CLASS 12 - MATHEMATICS

FORMULA BOOK
FOR
CBSE BOARD
 2x 
RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS sin 1  2
–1
  2 tan x, x  1
 1 x 
 Relations
 1  x2 
Cartesian Product of Sets cos 1    2 tan –1 x, x  0
A × B = {(x, y) : x A, y B}  1  x2 
 
 Functions
A function f : X  Y is one-one (injection)
tan 
1 2x

1 x 2
 2 tan –1 x, x  1

if f (x) = f (y) x = y or x  y f (x)  f (y)

A function f : X  Y is onto (surjection) if to
 
sin–1 x  sin–1 y  sin 1 x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 ,
x  –1, y  1
each y Y, there exists x X such that f (x) = y.
f is invertible f is one-one onto (Bijection)

cos–1 x  cos–1 y = cos–1 xy  1  x 2 1  y 2 , 
x  –1, y  1
The number of functions from a finite set A to
n( A )
a finite set B n ( B ) MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
The number of one-one functions that can be  Transpose of a Matrix
defined from a finite set A to a finite set B is Let A = [a ij]m × n matrix. Then the transpose of
n(B)
Pn( A ) if n ( B) n ( A ) and 0, otherwise. A, denoted by A T or A , is an n × m matrix
 If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and such that AT = [aji]n × m i = 1, 2,....., m and
transitive then the relation is an equivalence j = 1, 2,...., n .
relation. Thus, AT is obtained from A by changing its
rows into columns and its columns into rows.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRY FUNCTIONS  Properties of Transpose
Let A and B be two matrices. Then
 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions (i) (A T )T = A
 (ii) (A + B )T = AT + B T, where A and B being of the
sin 1 x  cos1 x  , x  1
2 same order.
1 1  (iii) (kA)T = kAT, k be any scalar (real or complex)
tan x  cot x  , x  R
2
 (iv) (AB)T = BTAT, A and B being conformable for
sec1 x  cosec1 x  , x  1 the product AB. (Reversal law).
2 (v) (ABC)T = CT B T AT.
sin 1 ( x)   sin 1 x, x  1  Some Special Matrices
Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A = [a ij]
cos 1 (  x)    cos 1 x, x  1
is called a symmetric matrix if a ij = aji for all
tan 1 ( x )   tan 1 x , x  R i, j .
Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix
 x y  A = [ a ij ] is a skew-symmetric matrix if
tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1  , xy  1
 1  xy  aij = – aji for all i, j .
Orthogonal matrix : A square matrix A is called
 x y 
tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1   , xy  1 an orthogonal matrix if AAT = A T A = I .
 1  xy 
 Equivalent matrices : Two matrices A and B
are equivalent if one can be obtained from
the other by a sequence of elementary row
transformations.
 Invertible Matrices
If A is a square matrix of order n and if there
exists another square matrix B of the same
order n, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called
the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by
A–1. In that case A is said to be invertible.
 Uniqueness of inverse
Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same
order, then (AB)–1 = B–1 A –1.
 Inverse of a Matrix by Elementary
Operations
To find A –1 using elementary row
operations,write A = IA and apply a sequence
of row (column) operations on A = IA till we
get, I = BA. The matrix B will be the inverse
of A .
 Properties of Determinant
(i) det In = 1, where In is unit/identity matrix of
order n .
(ii) det On = 0, O is null matrix (square matrix of
any order).
(iii) A = (aij)n × n then |A| = |A| {Reflection Property}.
(iv) det (AB) = det Adet B, where A & B are matrices
of same order.
(v) det (kA) = k n det A , if A is of order n × n .
(vi) det (An) = (det A ) if n  I +.
(vii) |A| = 0 iff
(a) Any two rows or columns are identical.
(b) Any two rows or columns are in
proportion.
(c) Each element of any row/column is zero.
(viii)If each element of a row/column of a
determinant is multiplied by k then value of
new determinant is k times the original
determinant.
(ix) Determinant of a diagonal matrix is the product
of its diagonal elements.
(x) If two rows/columns of a determinant are
interchanged, then the determinant retains its
absolute value but its sign is changed.
(xi) If each element of a row/column of a
determinant is expressed as a sum of two or
more terms, then determinant can be expressed
as the sum of two or more determinants.
(xii) If any row/column of a determinant, a multiple
of another row/column is added, then the value
of determinant does not change.
(xiii) The sum of product of the elements of any
row/column of a determinant with cofactors
of the corresponding elements of any other
row/column is zero.
 Application of Determinants
Area of triangle with vertices A ( x 1 , y 1 ),
x1 y1 1
1
x2 y2 1 .
B(x 2, y 2) and C (x 3, y 3) is given by
2
x3 y3 1
If area is zero then three points are collinear.
 Minors and Cofactors
Minor of aij in |A| : The minor of an element
a ij in | A | is defined as the value of the
determinant obtained by deleting the ith row
and jth column of |A |, and it is denoted by
M ij.
Cofactor of aij in |A| : The cofactor Cij of an
element aij is defined as Cij = (–1)i + j M ij.
 Adjoint of a Matrix
Adjoint of a matrix A = (aij)n × n is defined as
adj A = [C ji]n × n, where
Cij represents cofactor of aij in | A|.
 Properties of Adjoint of a Matrix
For every square matrix
A(adj A) = (adj A)A = | A |·I .
If | A| = 0 matrix A is called singular else non-
singular.
If A and B are non singular matrices of the
same order, then AB and BA are also non
singular matrices of same order.
(adj AB ) = (adj B)·(adj A )
(adj A) = adj A .
Let A be n × n matrix, then
(i) adjA = An–1
(ii) adj(adjA) = An–2A
2
(iii) adj(adjA) = A(n–1)
 Inverse of a Matrix
A non-zero matrix A of order n is said to be
invertible if there exists a square matrix B of
order n such that AB = BA = I . We say
A–1 = B .
A matrix A is invertible if |A |  0.
1
A 1   (adj A).
| A|
If AB = AC  B = C if | A |  0.
 (AB )–1 = B –1A –1. (i) If | A|  0, the system is consistent and has
T –1 –1 T
(A ) = ( A ) . one unique solution.
If A is an invertible symmetric matrix then (ii) If | A| = 0 and (adj A)B  0, then the system
A–1 is also symmetric. is inconsistent so it has no solution.
 Solution of System of Linear Equations (iii) If |A| = 0 and (adj A)B = 0, then the system is
Let AX = B be the given system of equations : consistent but has infinitely many solutions.

