thyristors 'ON' are shifted with
reference to zero of the A.C. input cycle (synchronization) and thus
control on the thyristor conduction is obtained by delaying the
triggering instance.
• Generation of such gate pulses in synchronization with A.C. input

cycle and as per the requirement of conduction time of SCRs is the
job of gate control set.
• The gate control set has two inputs.
• First is the sample of A.C. input, which is used for synchronization and
is denoted as sync input signal.
• The second is the 'Control voltage', which decides the firing angle,
and hence the actual voltage delivered to the motor.
• Naturally the control voltage should be the information, which is

jointly processed by speed and current controller considering the
set speed value, actual speed value current value.
• This is nothing but the reference voltage outputted by the Current

Controller.
• The gate pulses generated by the gate of SCRs.
Power Converter
• This functional block receives A.C. power from the mains and
provides us with a variable D.C. output using SCRs.
• In our preliminary discussion we have seen that upto rated speed

we vary the speed by varying armature voltage VT and above the
rated speed by decreasing field voltage Vf.
Figure 1.23

AC & DC Drives
• To have variable D.C. voltage VT and Vf for the purpose of speed
variation one can make use of different techniques.
• Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) are widely used to get variable

D.C. supply from fixed A.C. supply.
• The circuit block consisting of SCRs is known as 'Thyristor Converter'.
• There are different types of controlled converters.
1> Half controlled 1 - φ Bridge requiring 2 SCRs and 2 diodes.
2> Fully controlled 1 - φ Bridge requiring 4 SCRs.
3> Controlled half wave 3 - φ Rectifier requiring 3 SCRs.
4> Fully controlled 3 - φ Bridge requiring 6 SCRs.
5> Fully controlled 3 - φ Bridge with inverse parallel connection (i.e.

anti parallel) requiring 12 SCRs.
• The position of gate pulses decides the conduction angle of SCR

and hence the magnitude of D.C. output voltage.
• For the reversal of the direction of rotation of a motor a fully

controlled anti-parallel bridge will be required.
• Why anti parallel?
- By firing the reverse bridge we can reverse the polarity of VT or Vf

and hence obtain the reversal of direction of rotation. The anti
parallel connection is shown below.
Figure 1.24

AC & DC Drives
• Which one of the above five types is to be used is solely decided
according to the application of the drive e.g.
o Fully controlled, 3 - φ Bridge requiring 6 SCRs. is preferred for

single quadrant operation meaning one direction current flow
i.e. motoring and breaking in one quadrant.
o Fully controlled 3 - φ Bridge with inverse parallel connection

(i.e. anti parallel) requiring 12 SCRs is preferred for four
quadrant operation meaning current flow in both directions
i.e. motoring and breaking in both the directions of rotation.
Fully Controlled 3 Phase Controlled Bridge:
• As we know, we require SCR as a primary component in the

controlled rectifier circuit.
• This circuit is similar to a 3 – phase diode rectifier bridge
(uncontrolled converter) with a difference that to obtain variable
DC output from fixed A.C. input, the diodes are replaced by SCRs.
• The bridge connection can be explained as a serial connection of
two star circuits where one star point gives positive and the other
gives negative output. The final output is differential of two star
points (Refer fig. 1).
Figure 1.25
• Like in star connection each thyristor (SCR) can conduct for

maximum of 1200 (i.e. for entire period between two phase
crossover points).
• Since the input to the bridge is 3 phase supply in which the phase
difference between phases is 1200 the triggering pulses should also
be delivered in the same manner that is pulses to Y leg will be
delayed from pulses to R leg by 1200 pulses to B leg will be delayed
from pulses to Y leg by 1200 and pulses to R leg be delayed from
pulses to B leg by 1200.

AC & DC Drives
• For maximum conduction of thyristor if the pulses are placed at
natural conduction point i.e. 00 electrical then the output will be
maximum and identical to that of uncontrolled 3-phase converter
bridge using diodes.
• Naturally if we shift the occurrence of the pulses away from natural

commutation point towards following phase cross over point the
output will start reducing and if we place the pulses exactly at the
phase crossover point the output will then be equal to 0. This firing
angle is called as α0.
• In the course of triggering the SCR in synchronism to the supply

voltage, the pulse should be given to the SCR, which has anode
potential positive w.r.t. Cathode.
• This care is taken in the course of generation of gate pulses.
• Since the load is connected between two star points, the current
flows one phase through one SCR to load and returns via other SCR
to other phase. e.g. V1 SCRI load SCR2 V3.
• The natural commutation instance for each SCR is shown in fig. 2.

With reference to the chained line voltage V13, V12, V32, V31, V32,
V23 as well as to phase voltage V1, V2 & V3.
• As in star connection, each SCR switch can conduct for 1200. In

periodic cycle each SCR is triggered only once in each cycle when
it is forward biased (i.e. once in 3600). Since there are 6 SCR sin 3
phase bridges, triggering of different SCRs is separated by 600 (1/6
period).
• The numbering of SCRs in fig. 3 is in accordance with the natural

triggering sequence, which in turn is determined by sequence of
natural commutation points (clock wise phase sequence).
• Thus the SCRs are triggered in a cyclic order.
• At any given time 2 SCRs conduct in series. Now as determined by

the natural commutation points one SCR will still be in a position to
conduct but its partner is not. So the partner is needed to be
changed (this will happen after every 600). This breaks the series-
conducting link. Thus to ensure the continuation of the link when the
conducting partner is changed, we require either:

AC & DC Drives
1) Gate pulse of more than 600 duration, which is generally 720 or 4
msec.
OR
2) Another pulse after the first triggering pulse at a distance of 600.
Figure 1.26
The output voltage of 3 phase full wave uncontrolled converter can be

worked out from the following formula. Vdc = 1.35 * VL, is 3-phase line
voltage.
• For controlled converter the D.C. output depends upon the firing
angle and also the type of load.
• For resistive load in continuous conduction region (where the output
does not reach zero) i.e. 00 ≤ α ≤ 600 Vdcα = Vdc * cos α
In discontinuous conduction region (where the output reach zero)
i.e. 600 ≤ α ≤ 1200 . Vdcα = Vdc [1 + cos (α + 600)]
From the above equation it is clear that at α = 1200, Vdcα = 0 volts
and above 1200 also the output remains zero.
This means that the α0 = 1200
• For purely inductive loads, in the entire control range
Vdcα = Vdc * cos α
i.e. at α = 900, Vdc = 0 Volts (i.e. α0 = 900). Above 900, cos α assumes
negative value and hence the output becomes negative.

AC & DC Drives
• When the armature of D.C. motor is the load then it is neither pure
inductive nor resistive, so α0 will neither be 900 nor 1200. As armature
is inductive + resistive, α0 will be somewhere between900 & 1200 as
armature less inductive, it will be closer to 1200.
• When the firing angle is retarded beyond α0 then the output
assumes –ve value. The operation in this is region to as inverter
region. The region where the output is +ve is known as converter
region. This is shown graphically in fig. 3. The figures 4 to 14 show the
various waveforms including output D.C. voltage for pure inductive
load at different firing angles.
• In the inverter region as the output voltage assumes –ve value, it
becomes feasible for the converter to feedback the energy back to
the mains subject to meeting certain requirements.
• To clarify further, we know that SCRs cannot conduct in reverse
direction and therefore the –ve output available at the O/P of the
converter will not be able to source current to the load.
• If the D.C. voltage source is connected at the output terminals of
the converter with proper polarity, then it will be able to connect
the mains input lines as a load to this D.C. source and energy will be
fed from this D.C. voltage source to the mains (Here the direction of
the current through SCRs will remain forward and hence they will
conduct properly).
• In this region the current flows from D.C. side to the A.C. side of the
converter.
Stability Limit
• We know that this is a line-commutated converter.

• We can also see that from firing angle 00 up to 600 the converter
output does not attain zero voltage level. At 600 firing angle it
reaches to zero.
• When we are operating the converter at firing angle close to 00 it
can be seen that when the conducting partner of a particular SCR
change following the natural phase sequence then the SCR which is
turning OFF and the one which is turning ON will conduct
simultaneously for some time.
• The one which is turning ON will become current giving SCR and the
one which is turning OFF will become current taking SCR.
• This will create temporarily a low impedance path between two-
phase causing current in line input to shoot and voltage to dip.
These are caused obviously at commutation of one SCR and
coming ON of the other. This will happen once every half cycle of
conduction for each phase.

AC & DC Drives
• This explained below with the help of a diagram.
Figure 1.27
• Suppose the bridge is triggered at firing angle = 00 or close to 00. For

instance let us assume that Th5 is conducing along with Th6. The
current path is B phase to anode of Th5 to Load to anode of Th6 to Y
phase.
• Now at the Th6 will commute when Th4 is triggered at the same
firing angle. It is very clear that Th6 could still have conducted
provided Th4 is not triggered because Th4 is triggered at the firing
same angle and now the instantaneous voltage at R phase is more
negative than that of Y phase we expect that Th6 should sease.
• But actually Th6 will take some time to turn OFF after this instance
and as a result Th4 will give current in Th6 and both will conduct
simultaneously for short duration causing a short circuit like
condition. This will cause a glitch on the corresponding lines at the
input of the converter. These are called as commutation glitches. To
minimize these 4% chokes are recommended at the line inputs.
• These chokes will limit the rate of rise of current because of the
above mentioned short circuit like condition and protect the SCRs
as well as line network causing instability to the converter.
• If we desire this kind of protection for entire range of the firing angle
where the above mentioned problem is unavoidable, the choke
value and size and hence the drop across the choke will also go
high particularly when the load current is high. So we prefer to limit
the firing angle on lower side to 300. This is called as Converter Limit
(αG). Similar limit is also necessary when the converter works as line
commutated inverter in 'Inverter Region'. This limit is called as
'Inverter Limit' (αw).

