Lesson 10. Mahayana Buddhism These new developments within the newfound Buddhist sect comprise a ii.
within the newfound Buddhist sect comprise a ii. Sacred Scriptures
Essential Understanding:
1. Mahayana Bupddhism gained popularity among Asian countries
because even an ordinary person can aspire to achieve spiritual
liberation.
2. The arrival of Mahayana Buddhism in Asian countries paved the way
for the establishment and development of a variety of Buddhist
schools.
Essential Questions:
1. How do the basic tenets of Mahayana Buddhism differ from Theravada
Buddhism?
2. Why is Mahayana Buddhism appealing to a vast majority of followers?
Believing itself as the more genuine version of Buddha’s teachings,
Mahayana Buddhism has diverged into numerous schools with each
developing its own canon and rituals since its founding more than 2000
years ago.
Mahayana Buddhism
- Also known as the “Great Vehicle”
- Emerged out of monastic rule and doctrinal differences
- Mahayana and Theravada originated in the foundational teachings of
Siddhartha Gautama but their methods and search for liberation from
the cycle of reincarnation can be very different
- Mahayana Buddhism aims to extend religious authority to a larger
number of people
- Widespread in China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Tibet
- Developed a wide appeal to common people
Buddha was a spiritual leader and teacher whose life serves as the
foundation of Buddhist religion.
i. Historical Background
During the 3rd century, a number of variations began to take place in
Buddhism at a time when the Mauryan king Ashoka was propagating
Buddhist gospels through missionary efforts.
Mahasamghika (“of the Great Sangha”), one of the earliest schools, may
have been the source of initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism, especially
during the “Second Buddhist Council”.
A religious schism between the Mahasamghika and Sthavira nikaya (“Sect
of the Elders”) transpired during the said council. These new ideas
eventually concretized resulting in a new form of Buddhism quite different
from the original teachings taught by Siddhartha Gautama.
set of differing notions:
1. Mahayana Buddhist believed that Siddhartha secretly taught key
principles to chosen people who could completely interpret these
teachings in time. Any new teaching can now be added to the
emerging Buddhist faith.
2. Mahayana Buddhists forwarded the concept that Siddhartha Gautama
was actually a benevolent celestial king, not just a mere human being.
Because of his love for humankind and zeal to help the people, he
came to our world in human form.
3. Mahayana Buddhists advanced the radical idea that Siddhartha
Gautama was not the only Buddha. There were other divine beings
that came before him, after him and will come in the future. These
beings came to earth to help lessen the people’s sufferings and lead
them to salvation.
This new concept impressed many followers because they can now revere
these beings, study their lives, construct temples, and develop innovative
belief system replete with rituals and hymns.
Missionaries of Mahayana Buddhism were able to penetrate new places
without fear of reprisal from native religions since deities or local gods can
be treated as manifestations or incarnations of Buddha.
Theravada first entered China in the 1st century C.E. but did not gain much
ground until the arrival of Mahayana in the 3rd century C.E.
Mahayana Buddhism took a major foothold of China. Korea in the 4 th
century C.E. Japan in the 6th century C.E. Buddhism existed alongside
Japan’s native religion Shintoism.
All these places developed their own versions of Mahayana Buddhism that
exist up until the present day.
Ironically, while Buddhism was being propagated and gaining support in
other countries even to the remotest places, it was steadily dying in India. A
series of invasions destroyed numerous Buddhist centers and temples. The
rising tide of Islam in India resulted in the forcible conversion of Buddhists
to the Muslim faith.
Meanwhile, Hinduism was able to gradually absorb challenging religions,
such as Buddhism and Jainism, due to its tolerance and openness to other
belief systems. The Hindu belief that Siddhartha Gautama was a
manifestation of Vishnu contributed to the fading influence of Buddhism in
India. Mahayana Buddhism disappeared in India.
Nonetheless, Mahayana Buddhism is still the most popular branch of
Buddhism in the world today.