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

Continuity

Continuity of a Function Definitions

1. At a point f(x) is continuous at x = a if lim f ( x) lim f ( x) f ( a).

x a x a

2. In an interval (i) Open interval : f(x) is continuous at every point of (a, b).
(ii) Closed interval : f(x) is continuous in (a, b) and right &
left continuous at a & b.
Discontinuity of a Function
1. At a point If f(x) is not continuous at x = a.
2. In an interval If f(x) is not continuous at atleast one point in an interval.
Types of Discontinuity
1. Removable discontinuity Either f(a) does not exist or f ( x) lim f ( x)
x a

2. Non-removable discontinuity (i) First kind: If xlima f ( x) lim f ( x)

x a

(ii) Second kind: If xlima f ( x) or xlima f ( x) or both do not exist.

Differentiability
Differentiablity of a function
1. At a point f(x) is differentiable at x = c if
f ( c h) f ( c ) f ( c h) f (c)
lim lim or Lf (c) = R f (c)
x
h
c h
0
h x
h
c h
0
h

2. In an interval (i) Open interval: If f (x) is differentiable at every point of

(a, b).(ii) Closed interval: If f (x) is differentiable in (a, b) and also
at a and b.

Derivative
Derivative of a function
f ( x h) f ( x)
1. Left Hand Derivative (L.H.D.) Lf (x) = lim
h 0 h
f ( x h) f ( x)
2. Right Hand Derivative (R.H.D.) Rf (x) = lim , If Lf (x) = Rf (x), then f (x) exists.
h 0 h
3. Properties of derivative (i) (u ± v) = u ± v
(ii) (uv) = uv + uv (Product rule)

u u v uv
(iii) , v  0 (Quotient rule)
v v2
Derivatives of Important Functions
Function Derivative Function Derivative Function Derivative
xn nx n–1 sin x cos x cos x – sin x
tan x sec2 x cot x – cosec2 x sec x sec x tan x
cosec x – cosec x cot x eax aeax ex ex
1 1 1
, x ( 1,1) , x ( 1,1)
sin–1 x (1 x)2
cosec–1 x , cos–1 x
x x 2
1 1 x2
x  R – [–1, 1]

1 1 1
,
tan–1 x , x  (– , ) sec–1 x x x2 1 cot–1 x , x  (– , )
1 x2 1 x2
x  R – [–1, 1]
1 1
log e x ax ax loge a loga x
x x log e a