AC & DC Drives
Reversible DC Drive
• In industries, many a times it is required that the direction of rotation

of a dc motor need to be reversed to meet the application needs.
• Unlike a simple dc drive, this requirement is little complex to fulfill.
• Whenever we desire to have a quick reversal of direction of rotation

of motor, it becomes necessary that we follow proper steps and
sequence to get almost instantaneous reversal in a safe manner.
• Let us first discuss about the modes of reversing the direction of

rotation of a dc motor.
(i) Armature Reversal
From the title itself it is clear that the polarity of armature voltage
is reversed in this mode to reverse the direction of the rotation.
As we know the motor rotates because of rotational mechanical

energy provided by torque produced at the shaft of the motor.
This torque T α φ Ia.
• From the above equation it can be seen that if direction of flux (φ)
or direction of armature current is changed then the direction of
motoring torque will also change.
• Here when we change the polarity of armature voltage, the

direction of armature current and hence the motoring will also
change resulting into reversal.
Figure 1.28
• When contact S1 and S2 are closed then point A will be connected

to positive and point AA will be connected to negative of the
voltage source VA.
AC & DC Drives
• This will cause the current to flow in the armature winding from point
A to point AA producing clockwise motoring torque.
• If contacts S3 and S4 are closed instead of S1 and S2 then point A
will be connected to negative and AA will be connected to positive
of the voltage source.
• This will reverse the direction of armature, now current will flow from
point AA to point A, resulting into anticlockwise motoring torque.
Figure 1.29
(ii) Field Reversal
• Referring to the same torque equation we can see that the same
effect could be achieved by reversing the direction of field current
(as If α φ)
• So this mode is popularly known as 'Field Reversal'.
Figure 1.30

AC & DC Drives
Figure 1.31
• When the switch S1 and S2 are closed then point F will be

connected to positive and point FF will be connected to negative
of the voltage source VF.
• This will cause the current to flow in the field winding from F to FF
producing and providing clockwise torque.
• If switches S3 and S4 are closed instead of S1 and S2 then point F will

be connected to negative and point FF will be connected to
positive of voltage source.
• This will reverse the direction of current in field winding reversing the
direction of flux φ.
• The reversal of flux will result into anticlockwise rotation of the motor.

AC & DC Drives
Care to be taken while Reversing
• Though reversing appears very simple at first glance, it has lot many
problems while implementation because of inductive nature of
armature as well as field circuit.
• From the graphs shown we can see that though we change polarity
of Va or Vf, the current Ia or If gets reversed with little amount of
delay because or inductive nature of the circuit.
• So naturally the torque produced will not reverse at the same instant
as that of polarity reversal.
• In case of field winding φ is further legging behind the field current If

so it will take even more time for torque reversal.
• These phenomenon have their own consequence and effect on

the event of reversal.
• To understand it in details let us look into following points.
• The preferred method for speed reversal is armature reversal

method as it is faster compared to field reversal because of smaller
time constant i.e. L/R ratio of armature circuit.
• Let us refer to the graph of armature reversal and understand it in

detail.
• It is clear that even if the voltage polarity of armature is reversed the

current and hence torque direction does not change
instantaneously.
• During this overlap when the torque and hence Eb is opposite to the
applied voltage, there will be practically ∞ current (limited only by
armature resistance) flowing in the armature circuit.
• So it becomes essential that before we reverse the polarity of

armature voltage the earlier torque should cease and Eb should
come to zero level.
• Now the first step to achieve this is to make armature voltage zero.
• But this will not help because of the fact that motor will continue its
rotation because of its inertia and keep generation Eb. Also the Ia will
take its own time depending upon armature circuit time constant to
come to its zero value after the removal of armature voltage.
• This will take some time and thus instantaneous reversal is not
achievable.

AC & DC Drives
• To over come this we require the method wherein we forcibly make
the Ia / T and Eb zero and proceed with reversing.
• This phenomenon is called as 'Braking'.
• The normal sequence of operation for reversal, therefore, would be

Motoring followed by braking followed by reverse motoring.
• This can be understood from the four quadrants of motor operation

as shown below.
Figure 1.32
Breaking
• So far we have understood that for instantaneous reversal, braking is

essential.
• From the above diagram of torque (T) V/S speed (N) we can see
that quadrant II & IV is representing braking action.
• Now we shall see how the braking could be achieved.

AC & DC Drives
Dynamic Braking
Figure 1.33
Refer the above figure
Running Condition
• Contacts S1 and S2 are open.
• Va is applied as per the polarity indicated.
• Ia is set up to produce the torque.
• Eb is generated as per the polarity shown.
Steps for braking
• Make Va zero, so the source of Ia is cut.
• Close S1 and S2 contacts so that the Dynamic Braking Resistor

(DBR) gets connected across the armature.
• Now we know that after making Va zero, motor will still

continue its rotation in the same direction for a while because
of lagging Ia and inertia effect.
• This rotation of armature within field flux φ will keep on

generating Eb (Motor acting as a generator).
• Now because of the DBR getting connected across the

armature, DBR will act as a load on Eb, Eb will source current in
DBR.

AC & DC Drives
• At this instant the direction of Ia gets reversed which will
produce reverse torque.
• This reverse torque will work like a break on the armature

rotation, bringing it to zeroφ speed almost instantly.
LA
• The time required to dissipate the energy in armature
RA +DBR Value
circuit will be 5 x.
• Thus the braking can be done effectively by this method.
• After armature energy is dissipated in DBR we can apply the

reverse armature voltage, which would cause the motor to
rotate in reverse direction (Reverse motoring). Care has to be
taken that after braking is completed DBR must be
disconnected from the armature.
• Though this technique appears simple to execute the

problem here is the whole of armature energy is wasted
across DBR during braking.
• The amount of energy wasted will be proportional to the

motor and inertia of coupled load.
Regenerative Breaking
• In the technique of regenerative braking, instead of wasting this

stored energy in armature across DBR it is fed back to the Mains
with the help of inverse parallel converter operated in inverter
region of its output characteristics. This results in energy saving.
• Now let us discuss this technique in detail.
• The converter connection for regenerative braking is as shown

below.
Figure 1.34

AC & DC Drives
• The bridge – 1 when working in converter region provides positive
polarity voltage at KM terminal and negative polarity voltage at AM
terminal.
• In inverter region point KM assumes negative and point AM assumes

positive polarity voltage.
• Similarly the bridge – 2 when working in converter region provides

positive polarity voltage at AM terminal and negative polarity
voltage at KM terminal.
• In inverter region point AM assumes negative and point KM assumes

positive polarity voltage.
• Thus bridge – 1 and bridge – 2 provide opposite polarity voltage to

armature.
• Let us assumes that bridge – 1 when triggered will make the motor
to rotate clockwise (forward) and when bridge – 2 is triggered the
motor rotates anticlockwise (reverse).
i.e. bridge – 1 makes the motor run in 1st quadrant and bridge – 2 in
3rd quadrant.
• Quadrant 2 and 4 are respectively for forward and reverse braking

where regenerative mains feed back action takes place.
• Now suppose bridge one is triggered in converter region so that the

motor is rotating in forward direction.
• Whenever the speed reference polarity is changed so as to make

the motor rotate in reverse direction then at first the pulses to bridge
one are blocked and making its output voltage to go to zero. This
will stop the forward torque delivery. But the motor will still continue
the rotation in the same direction because of the inertia.
• As field supply is there Eb is still getting generated with the same

polarity (i.e. motor is acting as a generator).
• Now the bridge two is triggered in inverter region so as it generates

inverse voltage of magnitude that is slightly less than prevailing Eb
value.
• This will make the current to flow from armature of the motor (dc
side) to mains (ac side) through the bridge – 2 operated in inverter
region.
• The reversed armature current will produce reverse torque on the

armature (since Eb of armature is now acting as a source).

AC & DC Drives
• This reverse torque will work against the moment of inertia of the
motor and will effectively reduce the speed.
• As speed of motor reduces, Eb will also reduce, accordingly the

firing angle of bridge – 2 in inverter region is adjusted so that
regenerative feedback continues.
• At the end when motor attains zero speed the firing of bridge – 2 is
at α0.
• There after as per the reverse voltage reference received by the

gate pulse generator, it will release pulses to bridge – 2 in converter
region when it will provide inverter polarity voltage to armature
making it to rotate in the reverse direction (reverse torque).
• This braking and reversal could be done through Ramp function

generator. If very fast reversing action is desired (provided motor
mechanical construction allows) then RFG can be by passed also.
• In this process, it can be clearly seen that the energy stored in

armature is sent (fed) back to mains during braking, resulting into
net energy saving.
• Here the dynamic response of reversal is totally dependent upon

RFG, neglecting the armature circuit time constant with respect to
mains impedance.
• If RFG is bypassed then the response will be very fast and will be
limited only by armature circuit time constant with respect to mains
impedance.
• The similar phenomenon would take place while doing reverse

braking followed by forward motoring Only the sequence of
triggering of bridge is altered.
Optimization
• In a variable speed D.C. Drive, the motor speed gets affected due
to variety of reasons such as change in the load on the motor or
fluctuations in the supply voltage or speed reference to the drive is
changed, etc.
• In such a situation, the controller of the drive meaning speed and

current controller have to act immediately and bring the motor
speed to the desired level/value:
o As quickly and precisely as possible.
o With least possible overshoot.
o As free from oscillations as possible.

AC & DC Drives
• In the following graph, we have shown a typical corrective action
taken by the control system to a step change in the speed
reference value
Figure 1.35
• It is clear from the above graph that it takes some time for the
motor/load to reach the desired new speed and be steady at that
value when the speed reference is changed (or alternatively load
on the motor changed or fluctuations in the supply voltage).
• As discussed above, in such a situation the controller is expected to

work in such a manner that the motor attains the new stable speed
or corrects the disturbances caused by change in load or
fluctuations in supply voltage in minimum possible time, without
much of an overshoot and without many oscillations about the new
speed value/set speed value.
• Technically this means (refer above graph) that tan, taus and u
values should be as small as possible to achieve the above stated
requirement.
• The above requirement can only be fulfilled when the controller

parameters are tuned to that of motor/load.
• This tuning process is called as OPTIMIZATION.
• If proper optimization is not done then it may lead to the following:
⇒ "Dead time" of converter.
⇒ The delay in the armature circuit as it is primarily an LR circuit.