Mahayana branch accepts the canonical texts of the Theravada school,
such as the Tripitaka (Sanskrit word for “Three Baskets”) which is the
collection of Buddha’s teachings.
Mahayana also has a wide array of philosophical and devotional texts.
Mahayana Buddhism includes many sacred writings which are nearly
identical in content with the Pali Canon of the Theravada sect.
Meanwhile, Mahayana Buddhists have teachings or sutras not present in
the Theravada school and the followers believed they have recovered the
original teachings of the Buddha. In fact, the principal scriptures of the
Mahayana sect have no parallels in the Pali Canon.
Mahayana Buddhism adopted the Sanskrit form of terms rather than Pali.
The Mahayana school possesses innumerable figures often lacking in the
Theravada literature, including the boddhisattvas, demons, divinities,
and other spirits.
Lotus Sutra (“Saddharmapundarika-sutra”) is one of the most popular and
prominent Mahayana Buddhist texts (or sutra) that literally means “Sutra of
the Lotus of the Wonderful Law” or “correct dharma white lotus sutra” in
Sanskrit.
Sutra – pertains to one of the discourses of the historical Buddha that
comprise the basic texts of Buddhist sacred writing
The teachings of Siddhartha Gautama are generally recorded in a wide
corpus of sutras and often taking the form of dialogues instead of
analytically explicating a certain viewpoint.
The Lotus Sutra is presented as a discourse conveyed by Siddhartha
Gautama before his eventual death. Mahayana traditions maintains that
while the sutras were recorded during Siddhartha Gautama’s lifetime, these
sutras were kept for 500 years and reintroduced only during the “Fourth
Buddhist Council”.
While these sutras were assembled years after the death of Siddhartha
Gautama, the Lotus Sutra may have been authored by more than one
writer.
The lotus Sutra contains the most definitive teachings of the Buddha.
A key idea within the influential sutra is that all people equally and
inherently possess the so-called “Buddha nature” or “Buddha-hood” which
is the condition of complete happiness and freedom from fear and illusions.
In short, the attainment of enlightenment is open to all people regardless of
gender, race, social status, and education.
iii. Belief and Doctrines
1. The Buddha
For Theravada Buddhism, only the historical Buddha and past Buddhas are
accepted. For Mahayana Buddhism, there are other contemporary and
popular Buddhas apart from the historical Buddha.
The concept of trikaya (“three bodies”) pertains to the teaching of
Mahayana Buddhism about the nature of the Buddha and reality. Each
Buddha has three bodies, namely, dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and
nirmanakaya.
The table below summarizes the nature of the three bodies of Buddha.
For Mahayana Buddhists, Buddhas are not individuals who actually lived in
this world. They are simply expressions of the one Buddha reality, such as
that of Siddhartha Gautama. These great Buddhas are to be found in
various heavens enshrined together with other gods and saints.
In China, Amitabha is a very popular Buddha.
In Japan, Vairocana is the great Buddha.
2. Bodhisattvas
One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an
enlightened being or bodhisattva (“enlightened existence”) which is the
ultimate way for any Buddhist to live in this world.
A bodhisattva has generated bodhicitta or the spontaneous desire to
achieve the state of being enlightened. The concept of bodhicitta differs
between the two main schools of Buddhism.
The teachings of Theravada is emphasized on self-liberation where there is
a total reliance to one’s self to eradicate sufferings.
On the other hand, apart from liberation, Mahayana adherents assist other
sentient beings in their quest for liberation.
The attainment of nirvana is not confined to one’s self as an arhat (“perfect
one”) but must be shared to all striving beings.
A bodhisattva, who is already eligible to enter final enlightenment by
perfecting himself through countless incarnations, opts to forego the right to
enter nirvana and decides to be born again into this evil world to assist
others in attaining the same state, even descending to the depths of lowest
hells to rescue ill-fated victims imprisoned there.