Some kind of derivatives

1. Composite function (Chain rule) (i) Let y = f (t) and t = g(x). Then dy dy dt
dx dt dx
(ii) Let y = f (t), t = g(u) and u = h(x). Then dy dy dt du
dx dt du dx
dy dy / dt g (t )
2. Parametric function If x = f (t) and y = g(t). Then , f (t ) 0
dx dx / dt f (t )
dy
3. Second order derivative Let y = f (x), then f ( x). If f (x) is differentiable,
dx
d dy d2 y
then f ( x) or f ( x)
dx dx dx2
4. Logarithmic If y = u v, u and v are functions of x, then log y = v log u.
d v v du dv
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get (u ) uv log u
dx u dx dx
5. Implicit function Here we differentiate the given function using
d d dy
( ( y ))
dx dy dx
Mean Value Theorems
1. Rolle’s theorem If f (x) is defined on [a, b] such that it is (i) continuous on [a, b]
(ii) differentiable on (a, b) and
(iii) f (a) = f (b), then there exists at least one c  (a, b) such that f (c) = 0
Geometrical meaning The tangent at point c on the curve is parallel to x-axis.
2. Lagrange’s mean value If f (x) is defined on [a, b] such that it is
theorem (i) continuous on [a, b] (ii) differentiable on (a, b) and
(iii) f (a)  f (b), then there exists at least one c  (a, b) such that
f ( b) f ( a )
f (c) =
b a
Geometrical meaning The tangent at point c on the curve = f (x) is parallel to the chord joining
end points of the curve.
 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 1
y – y1 = ( x x1 )
f ( x1 , y1 )
 Rate of Change of Quantity
dy
dy Slope of tangent = tan ,  is angle made
For y = f (x), denotes rate of change of y dx
dx by tangent positive x-axis.
w.r.t. x.
Angle between two curves is given by
If x = f (t), y = g(t), then dy dy dt is rate of m1 m2
dx dt dx tan , where m1 and m2 are slopes
change of y w.r.t. x. 1 m1m2
 Tangents and Normals of tangents to two curve at point of intersection.
The slope of the tangent to y = f (x) at (x 1, y 1) Approximations and Errors
dy
If y = f (x) then y = f (x) x where
is dx or f (x1, y1) and slope of the normal y = f (x + x) – f (x) and x is error in x and
( x1 , y1 )
y is corresponding error in y.
is
(i) Absolute error : x is absolute error is x.
1 1
or
dy f ( x1 , y1 ) x
(ii) Relative error : is the relative error..
dx x
( x1 , y1 )

The tangent equation at (x1, y1) is x

(iii) Percentage error : x 100 is the percentage
y – y1 = f (x1, y1) (x – x 1) and
normal equation at (x1, y1) is error.

Increasing and Decreasing Function

1. Without derivative test in (i) Increasing function: If x 1 < x 2  f (x1)  f (x2) for all x 1, x2 (a, b)
(a, b) (ii) Strictly increasing function: If x1 < x 2  f (x1) < f (x 2) for all x 1,
x2 (a, b)
(iii) Decreasing function: If x1 < x2  f (x1)  f (x2) for all x1, x2 (a, b)
(iv) Strictly decreasing function: If x1 < x 2  f (x1) > f (x 2) for all
x1, x2 (a, b)
2. First derivative test in (a, b) (i) Increasing function: If f (x)  0 for all x (a, b)
(ii) Strictly increasing: If f (x) > 0 for all x (a, b)
(iii) Decreasing: If f (x)  0 for all x (a, b)
(iv) Strictly decreasing: If f (x) < 0 for all x (a, b)
3. Critical or Stationary point The value of x for which f (x) = 0

Maxima and Minima

Maximum f(x) has maximum at x = c, if f (c)  f (x) in neighbourhood of c.
Minimum f(x) has minimum at x = c, if f(c)  f(x) is neighbourhood of c.
Local maxima If f (x) < f (c) x in the given interval.
Local minima If f (c) < f (x) x in the given interval.
Absolute maxima If f (x)  f (c) x in domain of f(x).
Absolute minima If f (x)  f (c) x in domain of f(x).
 Without derivative test
Maximum If f (c) > f (x) x, c  I, then f (x) has maximum value in I and c is point
of maxima.
Minimum If f (c) < f (x) x, c  I, then f (x) has minimum value in I and c is point
of minima.
First derivative test
Local maximum If f (x) changes sign from + ve to – ve as x increases through c.
Local minimum If f (x) changes sign from – ve to + ve as x increases through c.
Point of inflection If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c.
Second derivative test
Local maximum If f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0, then f (x) has local maxima at c.
Local minimum If f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0, then f (x) has local minima at c.