AC & DC Drives
⇒ The actual value smoothening circuit consisting of two
resistors Ro3 and Ro4 capacitors Co.
Figure 1.36
⇒ Moment of inertia of the load.
• After analyzing the control loop, we decide which of the above

components are responsible for the time delay in the concerned
control loop and include them in the optimization process
1.5 DRIVE SOFTWARE

Modern powerful microprocessors based digital Drives perform all control
in open and Closed-loop control functions. Controls are assigned through
the software as program modules that are "wired up" via parameters.
Product specific software are available to program drive for different
applications.
This simple and easy drive also provides flexibility with easy to install
options. Drive set-up is quick and convenient using Windows-based
configuration tool. The fuctions allows parameter cloning for fast
parameter storage and transfer, making it easy to add or replace drives
within your system. The software easily connects into your network with a
wide range of field bus protocols and operator interface options.
The product manufacturer provides specialized instructions to use their

software for parameterization of drive. It is advised to use the instructional
manual for programming of your drive.

AC & DC Drives
1.6 PARAMETERIZATION OF DRIVE

Parameterization device
Simple operator panel
All units provide a panel mounted in the converter door. Simense DC drive
feature a PMU panel mounted in the converter door .The PMU consists of a
five-digit, seven-segment display, three LEDs as
status indicators and three parameterization
keys.
The PMU also features connector X300 with a USS

interface in compliance with the RS232 or RS485
standard.
The panel provides all the facilities required during

start-up for making adjustments or settings and
displaying measured values. The following
functions are assigned to the three panel keys:
Figure 1.37
• P (select) key Switches over between parameter number and

parameter value and vice versa, acknowledges fault messages.
• UP key selects a higher parameter number in parameter mode or
raises the set and displayed parameter value in value mode. Also
selects a higher index on indexed parameters.
• DOWN key selects a lower parameter number in parameter mode
or reduces the set and displayed parameter value in value mode.
Also selects a lower index on indexed parameters.
LED functions
• Ready: Ready to operate, lights up in "Wait for operation enable"

state.
• Run: In operation, lights up when operation is enabled.
• Fault: Disturbance lights up in "Active fault" status, flashes when
"Alarm" is active.
The quantities output on the five-digit, seven-segment display are easy to

understand, e.g.
• Percentage of rated value, - servo gain factor,
• Seconds,
• Amperes or
• Volts.

AC & DC Drives
OP1S Extended operator panel
In Siemense make DC Drive the OP1 S optional extended operator panel

can be mounted either in the converter door or externally, e.g. in the
cubicle door. For this purpose, it can be connected up by means of a 5 m
long cable. Cables of up to 200 m in length can be used if a separate 5 V
supply is available. The OP1S is connected to the SIMOREG via connector
X300. The OP1S can be installed as an economic alternative to control
cubicle-measuring instruments which display physical measured
quantities.
The OP1S features an LCD with 4 x 16 characters for displaying parameter

names in plaintext. German, English, French, Spanish and Italian can be
selected as the display languages. The OP1 S can store parameter sets for
easy downloading to other devices.
Keys on OP1S:
• P (Select) key
• UP key
• DOWN key
• Reversing key (not functional on SIMOREG)
• ON key
• OFF key
• Inching key
• Numeric keys (0 to 9)
Figure 1.38
LEDs on OP1S:
• Green: Lights up in "Run", flashes in "Ready"

• Red: Lights up with "Fault", flashes with
"Alarm"
Figure 1.39

AC & DC Drives
PC as parameterization device:
PC with software and drive interface can be used as parameterization

device. The manufacturer supply drive with window based software.
Parameterization using PC is simple, easy and user friendly.
In the above example of Siemens drive, through the X300 a PC can

establish connector on the PMU communication via the Drive Monitor
program for parameterization, monitoring, troubleshooting, and control of
the converter.
All manufacturers supply Drive software along with the set of instructions
for programming .You are required to use these instructional manual.
1.7 TESTING OF DRIVE

To investigate the operation of DC drive consisting of a controller and a
DC Motor with load the drive will be tested initially with static load and
then with dynamic load.
You are required to connect motor with drive using instructions.
Connect the circuit and run the drive on following steps.
Step 1 : Put the external circuit breaker in OFF position. Hook up the
circuit.
Step 2 : Put circuit breaker on controller in OFF position.
Step 3 : Put RUN switch on controller in RUN position unless the motor
will run mode
Step 4 : Put START/STOP switch on controller in STOP position.
Step 5 : Put the speed dial on controller on (0) position.
Step 6 : Recheck the connection
Step 7 : Power on the external circuit breaker
Step 8 : Power on the circuit breaker on controller.
Step 9 : Switch the START/STOP switch to START position. DC motor

should start rotating with minimum speed.
Step 10 : Adjust the speed dial to run the motor in proper speed.

AC & DC Drives
PART A:
No-load Measurement
• The motor should be mechanically decoupled
• Adjust the speed dial from 0 to 10. Measure the speed, armature
voltage and current of DC motor, and armature.
• Connect lamp load across the output.
• Adjust the speed dial and observe the light intensity of lamp load.
• Tabulate and interpret the observations and readings and verify

your results in consultation with your instructor.
PART B:
Load Measurement
• The motor should be mechanically coupled with given dynamic

load.
voltage and current of DC motor, and armature.
• Adjust the speed dial and observe the results.

your results in consultation with your instructor

AC & DC Drives
1.8 SAFETY INFORMATION

IMPORTANT: SAFETY FIRST – DO NOT RUSH
WARNING:
During the experiments you will be working with both DC and AC voltage
whose magnitudes, in case of direct contact, are considered to be
dangerous. Follow all the safety rules. Do not work with both hands if you
are handing.
Live plugs, connections, any other components and/or equipment in

which there are exposed live parts. Make sure that the.
Test setup has a secure grounding connection. Re-check all the

connections for correctness and tightness before applying.
Power. Any changes of connection must be done when the power is shut
down.
Drive Safety:
Important Protection Circuits
Field Supply And Field Failure Relay
• For a separated excited D.C. motor, we need a D.C. voltage for the
field winding of motor, which is equal to the rated field voltage of
the motor.
• While running the D.C. motor one important care that needs to be
taken is: voltage should be applied to the armature winding only
when the field winding is energized.
• So in the incidence of loss of field due to any reason, armature
voltage should be immediately blocked to save the motor from
burning due to excessive armature current.
• The field controller provides the D.C. supply to the field winding of
D.C. motor.
• The field controller will be a diode bridge if a fixed D.C. is needed or
will be an SCR bridge if variable D.C. needed for field weakening to
get the speed higher than the rated speed of the motor.
• The field failure protection circuit senses the field current. In the
absence of field current or field current going below the safe limit,
this circuit automatically disconnects the supply to the armature.

AC & DC Drives
Under Voltage Protection And Pulse Blocking Circuit
• For proper and safe working of the motor together with its control, it
is necessary that the drive must be provided with its rated voltage.
• Under or over voltage is therefore an undesirable situation and

hence whenever such a situation occurs the supply to the drive
should be automatically disconnected.
• This protection circuit senses the supply voltage level and when it
falls below the permissible limit, it gives out the signals that
disconnect the supply to the system and thereby protecting it.
Phase Sequence Monitoring
• In a 3 - φ drive, it is necessary to monitor the phase sequence of

supply that is given to the drive panel.
• The relation between converter output and cosine of firing angle is

linear, when phase sequence of converter input and gate pulses
delivered is in synchronism.
• Improper phase sequence results in loss of synchronism.
• When the synchronism is lost, the relation will no longer be linear and
the output becomes highly unstable.

AC & DC Drives

AC & DC Drives
SELF ASSESSMENT TEST
Select the best answer:
1. In a three phase fully controlled thuristarised bridge, each thyristor

conducts for :
A. 60°
B. 90°
C. 120°
D. 180°
2. During field weakening operation; normally the DC Drive operates in :
A. Constant power mode

B. Constant torque mode
C. Both constant power and constant torque mode
D. None of the above
3. In DC Drive current controller takes care of :
A. Mechanical time constant of drive system

B. Electrical time constant of drive system
C. Both Mechanical & Electrical time constant of drive system
4. Four quadrant operation of DC Drive can be achieved by :
A. Field reversal by contactor

B. Field bridge reversal
C. Armature reversal by contactor
D. Armature bridge reversal
E. All of the above
5. For a Fan type of load :
A. T α N
B. T α N2
C. Torque is always constant
D. T α 1/N
Here T = Torque & N = Speed

AC & DC Drives
6. Which control block in DC Drive ensures smooth acceleration & de-
acceleration of the load :
A. Speed controller
B. Ramp function generator
C. Current controller
D. Torque controller
7. Speed deviation sensed by the speed controller is :
A. Speed deviation = set speed – Actual speed

B. Speed deviation = Actual speed– set speed
C. Speed deviation = set speed ÷ Actual speed
D. Speed deviation = Actual speed ÷ set speed
8. Following are the reasons for possible deviation of the speed from set
value :
A. Supply voltage only

B. Variation in load on the motor only
C. Both of the above
9. The control signal given by current controller is called :
A. Current reference
B. Error signal
C. Voltage reference
10. In order to regulate speed at set speed value and keeping the current
in armature within safe limit :
A. Only speed controller have to work independently

B. Only current controller have to work independently
C. Both speed controller and current controller have to work together
TURN TO NEXT PAGES FOR ANSWERS

AC & DC Drives
SELF ASSESSMENT TEST ANSWERS
1. C
2. A
3. A
4. D
5. B
6. B
7. A
8. C
9. C
10. C
EXERCISES
For developing proficiency in carrying out configurations

and applications of Drive it is advised to perform repeated
exercises under the guidance of the instructor

AC & DC Drives
Element 2
Select, connect and operate AC Drive for given load situation
After completing the unit you will be able to :
Understand the working of AC Motor.
Understand the principle of speed control of AC Motor.
Identify the AC Motor and AC Drive for given application.
Connect & Program AC Drive.
Operate, test and run the AC Drive.
Know important safety rules & regulations.