Through skillful ways, a bodhisattva has the capacity to determine the
state of mind and emotion of each person thereby facilitating assistance
based on actual needs. The path of the bodhisattva can also be taken by
any ordinary person, which is a way of selflessness.
Frequently depicted as celestial beings who answer the prayers of those
who need help, bodhisattvas are embodiment of great compassion.
Maitreya (“Buddha of the Future”) is the only accepted Buddha in
Theravada Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism has 4 other principal
bodhisattvas, namely,
a. Avalokiteshvara – is the most revered and most popular among all
bodhisattvas being the personification of perfect compassion, representing
the sun-god Vishnu of Hinduism
b. Manjushri – embodiment of wisdom, intelligence and willpower
c. Ksitigarbha – the one who helps and liberates all sentient beings
residing in hell
d. Samanthabhadra – representation of love, virtue and diligence
Mahayana Buddhism encourages everyone to pursue the path of a
bodhisattva, assume their vows, and work for the absolute enlightenment of
all living beings.
3. Bhumis and Paramitas
Based on the Mahayana tradition, a bodhisattva must pass 10 bhumis
(“grounds” of “land”) before attempting the so-called “Buddha-hood”. These
are extensions of the “Eightfold Path”.
The bhumis are frequently associated with the paramitas (“perfections”).
Translated as “to cross over the other shore”, paramitas imply crossing
from the “sea of suffering” to the “shore of happiness”.
A bodhisattva vow is stated as “May I attain Buddhahood for the benefit
of all sentient beings”.
iv. Worship and Observances
Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional
rituals with the objective of aiding worshippers in their journey toward
enlightenment and in bringing blessings to each and every one.
In Buddhist temples, they pray and chant to pay their respect to the
Buddhas and bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, and
Amitabha. They also offer vegetarian food and light incense.
Worshippers also recite chants and undertake pilgrimage to sites of
Buddhist importance. Meditational activities are fundamental in almost all
forms of Buddhism.
The lotus that symbolizes purity, the eight-spoke wheels that represent the
dharma, and the different hand gestures (mudras) are important symbols
for Mahayana Buddhism.
v. Subdivisions
Mahayana Buddhism consists of a variety of schools and family of religions.
When the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism spread in many Asian nations,
it acquired new concepts from these localities.
Indian Mahayana Buddhism developed within the context of the two major
schools: (1) Madhyamika and (2) Yogachara
Madhyamika (“Intermediate”) – adherents stress the transformation of
human perception to handle the truth of that which is ultimately real beyond
any duality
Yogachara (“Practice of Yoga”) thinkers emphasize that the truth a human
being perceives does not exist
1. The Pure Land Sect
Pure Land Buddhism began in India around the 2nd century BCE, spread to
China by the 2nd century CE and reached Japan during 6th century CE.
When believers die, it is their objective to live in the “Pure Land of the
West” or Sukhavati. By simply reciting the name of the Amitabha with
utmost attentiveness many times during the day, they may be reborn in this
paradise where they can work to achieve enlightenment much easier.
Amitabha – the god who supervises over a western paradise and is the
focus of this sect
Once in Sukhavati, people can experience the delight in hearing Amitabha
teach the dharma in preparation for their entry to nirvana.
Aside from meditations, this Buddhist sect utilizes chants and recitations to
focus on helpful thoughts.
In Japan, this attracted many followers to the sect Jodo Shin-shu (“True
Pure Land School”) founded in 1175.
Those people who are not able to carry out meditational intricacies and the
long ritualistic practices can still attain enlightenment by simply reciting the
name of Amitabha with utmost and genuine faith. It was a form of
Buddhism made accessible to everyone.
2. The Intuitive Sects
The establishment of this sect can be traced to the work of an Indian monk
named Bodhidharma whose life stories are with mysteries and numerous
legends.
This concept entered China from India, and then Korea to Japan.
In China, it came to be known as Ch’an. Ch’an Buddhism has close
affinity with Taoist philosophy because both are kinds of mysticism.