INTEGRALS & DIFFERENTIAL (i) tan x dx log|sec x | c log|cos x | c

EQUATIONS (ii) cot x dx log|cosec x | c log|sin x | c
 Some Fundamental Integrals (iii) sec x dx log|sec x tan x | c
n 1
x
(i) x n dx c , where n 1 (iv) cosec x dx log|cosec x cot x | c
n 1
x
1 log tan c
(ii) dx log e | x | c , where x 0 2
x
 Some special integrals
(iii) e x dx ex c
dx 1 x
(i) tan 1 c
x a x x 2
a 2
a a
(iv) a dx c , where a 0
log e a dx 1 x a
(ii) log c
(v) sin x dx cos x c x2 a2 2a x a

cos x dx sin x c
dx 1 a x
(vi) (iii) log c
a2 x2 2a a x
2
(vii) sec x dx tan x c dx
(iv) log x x2 a2 c
(viii) cosec x dx
2
cot x c x2 a2
dx 1 x
(ix) sec x tan x dx sec x c (v) sin c ,| x | | a |
a 2
x 2 a
(x) cosec x cot x dx cosec x c dx 2 1 2 ax b
(vi) tan
2 2
dx ax bx c 4 ac b 4 ac b 2
(xi) sin 1 x c or cos 1 x c , where
1 x2  To evaluate integrals of type
|x| < 1 lx m
(i) dx , where l 0, a 0
1 ax 2 bx c
(xii) dx tan 1 x c or cot 1 x c
1 x2
1 lb
1 Take lx m (2 ax b) m
(xiii) dx sec 1 x c or cos ec 1x c 2a 2a
x x2 1
lx m
 Some standard integrals using the above (ii) dx , where l 0, a 0
2
relations are shown below : ax bx c
 Put z2 = ax 2 + bx + c,  To evaluate integral of the type
dz (2ax b) x2 A
so that 2 z 2 ax b or dz dx (i) dx
4 2
dx 2z x kx A2
dx Divide numerator and denominator by x 2 and
(iii) , put ax b z 2 A
( lx m) ax b substitute x u, A being any positivee
x
dx 1 constant.
(iv) , put lx m x2 A
(lx m) ax 2 bx c z (ii) dx
(v) x kx 2 A 2
4