AC & DC Drives
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO AC DRIVE
AC motor drive is a device, which is used to control the torque and speed
of a standard AC induction motor. It has an AC drive technology, which
can extend the range of motor speed from zero to high above the rated
speed, thereby driven process productivity increases. The drive
automatically reduces the speed of the machine and saves energy when
the load requirement is less.
Input voltage, output voltage, power, frequency, phase, continuous

current and peak current are some of the specification of AC motor drive.
Input voltage is the amount of voltage applied to the motor drives. Output
voltage is the outcome of voltage from the drives. Power is the amount of
electrical energy applied to the motor drive.
Fixed V, fixed f DRIVE variable, f,

AC supply variable V,
AC Supply
Figure 2.1
The application of variable speed AC motor drive systems started with iron
mill processes and other general-purpose drive applications. Nowadays, it
is being used to drive systems of railway vehicles, elevators and ships.
Specifications of AC Motor Drives
The attributes pertaining to AC motor drives are maximum output voltage,

peak output current, rated power and operating temperature. The
important specification is listed as below.
• Rated Power
• Rated power is defined as the net electric output continuously
provided for the motor or the actuator by the drives.
• Maximum Output Voltage
• It refers to the maximum amount of voltage that can be obtained
at the output terminals.
• Peak Output Current
• It refers to the maximum capacity of the output current that persist
for a short period.
• Operating Temperature

AC & DC Drives
• Operating temperature is defined as the range of temperature over
which a device may be safely used or otherwise the temperature
range with which the device has been designed to operate.
Applications of AC Motor Drives
AC motor drives have many applications in the common field than DC

drives. They are:
• Used to drive systems of railway vehicles

• Used to drive elevators
• Used to drive ships
• Used in Pumps
• Used in Fans
• Used in Conveyors
• Used in Extruder’s mixers
• Used in Compressors
• Used in grinding mills
• Used in existing motors as a retrofit
Adjustable speed AC drives have become the preferred choice in many

industrial applications where controlled speed is required. At the same
time, the maturing of the technology and the availability of fast and
efficient solid state power semiconductor switches (IGBTs) has resulted in
voltage source, PWM controlled inverters becoming a standard
configuration in the power range to 500kW.
AC drives control AC motors. It’s that simple. So, in order to understand

what AC drives are, how they work and where they are applied, you need
to first understand the parts of an AC motor and how AC drive function.
The motor produces torque and this torque makes the motor shaft to
rotate. The motor shaft is coupled to the machine shaft and therefore the
machine shaft also rotates. Through the coupling mechanical power at
the motor shaft gets transferred to the machine. The motor shaft rotates
because of mechanical energy produced in the motor.
While preparing this learning material it is assumed that you meet one or
more of the above prerequisites and have a clear understanding of
concepts of electrical & fundamentals Dc and AC motors.

AC & DC Drives
2.2 BASICS OF AC MOTOR: TYPES, WORKING & SELECTION
Now, let’s get on with learning about the fundamentals of AC motors.
Components Of An Electric Motor
Figure 2.2
Electric motors are really quite simple. There are only four basic parts to an
electric motor:
• There is the housing or external case that surrounds the other

components.
• Mounted inside the housing is the stator. The stator is the stationary
or non-moving part of the motor’s interior. It is made up of wire
windings. The moving parts of the motor are the rotor and the shaft.
• The rotor, like the stator, also has windings.
• The rotor is connected to the fourth component, the shaft. The shaft
is a metal rod held in position within the stator by bearings
connected to the case. The bearings allow the shaft to rotate inside
the stator. The rotor and shaft are often referred to as the armature
of the motor.
How An Electric Motor Operates
Figure 2.3

AC & DC Drives
The electric motor operates by converting electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Let’s represent the motor’s stator as an iron block “S”
and the rotor as an iron block “R”. Both of these iron blocks are wrapped
with wire coils. When electrical current is passed through the wire coils, an
electromagnetic field is created and the iron blocks become magnetized.
All magnets have a North and a South Pole. A North Pole is always trying
to get next to a South Pole and visa versa.
Two North or two South poles will push away or repel each other. In other
words, opposite poles attract and like poles repel. It’s this magnetic pull
and push principle that makes an electric motor operate.
Suppose that “S” is fastened such that it cannot move. On the other hand,
“R” is allowed to move freely. When electricity is passed through the coils
and the blocks are magnetized, the opposite poles try to pull together.
Block “R” will move towards block “S.” If the blocks get together the
movement will stop. What if block “S” were mounted in such a way that
block “R” couldn’t contact it? Block “R” would move until it’s positive pole
were as close as it could get to block “S” and then motion would stop.
Figure 2.4
Let’s add more “S” blocks (S1, S2, S3, and S4). If S1 were demagnetised just
as “R” reached it, and S2 is magnetized, “R” would continue moving
toward “S2.” If this same process of demagnetising and magnetizing S1,
then S2, then S3 and finally S4, were continued then block “R” would be
moving all the time until it reached S4.
Figure 2.5

AC & DC Drives
In an electric motor the “S” magnets are formed in a circle and the “R”
magnet is placed inside this circle and is attached to a shaft. The stator
and rotor are magnetized as current flows through the coil windings. The
rotor moves so that the opposite poles of the windings can try to move
closer to the stator magnets. Just as the magnets are close the magnetic
field moves on in the stator, and the rotor chases after it. Since the rotor
and shaft are fastened together, the shaft moves. The rotation of the shaft
is the mechanical energy created by the conversion of the electrical
energy by the motor.
To summarize, the rotor “chases after” the changing magnetic field of the
stator, which causes the rotor and shaft to rotate. The magnetic fields of
the stator and rotor are changed according to the frequency of the AC
voltage applied to the motor. Changing the frequency of the voltage
applied will alter the speed at which the stator’s magnetic fields change.
This will, in turn, change the speed of the rotor. Changing the current will
alter the strength of the magnetic fields of the rotor and stator. The
stronger the magnetic fields the greater the turning force applied by the
rotor to the shaft. This twisting or turning force is called torque.
Types of AC Motors
The four principle types of motors (not including single phase types) found
in commercial and industrial applications are:
1. Squirrel cage induction,
2. Wound rotor induction motors.
The squirrel cage induction motor is by far the most widely used motor
because of its low cost and proven reliability. The wound-rotor induction
motor has been used in applications that require high starting torque,
controlled starting torque, or speed control. The separately excited motor
has been used in high-horsepower applications where it is advantageous
to overexcite the motor to provide power factor correction in an industrial
facility.
The squirrel cage motor is by far the simplest, most reliable, least
expensive, most readily available and easiest to maintain. In addition, with
improvements in AC drives, squirrel cage motors are now applied in the
majority of the applications.

AC & DC Drives
Motor Terms and Concepts
Electric service is a term used to describe or define electrical power

supplied to a motor.The selection of motor control products
depends upon the information that is included as part of electrical
service. This information includes:
Current - the current used by the motor is either AC or DC.
Square D currently only makes drives for AC motors.
Phase - a motor can be powered by either single or polyphase

electric power. The term
polyphase means more than one phase and typically refers to

3 phase.
Frequency - is the number of electrical pulses that are

transmitted over a given period of time. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (cps).
Figure 2.6
In this example, you see that the voltage builds from zero, in the positive
direction up to a peak positive value of + 460 V. Then it starts to decline in
value until it reaches zero volts again. Next the voltage starts in the
negative direction until it reaches a peak value of - 460 V. Finally the
voltage starts to move back in the positive direction until it reaches zero
volts. The change in voltage from zero to a peak positive value, back to
zero, to a peak negative value and back to zero is called 1 cycle. It has
taken time for a cycle to occur. In our example, that time is one second.
Frequency is measured in terms of cycles per second and the frequency
of this example is one cycle per second. The more common term for
frequency is called Hertz. One Hertz equals one cycle per second.

AC & DC Drives
Alternating current completes these cycles very rapidly and the number of
cycles per second is known as the frequency.
Voltage - electric motors are designed to operate using a specific

voltage. Motor control devices are also rated according to the voltage
that can be applied to them.
Locked rotor current (LRC) does a motor in order for the motor to start
require the current flow. Locked rotor current may be called Locked rotor
amps (LRA).
Full Load Amps (FLA) - this is the current flow required by a motor during
normal operation to produce its designed HP. Full load amps (FLA) is also
called Full Load Current or (FLC).
Speed (in revolutions per minute), Torque (ft.lbs.)
Horsepower (HP) : is a standard unit of power which is used to measure the

rate at which work is done.
Torque: is formally defined as: “the force tending to rotate an object,

multiplied by the Perpendicular radius arm through which the force acts.”
In the case of a motor, torque is the force, which acts on the shaft and
causes rotation. Remember that the amount of torque created is directly
related to the amount of current applied to the motor. The greater the
current the stronger the magnetic fields of the stator and rotor, and
therefore the greater the turning force of the shaft. A motor is a dumb
device. As the load is increased on the shaft, the motor will draw more
current (to increase the torque) to try and keep the load moving. If the
load were to continue to be increased, the motor will literally destroy itself
trying to create the necessary torque to move the load.