dx 1 Divide numerator and denominator by x 2 and

, put ax 2 b xz r x A
(lx 2 m) ax 2 b z substitute x t ; A being positive constant.
x
 Integration by parts 2
ax bx c
(iii) dx
(I II) dx I II dx
d
(I) II dx dx c px 2 qx r
dx put ax 2 bx c l( px 2 qx r )
Choice of Ist function and IInd function depends d
m ( px 2 qx r ) n
on order of letters in the word ILATE dx
I Inverse function Find l, m and n by equating coefficients of like
powers of x and then split the integral into three
L  Logarithmic function integrals.
A Algebraic function
 Trigonometric integrals
T Trigonometric function a sin x b cos x
E  Exponential function dx
c sin x d cos x
 A special integral Put a sinx + b cosx = L (Denominator) +
M (Derivative of denominator)
e x f ( x) f ( x) dx f ( x) e x c
Note : (1) To evaluate the integration of the forms
 Partial Fractions and their uses in integration. dx dx dx
, , ,
p( x) a 2 sin 2 x b2 cos2 x a b sin 2 x a b cos 2 x
If the integrand is a rational function, dx dx
q( x) and
(i) If degree (p(x)) < degree (q(x)) ( a sin x b cos x)2 a b sin 2 x c cos 2 x
Step 1 : Divide by cos2x in each case.
mx n dx
i.e., f ( x ) , a  b then we write Step 2 : Put tan x = t, we get the form
( x a)( x b) at 2 bt c
for which the method to evaluate is already
mx n A B
, A and B being discussed.
( x a )( x b) x a x b (2) To evaluate integrals of the form
constants. dx dx
(i) (ii)
(ii) If degree (p(x)) = degree (q(x)) or degree a sin x b cos x a b sin x
(p(x)) > degree (q(x)) of non-repeated linear dx dx
(iii) (iv)
mx 2 nx l a b cos x a sin x b cos x c
factors, i.e., f ( x) , a  b then wee
( x a)( x b) For all the cases (i), (ii), (iii) & (iv), take universal
x
mx 2 nx l A B x 2 tan
write m substitution tan = t and sin x = 2 ,
( x a)( x b) x a x b 2 2 x
x 1 tan
(iii) If denominator q(x) contains linear factors, 2
1 tan 2
some of which are repeated, i.e., integrand is of cos x = 2 are used. This substitution
x
p( x) 1 tan 2
the form , then we write the 2
( x a)( x b) 2 convert the integrals in the form
A B C dt
integrand as and to evaluate such integral,
x a x b ( x b) 2 at 2 bt c
method is already discussed.
 Properties of Definite Integrals given, then a differential equation is obtained
as follows :
(i) f ( x) dx f (t ) dt (i) Differentiate the given equation w.r.t. the
independent variable (say x)as many times
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx as the number of arbitrary constants in it.
(ii)
(ii) Eliminate the arbitrary constants.
(iii) The eliminant is the required differential
(iii) (a) f ( x) dx f ( x ) dx f ( x) dx , equation.
 Methods of solving the first order and first
c1 c2
degree differential equation
(b) f ( x) dx f ( x) dx f ( x) dx ... f ( x) dx, Type (1) : Differential equation of the form
c1 cn
 < c 1< c 2< c 3 ...... < c n-1 < c n<  dy
f ( x)
dx
(iv) f ( x) dx f( x) dx To solve such type of equations we do the
dy
0 0
following : f(x) dy = f(x) dx ......(A)
dx
(v) f ( x) dx f( x) dx Now integrating (A) both sides, we get
y f ( x)dx k , k is some constant.
Type (2) : Equation in variable separable form.
2 f ( x)dx , if f ( x) f ( x)
(vi) f ( x) dx 0 dy f ( x )
Consider the equation which can be
0 , if f ( x) f ( x) dx g( y )
written as g(y) dy = f(x) dx
2a
2 f ( x)dx , if f (2 x) f ( x) Now integrating both sides we get the solution :
(vii) f ( x) dx 0
0
g( y )dy f ( x)dx k , k is some constant.
0 , if f (2 x) f ( x)
Type (3) : Equation reducible to homogeneous
dy
form. Equation of the form F( x , y) where
x

(viii) If f(t) is an odd function then g( x) f ( t ) dt dx

0 F(x, y) is homogeneous function of degree
is an even function. greater than zero, then we make substitution
x
dy xdv
(ix) If f(t) is an even function then g( x) f (t ) dt y vx and v
0
dx dx
is an odd function. Type (4) : Solution of linear differential equation
dy
 Definite integral as the limit of a sum (a) Consider Py Q , where P, Q are
dx
functions of x or constant only.
An alternative method of finding f ( x) dx is we solve such equation by finding
Pdx Pdx
e where e is known as integrating factor..
that the definite integral f ( x) dx is a limiting
The solution is y . (I.F.) (Q I.F.) dx c
case of the summation of an infinite series dx
provided f(x) is continuous on [, ], i.e., (b) Consider Px Q , where P, Q are
dy
Pdy
functions of y or constant only then I.F. e
f ( x) dx lim h[ f ( ) f( h) ... f( (n 1)h)]
h 0
 The solution is x (I.F.) (Q I.F.) dy c

where h VECTOR ALGEBRA

n
 Vectors
 have magnitude and direction denoted
 Formation of differential equations whose by AB whereas scalars have only magnitude.
general solution is given The magnitude of vector is the length of the line
If an equation in independent and dependent 
variables involving some arbitrary constants is segment AB denoted by AB .
Types of Vectors Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Types of Definition Notation  Let a be a vector and m be a scalar, then

Vectors multiplication of vector a by scalar m is given
  
(i) Zero vector/ Initial point AA by (ma )  (m)( a )
Null vector and terminal
Properties of Multiplication of Vectors by a Scalar
point coincide    
(i) m(  a )  (ma ) (ii) ( m)(  a )  ma
(ii) Unit vector Magnitude is      
a^ (iii) m(na )  n(m)a =(mn) a (iv) (m  n)a  ma  na
   
unity (v) m( a  b )  ma  mb
    
(iii) Coinitial Vectors having OA, OC , OD  Two vectors a and b are collinear or parallel iff
 
vectors same initial a = m b for some non zero scalar m.
point.
 Position Vector: Position vector of a point P (x, y, z)
b a c  ^ ^ ^
(iv) Collinear Vectors which is given as OP  x i  y j  z k and its magnitude
B O A C
vectors are parallel to 
the same vector as |OP | x 2  y 2  z2 , where O is the origin.

(v) Equal Vectors having Components of a Vector in Two Dimension

a =b
vectors same magnitude If a point P in a plane has coordinate (x, y) then
and same  
(i) OP  x ^i  y ^j (ii) |OP | x 2  y 2
direction

  (iii) The component of OP along x-axis is a vector
(vi) Negative Vector having BA   AB
^
of a vector same magnitude x i , whose magnitude is |x|and whose direction
but opposite
is along OX or OX according as x is positive or
direction
negative.
(vii)Free Vectors whose 
(iv) The component of OP along y-axis is a vector
vectors initial point is
^
not specified y j , whose magnitude is |y|and whose direction
Laws of Addition of Vectors is along OY or OY according as y is positive or
negative.
C
   
For any two vectors, a  x i  y j and b  x i  y j
^ ^ ^ ^
(i) Triangle AC  AB  BC 1 1 2 2
Law of   ^ ^
(i) a  b  ( x1  x2 ) i  ( y1  y2 ) j
Addition A B
  ^ ^
(ii) a  b  ( x1  x2 ) i  ( y1  y2 ) j
Q   
(ii) Parallelogram R
OP  OQ  OR  ^ ^
Law of Addition (iii) ma  ( mx1 ) i  ( my1 ) j , where m is a scalar
b
b b quantity
a +
 
O P
(iv) a  b  x1  x2 and y 1 = y 2
a Components of a Vector in Three Dimensions
^ ^ ^
Properties of Addition of Vectors If P(x, y, z) is a point in space and i , j , k are
 
(i) a  b  b  a (Commutativity) unit vectors, then
      
(ii) a  ( b  c )  ( a  b )  c (Associativity) ^
 (i) OP  x ^i  y ^j  z k
(iii) a  0  a (Additive identity) 
   (ii) |OP | x 2  y 2  z 2
(iv) a  (  a )  0 (Additive inverse)
     
(iii) The component vectors of OP along x, y (iv) If  , then a . b   | a || b |
^ ^ ^
and z are vectors xi , yj , and z k . (v) For mutually perpendicular unit vectors
^ ^ ^
 Vector Joining Two Points : If P(x, y, z) and i , j , k , we havee
Q(x , y , z) are two points, then vector joining ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
P and Q is given by i . i  j  j  k . k  1 and i  j  j . k  k  i  0
    
^ ^ ^
PQ  ( x2  x1 ) i  ( y2  y1 ) j  ( z2  z1 ) k . (vi) a  b  b  a
      
Section Formula (vii) a  ( b  c )  a . b  a . c
   
 The position vector of a point R dividing the line (viii) (  a ) . b  a . ( b )
segment joining the points P and Q, whose Vector (or Cross) Product of Two Vectors : It is
  
position vectors are a and b respectively     ^
  defined as a  b | a || b |sin  n, where  is the
(i) in the ratio m : n internally is mb + na   ^
mn angle between a and b and n is unit vector
  
(ii) in the ratio m : n externally is mb na perpendicular to the plane containing a and b .
mn
Properties of vector product
 
   (i) a  b is a vector
 a .b     
 Projection of a on b is  and the projection (ii) a × b  0  a || b
b   
 .  (iii) When  = 0, a × b  0
  
  
a b
vector of b on a is   
 |a|  (iv) When , a × b  0
    
 Direction Cosines : If  are the angles made (v) When   , a  b | a || b |
by a vector with the positive directions of x, y and 2
z axes respectively, then cos , cos  and cos  are (vi) For mutually perpendicular unit vectors
called direction cosines of the vector and are ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
generally denoted by the letters l, m, n respectively. i  i  j  j = k  k  0 ; i  j  k, j  k  i , k  i  j
 l = cos , m = cos , n = cos  1  
(vii) Area of triangle ABC  | a  b |
Direction Ratios : If l, m, n are the direction 2
  