AC & DC Drives
Synchronous speed is the speed of an AC induction motor’s rotating
magnetic field. It is determined by the frequency applied to the stator
and the number of magnetic poles present in each phase of the stator
windings. This can be expressed by the formula:
Figure 2.7
Slip is the difference between the rotating magnetic field speed in the
stator and the rotor speed in AC induction motors. This is usually expressed
as a percentage of synchronous speed. If the rotor were rotating at
exactly the same speed as the stator’s rotating magnetic field (for
example, 1800 rpm) then no lines of magnetic force would be cut, no
voltage would be generated in the rotor and no current would be
present. However, if the rotor slows down by 50 rpm it would now be
running at 1750-rpm vs 1800 rpm of the stator field. The rotor bars are now
cutting the rotating field at a 50-rpm rate. Now voltage and current would
be generated in the rotor, with a resulting magnetic flux pattern. The
interaction of these magnetic fields would produce torque. The difference
between the synchronous and actual rotor speeds is called slip.
Constant and Variable Torque
If you look at a motor’s usage based on the torque requirements of an

application, you will find that you may need constant torque or variable
torque. One application might require normal starting torque and a
normal running torque, for example, a drill machine. This category requires
that a motor starts with a normal amount of torque and then continues to
run at the required speed.

AC & DC Drives
Another application category might require a high starting torque but a

normal running torque. For example, a conveyor that is first loaded up and
then started. When the loaded conveyor is started the motor must provide
a big push of torque to get the conveyor and its load moving. Once
moving, inertia has been overcome and the resistance of friction falls,
therefore normal running torque provides adequate power to keep the
conveyor running.
The third torque category would be an application that requires a very

high starting torque, and a normal running torque.
Starting and running torque can be plotted. As the starting torque

increases, motor speed decreases. As torque increases, the motor speed
decreases.
Figure 2.8
Notice that at zero speed the starting torque is very high. This is needed to
get the load moving from a dead stop. As the speed increases the torque
curve fluctuates until the full load torque and full load speed are reached.
Notice that at zero speed the starting torque is very high. This is needed to
get the load moving from a dead stop. As the speed increases the torque
curve fluctuates until the full load torque and full load speed are reached.
The breakdown torque is the maximum torque that a motor can produce.
Higher torque requirements will slow motor speed to a stop. Breakdown
torque is the point where speed stops as torque requirement increases.
Full load torque is the amount of torque developed by the motor at rated
speed and rated current. The rated speed and current values can be
found on the motor nameplate.
AC & DC Drives
Motor Load - a motor provides the conversion of electrical energy to
mechanical energy that enables a machine to do work. The energy that
a machine requires from a motor is known as the motor load. For example,
the motor in a clothes dryer turns the dryer drum. The energy required by
the dryer motor to turn the drum is called the dryer’s motor load.
Motor Overload - An electric motor for all its other fine qualities has no
intelligence and will literally work itself to death. If there is a heavy load on
a motor, say when the clothes dryer is full of clothes, the motor will try to
produce whatever torque is needed to keep the dryer drum turning.
Because the motor load may be increased above normal, a motor
overload condition exists. More torque is required from the motor to turn
the drum, so the motor draws more current to produce more energy. The
higher than normal current flow, which is above the FLC, increases the
temperature in the dryer motor. The electric motor could be damaged
when the temperature rises above its designed limit.
Motor Cooling - Whenever electrical current is passed through an

electrical motor there is a build-up of heat. The amount of heat produced
is a function of the work, or loading, done by the motor; the type of
electrical signal being sent to the motor; and the eventual changes due
to bearing wear and friction. Whenever AC drives are used to control
motors it means that the speed of the motor is going to be changed. And,
depending upon motor loading, special attention needs to be given to
how the motor is going to be cooled. Generally speaking, less speed
means less cooling.
Different motor cooling designs are available:
Many motors are sized for a particular application, or horsepower rating,

so that the heat produced from the current can be accepted and
dissipated by the metal content of the motor. Normal convection and
radiation dissipate the heat with the aid on an internal mixing fan. These
motors are classified as “open drip-proof” or “totally enclosed no
ventilated (TENV).”
Other electric motors incorporate a fan blade that rotates at the

same speed as the motor shaft. This fan blows air across the outside
of the motor, cooling it as it runs.
However, if an AC drive is used, the lower in speed the motor is
made to run, the slower the cooling fan will run also. This can result in
a build-up of heat in the motor. These motors are called “totally
enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC).”
Some types of motors use elaborate means for cooling. These are
called “totally enclosed water-to-air cooled,” “totally enclosed air
over,” and “totally enclosed unit cooled.” Obviously, the more

AC & DC Drives
complex the cooling method, the more expensive the actual motor
will be.
There are a couple of different strategies used for selecting a motor that
will be adequately cooled during operation:
Motor Nameplate Data
Squirrel cage motors, like any other type of electrical equipment, require
proper application for successful operation. Understanding the nameplate
information, which identifies the motor’s important features and
characteristics, will aid considerably in proper application.
A nameplate is attached to each AC motor and includes information

such as:
• Full load speed

• Torque ratings
• Type of enclosure
• Type of insulation
• Temperature Rise Rating
• Service Factor
• Time Rating
• Locked Rotor KVA

AC & DC Drives
2.3 SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR
The speed of an induction motor can be shown as follows;
120 f1
N (1-S)
P
Thus in order to vary the speed, any one of the above three parameters f1,
P and S should be altered. The rotor speed of a three-phase slip-ring motor
can be controlled either by varying the frequency of the supply keeping
the voltage-to-frequency ratio constant or by controlling the power flow in
the rotor circuit. The rotor-circuit power flow can be controlled by the
following methods:
1. By inserting an adjustable external resistance in the rotor

2. By varying the stator supply voltage
3. By injecting a voltage of slip frequency in the rotor circuit
4. By the recovery of the slip power
However, the speed of a squirrel-cage motor can be controlled either by

varying the stator supply voltage or by varying the supply frequency. The
pole-changing method is also adopted in this case.
Speed Control by External Resistance in Rotor Circuit
The speed control of an induction motor by an adjustable resistance in the

rotor circuit is fairly similar to that of a dc shunt motor by a resistance in the
armature circuit. The critical slip, at which the torque becomes maximum,
varies directly as the value of the rotor resistance. The torque-speed
characteristic of an induction motor for various rotor resistances is shown in
following figure;
R23 R22 R21 T
R21 < R22 < R23

Slip
t O
Figure 2.9

AC & DC Drives
Torque slip or speed characteristic of an induction motor for a different
value of rotor resistance Speed Control by Change of Number of Poles
It is clear that altering the number of poles may change the speed of the
induction motor. The number of poles can be changed only in steps by
changeover switches. The number of steps is limited to two, three or a
maximum of four because of the complexity of switch-connection.
Dividing the stator phase winding into two, three or four equal parts does
the pole changing.
Leads are taken out from the windings and the windings are connected
either in series or parallel by changeover switches. If the number of poles is
halved, the synchronous speed is doubled. In practice, changes are
generally made from single-star to double star or from single-delta to
double star for two speed machines.
Speed Control by Variation of Stator Voltage
It has already been discussed that torque is produced in the rotor of the
induction motor due to the interaction of the rotating field with the current
induced in the rotor by the field itself. This torque accelerates the rotor till
the final speed of the rotor is reached. The rotor speed is somewhat less
than the synchronous speed. The rotor torque should be sufficiently large
to cater to the load torque and the rotating field experiences this same
torque. Thus there is a power difference between the stator input power
and the rotor output power. This power difference is called the slippage
power and in the case of a squirrel-cage motor the slippage power equal
to (ws - w) T is dissipated in the rotor. It is known that the motor torque is
proportional to square of the supply voltage at a constant value of the
supply frequency and the slip. In the steady state the motor torque
becomes equal to the load torque. Therefore, the slip becomes a function
of the supply voltage and load torque. If the supply voltage is reduced,
both the speed and the maximum available torque reduce. Thus the
speed of the three-phase induction motor can be controlled smoothly by
the variation of the supply voltage. The range of the controlled speed
may be quite large for variable-torque loads, such as a fan load, but a
constant torque cannot be maintained for a wide speed range.
Increasing the rotor resistance and thus modifying the torque-speed
characteristics can increase the speed-controlled range. However, there
are other difficulties, such as the heating of the stator and rotor at a
reduced speed. If the rotor speed is controlled without controlling the
synchronous speed the slippage power increases raising the temperature
of the rotor.

AC & DC Drives
Slip Power Recovery System
This is basically a system by which the speed of a wound-rotor ac motor is

controlled. The speed of such a machine can be controlled either by
varying the supply frequency of the stator voltage or by controlling the
power flow in the rotor circuit.
It has been discussed earlier that the power delivered to the rotor across
the air-gap is equal to the mechanical power delivered to the load and
the rotor copper loss. In this method initially Motor is started at Liquid Rotor
Starter or Grid resistance starter. Speed is monitored continuously and
when motor reaches around 70% of full speed changeover from LRS or
GRS to SPRS take place. There is existence of induced rotor voltage which
is first converted to DC using rectifier bridge and after that it passes
through Choke and applied at the input of inverter thyristorised bridge,
which is converting DC to Ac voltage of 50 hz frequency. In last stage it is
step up to main voltage terminal and fed back to mains.
Figure 2.10

AC & DC Drives
2.4 PRINCIPLE OF SPEED CONTROL
As discussed, the speed of rotor is decided by the synchronous speed and

synchronous speed, in turn is decided by the frequency of supply and
number of poles for which the motor is wound.
Thus to electrically vary the speed the following two methods are
available
1> vary the frequency of supply given to the motor.

2> change the number of poles for which the motor is wound.
The first method will provide step-less variation whereas the latter will
provide variation in steps.
Step-less Variation Stepped Variation

Figure 2.11
There is a limitation with regard to the possible number of steps using pole
changing Method. Generally 2 to 4 speeds are feasible.
Torque Speed Characteristics
The torque in any motor primarily depends upon motor flux and rotor
current. In order to maintain torque producing capability of the motor at
rated value at all speeds then we need to keep flux in the motor constant
at rated value at all speeds. The rotor current will then be totally
dependent on the torque demanded by the load i.e. more load or load
toque requirement more will be rotor current, less load or load or load
torque requirement less will be the rotor current.