cosines of a vector and a, b, c are three numbers |a  b|
(viii) sin    
l m n | a || b |
such that   . Then, direction ratios are        
a b c (ix) a  b  b  a i.e., a  b  b  a
proportional to a, b, c.       
(x) a  ( b  c )  a  b  a  c
 If    are direction angles of vector  
(xi) Area of parallelogram ABCD  | a  b |
 ^ ^ ^
a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k , then
 ^ ^ ^
a a a  If  is angle between a  a1 i  b1 j  c1 k and
cos   1 ,cos   2 ,cos   3  ^ ^ ^
|a| |a| |a| b  a2 i  b2 j  c2 k , then
Product of Two Vectors a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
 Scalar ( or Dot) Product of Two Vectors : It is cos  
    a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
defined as a . b | a || b |cos  , where  is the angle
 
between a and b , 0     THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
Properties of scalar product
  The direction cosines of the line are
(i) a . b is a real number.. 
    a b
(ii) a . b  0  a  b l , m ,
    2 2 2
a  b2  c2
2
(iii) If = 0, then a . b | a || b | a b c
 c (ii) Cartesian equation:
n x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
a2  b 2  c 2  
where a, b, c are direction ratios x2  x1 y 2  y1 z2  z1
Relation between the direction cosines of a line  Shortest distance between two lines :
is l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1 (a) Distance between two skew lines
Direction cosines of a line passing through two    
(b1  b2 ) . ( a2  a1 )
points P(x , y , z ) and Q(x , y , z ) are (i) Vector form : d   
|b1  b2 |
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1 (ii) Cartesian form :
, ,
PQ PQ PQ x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
where PQ  ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 )2  ( z2  z1 )2 a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
 Section formula : Ratio is m : n
(i) Internal division : ( b1c2  b2c1 )  (c1a2  c2 a1 )  ( a1b2  a2b1 )2
2 2

mx2  nx1 my2  ny1 mz2  mz1

x ,y  ,z 
mn mn mn
(ii) External division : (b) Distance between parallel lines
  
mx2  nx1 my2  ny1 mz2  mz1 b  ( a2  a1 )
x ,y  ,z  d 
mn mn mn |b |
(iii) Mid point formula : Plane
x  x2 y  y2 z z  Equation of a plane in normal form
x 1 ,y  1 ,z  1 2
2 2 2  ^
(i) Vector form : r . n  d
 Angle between two lines :
  (ii) Cartesian form : lx + my + nz = d
b1  b2
(i) Vector form : cos      Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given
| b1 || b2 | vector and passing through a given point.
(ii) Cartesian form : 
(i) Vector form : r . n^
d
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2 (ii) Cartesian form :
cos  
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22 a(x – x 1)+ b(y – y 1) + c(z – z1) = 0

 Two lines are  Equation of a plane passing through three non

(i) perpendicular if aa2 + b b  + c c  = 0 collinear points :
     
a1 b1 c1 (i) Vector form : (r  a ).[(b  a )  (c  a )]  0
(ii) parallel if   (ii) Cartesian form :
a2 b2 c2
Equation of a line passing through a given point x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
and parallel to a given vector x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1  0

(i) Vector Equation : r  a  b x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1  Intercept form of the equation of a plane :
(ii) Cartesian Equation :  
a b c x y z
(iii) If l, m, n are the direction cosines of the   1
line, the equation of the line is a b c
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1  Equation of the plane passing through the
  intersection of two given planes
l m n
  
Equation of a line passing through two given (i) Vector form : r .( n  n )  d  d
1 2 1 2
points (ii) Cartesian form : (a1x + b 1y + c 1z – d 1)
   
(i) Vector equation: r  a  ( b  a ),   R + (a2x + b 2y + c 2z – d 2) = 0
 Coplanarity of two lines LINEAR PROGRAMMING
   
(i) Vector form : ( a2  a1 ).( b1  b2 )  0
 Graphical solution of L.P.P
(ii) Cartesian form : This method of solving linear programming
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1 problem is referred as Corner Point method.
a1 b1 c1  0 This method comprises of following steps:
1. Find the feasible region of the L.P.P and
a2 b2 c2 determine its corner points (vertices).
Angle between two planes 2. Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at
each corner point. Let M and m respectively be
 
n1 . n2 the largest and smallest values at these points.
(i) Vector form : cos   | n || n | 3. (a) If the feasible region is bounded, M and m
1 2
respectively are the maximum and minimum
(ii) Cartesian form : values of the objective function.
(b) If the feasible region is unbounded, then
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2 (i) M is the maximum value of the objective
cos   function, if the open half plane determined by
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22 ax + by > M has no point in common with the
 Distance of a point from a plane feasible region. Otherwise, the objective function
  has no maximum value.
|a . N  d|  (ii) Similarly m is the minimum value of the
(i) Vector form :   , where N is
|N| objective function, if the open half plane
normal to the plane. determined by ax + by < m has no point in
common with the feasible region. Otherwise,
ax1  by1  cz1  d the objective function has no minimum value.
(ii) Cartesian form :
a2  b 2  c2 Note : If two corner points of the feasible region are
both optimal solutions of the same type, i.e., both
 Angle between a line and a plane produce the same maximum or minimum, then
  any point on the line segment joining these two
1 b n
.
Vector form :   sin   points is also an optimal solution of the same
| b || n | type.