AC & DC Drives
The following figure shows the relationship between torque and speed at
different supply frequencies. The figure also shows some important
aspects related to the behavior of the motor.
Torque
Ns1 Ns2 Ns3 Speed
Figure 2.12
The above curves are true only if the flux in the motor is kept constant
irrespective of frequency.
Conventional method for speed variation
By using belt and pulley or using gears one can make the machine shaft
to rotate at different speeds although the driving motor runs more or less
at constant speed This conventional method does not give step-less
variation of speed; it makes the machine bulky and heavy, needs
maintenance and is NOT energy efficient.
3 different Machine Shaft

speeds
Constant speeds Motor
Figure 2.13

AC & DC Drives
Speed variation by varying frequency only
Theoretically speaking we shall get variable speed at the motor shaft.

V
It is very clear from the relation, φα ------- that if we reduce frequency, flux
will increase f
And if we increase frequency the flux will reduce. Also keep in mind that
the torque level is decided by the flux.
If we are unable to maintain the flux constant then torque level will also
vary with frequency and the motor will not be able to provide the desired
torque at all speeds.
There is also another danger at low speeds. At low frequency the

inductive opposition of the winding will be very low (XL = 2∏fL) and will
therefore result in motor winding drawing excessively high current which
may result in burning of motor winding.
Speed variation by varying frequency and voltage
Along with frequency we need to vary the voltage. Also in the same
proportion i.e. if we make the frequency to half then voltage given to the
motor should also be halved. The electronic control should therefore
control power-switching devices in such a manner that we get a supply of
whose frequency as well as voltage can be varied. In this variation we
should keep the ratio of voltage to frequency constant.
To understand the necessity, we need to look at the torque equation of

induction motor.
We expect that the motor should be able to provide required torque,

maximum up to its rated torque at all the speeds.
The torque produced by the motor depends upon the flux and slip
frequency.
Further, the relationship between e.m.f. Induced in the rotor and motor flux
is as follows.
E = 4.44 x f x φ x Z
or
E
φ =
4.44 x f x Z
Where f is the frequency of supply and Z are number of conductors.

AC & DC Drives
Now to get rated torque at all speeds, we need to keep the flux at
constant level. 4.44 and Z ore constants and we vary frequency f to get
different speeds at motor shaft. To keep the flux constant we will have to
vary E (which is again dependent upon supply voltage V), keeping in view
that the ratio of V/F should be constant.
Speed control of AC Motor by varying input voltage:
Theoretically - yes. But ask yourself question: will the motor be able to
produce the rated torque? The answer is no. This is because if we reduce
voltage, the flux will reduce (since
V
φ α ------) And thereby motor's ability to produce torque up to its rated
ƒ level. This method is therefore not practical as we require
variable speed at the motor shaft and also the optimum torque
producing capability at all speeds.
2.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AC DRIVE
To achieve this one needs to first convert available AC supply (fixed

voltage, fixed frequency) into a fixed magnitude DC and then reconvert it
into AC of desired voltage and frequency.
+
Fixed V1 variable
Fixed ƒ Converter Inverter variable
AC Supply AC Supply
-
Power conversion
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15

AC & DC Drives
We can convert AC into DC by using electronic component called diode.
The diode has this peculiar characteristic that it allows the current to flow
only in one direction i.e. from its anode terminal to cathode. When current
tries to flow in the reverse direction it opposes the flow.
The circuits called as rectifier circuit use this property to convert AC supply
into DC. The rectifier circuit shown below using 6 diodes is used for
converting 3 phase AC into DC and the inverter section at the right hand
convert this DC power in to variable AC supply desired to control AC
motor.
Principle of AC Drive Operation
Standard AFDs are of the pulse width modulated (PWM) design type.
Figure 15 is a block diagram of a typical PWM drive. The diode bridge
rectifier receives AC utility power and pro-vides fixed voltage DC power to
the DC bus. Since the inverter section is powered from a fixed voltage
source, the amplitude of the output waveform is fixed. Using the solid-state
inverter switches to modulate the width of zero voltage intervals in the
output waveform controls the effective value of the output voltage. Figure
16 shows the output voltage and current waveforms for the PWM inverter.
Block Diagram for a Typical PWM Drive
Figure 2.16

AC & DC Drives
Figure 2.17
Principles of Adjustable Frequency Motor Operation
Torque-Speed Curves
The operating speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of

the power source and the number of poles created by the stator
windings. Figure 17 shows the torque-speed curve for a standard NEMA
design B motor. The no-load, or synchronous speed is given by
Synchronous rpm = 120 x Frequency / Number of Motor Poles.
The actual operating speed is the synchronous speed minus slip. Slip is
typically 3 % of base speed for a design B motor
Figure 2.18

AC & DC Drives
Figure 2.19 shown a family of ideal speed-torque curves for a motor
powered from an adjustable frequency power source. The figure shows a
series of identical curves with different synchronous speeds corresponding
to various operating frequencies. Each curve has the same value of
breakdown torque and the same value of slip rpm at any given operating
torque level. The normal operating portions of the curves are shown as a
series of parallel solid lines. Motors operated from an AFD are normally
never operated on the dotted portion of the curve.
Figure 2.19
Volts per Hertz Regulation
In order for the motor to

operate with the desired
torque vs. speed curve at
each operating
frequency, it is necessary
to apply the optimum
voltage to the motor at
each frequency. As
mentioned previously, the
characteristics of the
Figure 2.20
motor require the voltage
to be regulated in proportion to the frequency to provide a constant ratio
of voltage to frequency. However, the constant volt per hertz
requirements applies not to the motor terminals, but to a theoretical point
inside the motor. The voltage inside the motor is often called the air gap
voltage. The difference between the air gap voltage and the terminal
voltage is the IR voltage drop across the internal resistance as shown in
Figure 2.20.

AC & DC Drives
Assume that the optimum motor terminal voltage is at 460 volts when the
motor is operating at 60 Hz at full load. If the motor's full load current is 40
amps, and the internal resistance is 1 ohm, the IR drop is 40 volts and the
air gap voltage is 420 volts, or 7 volts per hertz. If full torque is required
when the motor is operating at 6 Hz, the motor current will be 40 amps
since current is proportional to torque. This means that the voltage drop
across the resistance will be 40 volts the same as for 60 Hz operations. The
voltage required at the air gap is 7 V/Hz, or 42 volts. The voltage required
at the motor terminals is the sum of the air gap voltage and the IR drop, or
82 volts (13.67 V/Hz).
This means that a significant V/Hz

"boost" is required if the motor is to
produce full torque at low speed. Since
the required boost voltage depends
on individual motor and load
characteristics, an adjustment is usually
pro-vided for setting the boost
adjustment. A high boost level can
lead to an excessive motor current
under light load conditions.
Figure 2.21
Vector controlled drive technologies
Two other drive technologies are in use to provide precise control of motor
speed and torque. The first is the flux or open loop vector drive, also
known in the industry as a Sensor less Vector drive. The name refers to the
increased performance without using a sensing device for motor rotor
feedback. This drive models the motor's characteristics to estimate the
motor's rotor flux and angular position between the flux and the stator
current. See Figure 2.22. By dynamically regulating the magnitude of the
stator current and its phase relationship with respect to the stator voltage,
it improves both speed regulation and response by 10:1 over volts per
Hertz control. While this drive has the advantage of not requiring a motor
mounted encoder, its performance is reduced at or near zero speed. The
second type of drive is the field oriented or closed loop vector drive. This
drive control also requires stator current sensing for accurate torque
control.
This allows a 10:1 improvement in performance over the open loop vector
drive. The drive provides zero speed torque control and smooth transitions
from forward to reverse operation under load.

AC & DC Drives
Figure 2.22
AC Drive Performance
Operator Control and Interface
Operator controls are often via the drive keypad. In other situations, an
operator station or remote control may be desired. If these requirements
cannot be achieved by remotely mounting the keypad, terminal blocks
with digital and analog interface capability are provided.
Acceleration and Deceleration
AFDs are always equipped with adjustable acceleration and deceleration

control. Acceleration and deceleration rates must be adjusted to suit the
characteristics of the load to prevent shutdown due to over current or
over voltage. Increasing acceleration or deceleration times will
proportionally decrease the torque requirement.

AC & DC Drives
Speed Range
The characteristics of the motor usually determine the speed range or an

AC drives. The AFD output frequency range is usually wider than the range
that can be effectively utilized by the motor.
Speed Regulation
The open loop speed regulation of an AC drive is deter-mined by the

motor slip. Since NEMA design B motor usually have 3 % slip or less, at 60 Hz
and rated load the speed regulation of the drive is 3 %. AFDs equipped
with slip compensation or flux or vector control can provide speed
regulation, which is better than the open loop regulation of the motor. Slip
compensation and flux or vector control improves speed regulation by
increasing and decreases. Further improvement in steady state speed
regulation can be obtained by using a tachometer generator to pro-vide
speed feedback to a closed loop speed regulator option, or an external
device such as the Durant Strider.
Service Deviation
Speed regulation specifies only that portion of the drive speed change,
which is directly caused by a change in load. Several other factors can
cause unintended changes in the drive operating speed. These factors
contribute to the drive's service deviation. Table 2 lists some of these
factors and the typical effect they have on drive speed.
Influencing Factor Typical Speed