PROBABILITY

Terms Definition
Conditional If E 1 and E 2 are any two events, then conditional probability of E 2 when Probability
Probability P( E1 E2 )
E1 has already occured is given by P(E1 E2) = , P(E 2)  0
P( E2 )
Properties of Conditional Probability :
(i) The conditional probability of an event E given that F has already occurred lies
between 0 and 1.
(ii) Let E and F be events of a sample space S of an experiment, then P(S F) P(F F) = 1
(iii) If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event of S such that
P(F)  0, then P((A  B)  F) = P(A  F) + P(B F) – P((A  B)  F)
In particular, if A and B are disjoint events, then P((A  B)  F) = P(A  F) + P(B  F)
(iv) P(E F) = 1 – P(E  F)

Multiplication (i) For two events : If E 1 and E2 are two events then
Theorem on P(E1  E2) = P(E1)  P(E2 E 1) = P(E2)  P(E1  E2) where P(E1)  0 and P(E2)  0
Probability (ii) For n events P(E1  E2  ...  En) = P(E1)  P(E2/E1)  P(E3  E1  E2) ... P(En  E1  E2  ... En-1)

Independent (i) Two events E1 and E2 are called independent if P(E 1  E 2) = P(E 1), P(E2)  0 and
Events P(E2  E1) = P(E2), P(E 1)  0.
(ii) For independent events E1 and E2, P(E1  E2) = P(E 1)P(E 2)
Theorem of Total Let {E1, E2, ..., E n} be a partition of the sample space S, and suppose that each
Probability of the events E1, E2, ..., E n has non-zero probability of occurrence. Let A be any
event associated with S, then
n

P(A) = P(E 1)  P(A  E 1) + P(E2)  P(A  E2) + ... + P(En) P(A  En)= P( Ei ) P( A | Ei )
i 1

Bayes’ Theorem If E 1, E 2, ..., En are n non-empty events which constitute a partition of sample space
S, i.e. E1, E 2, ..., En are pairwise disjoint and E 1  E 2  ...  En = S and A is any event
P( Ei )P( A | Ei )
of non-zero probability, then P(E i|A) = n
for i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
P( Ei ) P( A | Ei )
i 1
Random Variable It is a function whose domain is a sample space and whose range is some set of
real numbers. It is often denoted by X.
Types of Random Variable
(i) If random variable takes countable number of distinct values it is called discrete
variable.
(ii) If random variable takes an infinite number of possible values it is called continuous
variable.
Probability X x1 x2 x 3 ...x n n
Distribution P( x ) p1 p2 p3 ... pn
, where p i > 0, pi 1 , i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n where x 1, x 2, x 3, ..., x n
of Random i 1
are possible values and respective probabilities p 1, p 2, p 3, ..., p n of random variable
Variable
X.
Mean of Random The mean of a random variable X is also called expectation of X, denoted
n
Variable
E(X) =  = x 1p 1 + x 2p 2 + ... x np n = xi pi
i 1

Variance of a Let X be a random variable whose possible values x 1, x 2, ..., x n occur with
Random Variable n n
2

probabilities p(x 1), p(x 2), ..., p(x n) respectively  2

= V(x) = xi2 pi xi pi
x
i 1 i 1

Standard Deviation x = V ( x)
Bernoulli Trials Trials of a random experiment are Bernoulli trials, if
(i) They are finite.
(ii) They are independent of each other.
(iii) Each trial has two outcomes : success or failure.
(iv) Probability of success or failure remains the same in each trial.
Binomial A random variable X which takes values 0, 1, 2, ..., n follows binomial distribution
Distribution if its probability distribution function is given by P(X = r) = nC r p r q n–r, r = 0, 1, 2
..., n, where p + q = 1, p, q > 0, p = probability of success, q = probability of failure,
n = number of trials.

Mean, Variance and Mean = np, Variance = npq and Standard Deviation = npq
Standard Deviation
of Binomial
Distribution