Change
Line voltage variations within rated tolerance. 0.0 %
Ambient temperature variation of controller within 0.25 %

rated tolerance after warm up.
Motor temperature variations. Cold to maximum 0.5 %

operating temperature.
Current Limit
If an AC drive was not equipped with current limit, the over current trip
circuits would shut down the drive should the motor draw excessive
current due to an overload or too rapid an acceleration rate. Current limit
provides a means of maintaining control of the drive under these
conditions. If the output current reaches the current limit setting while the
drive is running at set speed, the drive will decelerate to a lower speed. If
possible, the speed will decrease to whatever operating speed is required
to pre-vent exceeding the current limit setting. If the output current
AC & DC Drives
reaches the current limit setting while the drive is accelerating, the drive
will deviate from the programmed acceleration ramp and accelerate at
a rate, which will prevent the current from exceeding the set limit. If the
drive reaches the negative current limit setting (if applicable) while the
drive is decelerate a rate, which will try to prevent the current from
exceeding the limit.
Regeneration Limit and Braking
The AC drive will inherently develop braking torque when the frequency is
reduced to decelerate the motor, or when there is an overhauling load.
When the motor is producing braking torque, it is operating as an
induction generator. This means that the motor is receiving power from the
load and returning the power to the source. If a drive receives energy
regenerated by the motor, the energy appears as a reversal of the DC
bus current. Since the standard input converter cannot accept reverse
current, the current flows into the DC bus filter capacitors. This charging
current causes the DC bus voltage to increase. If this process is allowed to
proceed, the AC drive will be damaged by DC bus voltage. AFDs must be
protected from DC bus over voltage due to regeneration. The minimum
protection is a DC bus over-voltage trip. If the AC drive is equipped with
regeneration limit circuitry, control of the drive can be maintained during
regeneration, and DC over voltage shutdown can be pre-vented. If
regeneration causes the DC bus voltage to rise during deceleration, the
drive will deviate from the programmed deceleration ramp and
decelerate at whatever rate is possible without generating excess bus
voltage. If an overhauling load causes regeneration, the drive will allow
the motor speed to increase above the set speed as required to prevent
excess regeneration.
Regeneration limit prevents the motor from developing braking torque

above a limit, which corresponds to the normal losses, which are inherent
in the motor and controller. When the drive is equipped with dynamic
braking, the motor is allowed to develop a higher level of braking torque.
The regenerated braking energy is dissipated in the dynamic braking
resistors. A fully regenerative drive includes circuitry, which returns the
regenerated braking energy to the power lines.
IR Compensation
A V/Hz AC drive can provide improved starting torque and low speed
overload capability if the lower speed voltage boost is changed
automatically to compensate for changing load conditions. This feature is
called IR compensation. Without IR compensation, it is difficult to achieve
the maximum possible motor torque because the voltage boost required
for maximum torque can cause the motor to saturate and draw excessive
current when it is lightly loaded. The IR compensation circuit senses the

AC & DC Drives
motor load and reduced the voltage boost when the motor is lightly
loaded.
A flux control AC drive can provide a similar result by modifying its

instantaneous voltage and frequency to allow the motor to develop the
torque for the load.
Braking
Braking provides a means of stopping an AC motor and can be

accomplished in several ways.
A. Dynamic Braking (AC Drives) – Since AC motor does not have separate
field excitation; dynamic braking is accomplished by continuing to excite
the motor from the drive. This causes a regenerative current to the drive's
DC intermediate bus circuit. The dynamic brake resistors are then placed
across the DC bus to dissipate the power returned. A transistor or other
power switch controlled by the drive usually switches the brake resistor.
B. Regenerative Braking – This is similar to dynamic braking, but is

accomplished electronically. The generated power is returned to the line
through the power converter.
C. Motor Mounted or Separately Mounted Spring Set Brake – This is a

positive action, mechanical, friction device. Normal configuration is such
that when the power is removed, the brake is set. This can be used as a
holding brake. (Note: a separately mounted brake is one, which is located
on some part of the mechanical drive train other than the motor).
D. Eddy-Current Brake – Eddy currents are generated in the brake drum to

produce braking torque for retarding or stopping shaft Rotation. Braking
torque is transmitted by the eddy-current principle when voltage is
applied to the brake coil, with the rate of shaft deceleration being
determined by the amount of excitation applied to the coil. Braking
torque which is a function of speed and brake coil excitation, is provided
throughout most of the speed range, but drops to zero as the shaft
approaches zero rpm. Therefore, this brake cannot serve as a holding
brake.
E. Friction Brake – An electromagnetic field is established between the

brake coil and armature assemblies only while the brake coil is energized.
Upon energizing the brake coil, these two assemblies are drawn together
and stop shaft rotation by friction. The rate of shaft deceleration is
determined by the amount of excitation applied to the coil as long as
excitation is holding brake.

AC & DC Drives
DC Dynamic Braking – A low DC voltage is applied to the AC motor stator
at low speed. Drive Selection
Selection Considerations
When selecting a drive and associated equipment for an application, the

following points should be considered.
Environment
The environment in which the motor and power conversion equipment

operates is of prime concern. Conditions such as ambient temperature,
cooling air supply and the presence of gas, moisture, and dust should all
be considered when choosing a drive, its enclosures and protective
features.
Speed Range
The minimum and maximum motor speeds for the application will
determine the drive's base speed.
Speed Regulation
When the operating cycle is such that the drive operates at idle, or a
reduced load for more than 25% of the time, the duty cycle becomes a
factor in selecting the proper drive.
Heating
The temperature of a motor or controller is a function of ventilation and

losses. Operating self-ventilated motors at reduced speeds may cause
above normal temperatures rises. Derating or forced ventilation may be
necessary to achieve the rated motor torque output at reduced speed.
Drive Type
Does the applications require performance elements such as quick speed

response or torque control? These may require the use of a flux vector or
closed loop vector drive, instead of a volt per hertz drive.
Selecting a Drive for Machine
The application of an adjustable speed drive to power a machine is a

mechanical, rather than an electrical problem. When applying the drive,
the speed-torque-horse-power characteristics developed at the motor's
shaft must be considered, and low well these characteristics suit the
machine.

AC & DC Drives
Four essential parameters are :
i. Breakaway Torque
ii. Process Torque
iii. Accelerating Torque
iv. Running Torque
No torque is developed which will slow the motor down quickly. No

braking torque exists if the shaft is at zero speed.
2.6 DRIVE SOFTWARE
Modern powerful microprocessors based digital Drives perform all control

in open and Closed-loop control functions. Controls are assigned through
the software as program modules that are "wired up" via parameters.
Product specific software are available to program drive for different
applications.
This simple and easy drive also provides flexibility with easy to install
options. Drive set-up is quick and convenient using Windows-based
configuration tool. The functions allow parameter cloning for fast
parameter storage and transfer, making it easy to add or replace drives
within your system. The software easily connects into your network with a
wide range of field bus protocols and operator interface options.
The product manufacturer provides specialized instructions to use their

software for parameterization of drive. It is advised to use the instructional
manual for programming of your drive.

AC & DC Drives
2.7 PARAMETERIZATION OF DRIVE
Parameterization device
Simple operator panel
All units provide a panel mounted in the converter door. Simense AC drive
feature a PMU panel mounted in the converter door .The PMU consists of a
five-digit, seven-segment display, three LEDs as status indicators and three
parameterization keys.
The PMU also features connector X300 with a USS
interface in compliance with the RS232 or RS485
standard.
The panel provides all the facilities required during
start-up for making adjustments or settings and
displaying measured values. The following functions
are assigned to the three panel keys:
• P(select)key Switches over between parameter
number and parameter value and vice versa,
acknowledges fault messages.
• UP key selects a higher parameter number in
parameter mode or raises the set and Figure 2.23
displayed parameter value in value mode.
Also selects a higher index on indexed parameters.
• DOWN key selects a lower parameter number in parameter mode
or reduces the set and displayed parameter value in value mode.
Also selects a lower index on indexed parameters.
LED functions
• Ready: Ready to operate, lights up in "Wait for operation enable"

state.
• Run: In operation, lights up when operation is enabled.
• Fault: Disturbance lights up in "Active fault" status, flashes when
"Alarm" is active.
The quantities output on the five-digit, seven-segment display are easy to

understand, e.g.
• Percentage of rated value, - servo gain factor,

• Seconds,
• Amperes or
• Volts.

AC & DC Drives
OP1S Extended operator panel
In Siemens make AC Drive the OP1 S optional extended operator panel

can be mounted either in the converter door or externally, e.g. in the
cubicle door. For this purpose, it can be connected up by means of a 5 m
long cable. Cables of up to 200 m in length can be used if a separate 5 V
supply is available. The OP1S is connected to the SIMOREG via connector
X300. The OP1S can be installed as an economic alternative to control
cubicle-measuring instruments which display physical measured
quantities.
The OP1S features an LCD with 4 x 16 characters for displaying parameter

names in plaintext. German, English, French, Spanish and Italian can be
selected as the display languages. The OP1 S can store parameter sets for
easy downloading to other devices.
Keys on OP1S:
• P (Select) key
• UP key
• DOWN key
• Reversing key (not functional on SIMOREG)
• ON key
• OFF key
• Inching key
• Numeric keys (0 to 9)
Figure 2.24
LEDs on OP1S:
• Green: Lights up in "Run", flashes in "Ready"

• Red: Lights up with "Fault", flashes with
"Alarm"
Figure 2.25

AC & DC Drives
PC as parameterization device:
PC with software and drive interface can be used as parameterization

device. The manufacturer supply drive with window based software.
Parameterization using PC is simple, easy and user friendly.
In the above example of Siemens drive, through the X300 a PC can

establish connector on the PMU communication via the Drive Monitor
program for parameterization, monitoring, troubleshooting, and control of
the converter.
All manufacturers supply Drive software along with the set of instructions
for programming .You are required to use these instructional manual.
2.8 TESTING OF DRIVE
To investigate the operation of AC drive consisting of a controller and a

AC Motor with load the drive will be tested initially with static load and
then with dynamic load.
You are required to connect motor with drive using instructions.
Connect the circuit and run the drive on following steps.
Step 1 : Put the external circuit breaker in OFF position. Hook up the
circuit.
Step 2 : Put circuit breaker on controller in OFF position.
Step 3 : Put RUN switch on controller in RUN position unless the motor
will run mode
Step 4 : Put START/STOP switch on controller in STOP position.
Step 5 : Put the speed dial on controller on (0) position.
Step 6 : Recheck the connection
Step 7 : Power on the external circuit breaker
Step 8 : Power on the circuit breaker on controller.
Step 9 : Switch the START/STOP switch to START position. AC motor

should start rotating with minimum speed.
Step 10 : Adjust the speed dial to run the motor in proper speed.

AC & DC Drives
PART A:
No-load Measurement
• The motor should be mechanically decoupled

voltage and current of AC motor, and armature.
• Connect lamp load across the output.
• Adjust the speed dial and observe the light intensity of lamp load.
your results in consultation with your instructor.
PART B:
Load Measurement
• The motor should be mechanically coupled with given dynamic

load.
voltage and current of AC motor, and armature.
• Adjust the speed dial and observe the results.
your results in consultation with your instructor
2.9 SAFETY INFORMATION
Important: Safety First – Do Not Rush
Warning:
During the experiments you will be working with both AC and DC voltage
whose magnitudes, in case of direct contact, are considered to be
dangerous. Follow all the safety rules. Do not work with both hands if you
are handing.
Live plugs, connections, any other components and/or equipment in
which there are exposed live parts. Make sure that the Test set-up has a
secure grounding connection. Re-check all the connections for
correctness and tightness before applying Power. Any changes of
connection must be done when the power is shut down
Drive Safety:
The manufacturer provides important Protection Circuits. For detailed

description and functions you are required to refer the product manual.

AC & DC Drives

AC & DC Drives
SELF ASSESSMENT TEST
1. The armature of a motor consists of ____ .
A. The housing and rotor

B. The shaft and stator
C. The stator and housing
D. The shaft and rotor
2. The magnetic fields of the stator and rotor are changed according
to the ___.
A. The current applied to the motor

B. Frequency of the AC voltage applied to the motor
C. The frequency of the current applied to the motor
D. The wattage applied to the motor
3. The speed of the rotor is determined by the ___ .

4. The difference between a motor’s synchronous and actual rotor

speed is called: _____ .
A. Variable torque
B. Dynamic speed
C. Slip
D. Magnetic flux
5. The torque a motor produces is directly related to ____ .


AC & DC Drives
6. The maximum torque that a motor can produce is called: _____ .
A. Full load torque

B. Constant torque
C. Breakdown torque
D. Overload toque
7. Match the components of an AC drive with their function:
Inverter A. This section smoothes rectified DC before it

goes to the next section.
DC bus filtering B. This section changes DC into an adjustable
frequency synthetic AC
Converter C. This section changes 60 Hz AC power into DC
8. Maintaining the volts per Hertz ratio is necessary because: _____ .
A. In order to accurately measure a given motor’s speed then the

ratio of both the voltage and frequency must be maintained.
B. When a motor is running at less than full speed maintaining this
ratio provides a method of keeping the magnetic flux
constant, thus producing full load-torque.
C. The voltage and frequency coming from the power
generating station may varies in both voltage and frequency.
D. The horsepower of the motor is dependent upon this ratio.
9. With a constant torque load: _____ .
A. Torque remains the same as the speed changes.

B. Horsepower varies inversely with the speed.
C. Torque remains the same as the current changes.
D. All of the above.
10. Match the parts of an AC motor with their correct description:
_____ Rotor A. External case that surrounds the

motor.
_____ Housing B. A metal rod mounted in the case and
supported by bearings.
_____ Stator C. A rotating iron core with wire windings.
It is attached to the shaft.
_____ Shaft D. A stationary iron core with wire
windings which is attached to the
case.
AC & DC Drives
11. Match the motor term with its definition
_____ Torque A. Speed is related to frequency and

torque is related to current.
_____ Synchronous Speed B. The difference between the rotating
magnetic field speed in the stator and
the rotor speed.
_____ Slip C. The force tending to rotate an object.
A turning force applied to a shaft,
tending to cause rotation.
_____ Torque vs speed D. The speed of an AC induction motor’s
relationship rotating magnetic field.
True or False:
12. _____ “Across the Line” starters (and contactors) control both AC
motor torque and speed.
13. _____ DC braking is when DC current is applied to the stator of an

AC motor when the stop button is pressed.
14. _____ One advantage of AC drives is that less expensive, off-the-

shelf AC motors (i.e., squirrel cage) that are easier to purchase and
maintain can be used for multispeed applications.
15. _____ Variable torque loads generally require low torque at low
speeds and higher torque at higher speeds.
16. _____ Examples of constant horsepower loads would be: fans,

blowers, and centrifugal pumps.
17. _____ If the Volts per Hertz Ratio is not maintained motor current
could become unstable and torque could diminish.
TURN TO NEXT PAGES FOR ANSWERS

AC & DC Drives
SELF ASSESSMENT TEST ANSWERS
1. The armature of a motor consists of D .

A. The housing and rotor
B. The shaft and stator
C. The stator and housing
D. The shaft and rotor
2. The magnetic fields of the stator and rotor are changed according
to the B .
3. The speed of the rotor is determined by the B .

4. The difference between a motor’s synchronous and actual rotor

speed is called the C .
A. Variable torque
B. Dynamic speed
C. Slip
D. Magnetic flux
5. The torque a motor produces is directly related to A .

6. The maximum torque that a motor can produce is called: C .

A. Full load torque
B. Constant torque
C. Breakdown torque
D. Overload toque
AC & DC Drives
7. Match the components of an AC drive with their function:
B Inverter A. This section smoothes rectified DC

before it goes to the next section.
A DC bus filtering B. This section changes DC into an
adjustable frequency synthetic AC
C Converter C. This section changes 60 Hz AC power
into DC
8. Maintaining the volts per Hertz ratio is necessary because: B .

A. In order to accurately measure a given motor’s speed then the
ratio of both the voltage and frequency must be maintained.
B. When a motor is running at less than full speed maintaining this
ratio provides a method of keeping the magnetic flux
constant, thus producing full load-torque.
C. The voltage and frequency coming from the power
generating station may varies in both voltage and frequency.
D. The horsepower of the motor is dependent upon this ratio.
9. With a constant torque load: A .

A. Torque remains the same as the speed changes.
B. Horsepower varies inversely with the speed.
C. Torque remains the same as the current changes.
D. All of the above.
10. Match the parts of an AC motor with their correct description:
C Rotor A. External case that surrounds the

motor.
A Housing B. A metal rod mounted in the case and
supported by bearings.
D Stator C. A rotating iron core with wire windings.
It is attached to the shaft.
B Shaft D. A stationary iron core with wire
windings which is attached to the
case.

AC & DC Drives
11. Match the motor term with its definition
C Torque A. Speed is related to frequency and

torque is related to current.
D Synchronous Speed B. The difference between the rotating
magnetic field speed in the stator and
the rotor speed.
B Slip C. The force tending to rotate an object.
A turning force applied to a shaft,
tending to cause rotation.
A Torque vs speed D. The speed of an AC induction motor’s
relationship rotating magnetic field.
True or False:
12. F “Across the Line” starters (and contactors) control both AC motor
torque and speed.
13. T DC braking is when DC current is applied to the stator of an AC

motor when the stop button is pressed.
14. T One advantage of AC drives is that less expensive, off-the-shelf AC

motors (i.e., squirrel cage) that are easier to purchase and maintain
can be used for multispeed applications.
15. T Variable torque loads generally require low torque at low speeds
and higher torque at higher speeds.
16. F Examples of constant horsepower loads would be: fans, blowers,

and centrifugal pumps.
17. T If the Volts per Hertz Ratio is not maintained motor current could
become unstable and torque could diminish.
EXERCISES
For developing proficiency in carrying out configurations

and applications of Drive it is advised to perform repeated
exercises under the guidance of the instructor

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AC & DC Drives

Select, connect and operate DC Drive for given applications

After completing this unit you will be able to :

Understand the working of DC Motor, its working principles.

Understand the principle of speed control of a DC Motor and its

Understand the principle of DC Drive.

Select, Connect & Program the DC Drive.

Operate, Test and Run the DC Drive.

Understand important safety rules.

CRISP Learning Material IATC 1

Most of the Production equipment used in modern industries consists of

A block diagram of a drive system is given below.

CRISP Learning Material IATC 2

• To get the speed variation as well as to have a good regulation at the

1.1 BASICS OF D.C. MOTOR

The DC Motor requires electrical energy in 'DC' form.

Typical features of DC Motor are as follows:

CRISP Learning Material IATC 3

• Normally in industries where speed variation and control are desired,

• Let us see the basic equations of D.C. motor.

• The figure above indicates typical configuration of a separately

• VT is terminal voltage applied to the armature.

• Ia the current following through the armature winding.

• Ra is the resistance of armature winding.

• Vf is voltage applied to the field winding.

• If is current flowing through field winding.

• If will produce magnetic flux = Ф.

• When current If flows through armature winding it will also produce

• Rotation of armature in the magnetic field will induce back e.m.f.

• Considering the dynamic condition we can write the following

1.2 PRINCIPLE OF SPEED CONTROL

• Normally Ra is a very low value and therefore Ia Ra drop can be

• Hence is nearly equal to Eb.

• We can say that N α VT i.e. voltage applied to armature.

• Thus by varying terminal voltage VT we can vary the speed of the

• Since rated armature voltage of the motor is the limitation of VT, we

• Thus by weakening the flux Ф we can increase the speed even

• Thus the two possible methods of speed variations are

a> Armature control method wherein the voltage applied to

CRISP Learning Material IATC 5

• In a variable speed D.C. drive wherein there is no provision for

a> Fluctuations in input supply voltage.

b> Fluctuations in load on the motor.

• Let us first analyze the effect of fluctuations in input supply voltage

• Any change in voltage supplied to armature causes the speed of

• Let us now analyze the effect of fluctuations in load on the speed of

CRISP Learning Material IATC 6

∗ The following graph illustrates this effect.

CRISP Learning Material IATC 7

Typical Characteristics Curve

The following graph shows the relationship of power, armature current,

1.3 LOAD: TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

The process of selecting an electrical adjustable speed drive is one where

⇒ What type of load is associated with the application?

Motor Load Types

Constant Torque Load

This type of load is frequently encountered. In this group, the torque

As seen in Figure 1.7, torque remains constant while horsepower is directly

CRISP Learning Material IATC 9

In this type of load, the horsepower demanded by the load is constant

Figure 1.8 shows the constant horsepower and variable torque

CRISP Learning Material IATC 10

With this type of load, the torque is directly proportional to some