In Japan, it reached its peak with the development of Zen which is a blend
of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. Followers of this school are
called meditative Buddhists. Focusing on meditation as the path to
liberation, Zen Buddhism is basically a monastic discipline.
The word “meditation” in India is dhyana, ch’an in China, and zen in
Japan.
The intuitive sects emphasize salvation as a personal matter and one
cannot receive assistance from other entities, such as another person or
institution, to realize the inner truths of religion.
In short, most elements of religion – from scriptures, temples, statues,
prayers and rituals – are not essential to achieve enlightenment. Modern
European thinkers have been attracted to Zen Buddhism because of its
concept on simplicity and intuitive inspiration.
3. The Rationalist Sect
A rationalist Buddhist school of thought called T’ien-t’ai with its name
originating from a mountain in southeastern China where its founder Chih-I
or Zhiyi lived.
Apart from the meditational practices, this sect taught that one must utilize
one reason and study the scriptures and doctrines to discover Buddhist
truths. Chiyi emphasized that acts of studying and contemplation were both
vital for spiritual enlightenment.
There is a need to integrate Buddhist sacred writings to know the truth, with
the Lotus Sutra being revered as its ultimate writing.
The teachings of Chih-I were introduced in Japan by the monk Saicho that
came to be known as Tendai.
The Buddhist monk Uicheon established the Cheontae Buddhist school
in Korea.
4. The Socio-political Sect
A Japanese Buddhist monk by the name of Nichiren Daishonin who lived
during the 13th period during the Kamakura period began to teach that the
path towards attaining enlightenment rested solely on the devotion to the
Lotus Sutra.
Nichiren (“sun lotus”) Buddhism, which is purely a Japanese
phenomenon, perceives itself as the only rightful version of Buddhism.
Nichiren Buddhism teaches that individuals must take responsibility to
enhance themselves, or what is called “human revolution.” Enlightenment
is accessible to every individual on earth simply by opening one’s inherent
Buddha-nature in this world. A scripture scholar and activist, Nichiren
himself is considered a Buddha.
Nichiren taught that he alone understood Buddhist truths. He believed that
other Buddhist sects in Japan were corrupting the people towards hell.
For his missionary work and excessive criticism of rival Buddhist sects in
Japan, he made many influential enemies. Nichiren also reproached
Japaneses authority because of its failure to promote the Lotus Sutra and
for allowing fraudulent Buddhist sects to flourish in the country. He was
twice exiled and condemned to death. Although some of his disciples
wereexecuted, he refused to renege in his principles.
The Nichiren sect of Buddhism is an example of a religious group that
came to have an effect in the socio-political dimension of Japan. Present-
day schools of Nichiren Buddhism include Soka Gakkai, Nichiren
Shoshu, and Nichiren Shu.
5. Tibetan Buddhism
Buddhism was officially introduced to Tibet around the 7th century CE
during the reign of Songtsan Gampo, considered the founder of the Tibetan
Empire. He was influenced by his Chinese and Indian wives who were both
Buddhist followers.
Buddhism became a dominant force in the region toward the end of the 8th
century CE when the king Trisong Detsen decreed it as the official state
religion.
While the theological foundation of Tibetan Buddhism is similar to that of
Mahayana Buddhism, the isolation of the region allowed for the
development of many features. Tibetan Buddhism borrowed tantric and
shamanic attributes, as well as elements from Tibet’s native religion called
Bon.
Bon was a kind of shamanism where spirits and deities were revered.
Ancient Bon rituals were concerned with the performance of magic,
incantations, and spells and in the protection of people from unwanted
demons prowling in the dark.
One major distinguishing feature of Tibetan Buddhism is the use of magic
as a coping mechanism in the Tibetan way of life. The use of chants and
yoga is also part of Tibetan Buddhism.
For utilizing manuals (tantra) for one’s magical instructions to handle the
unknown, it is also known as the Tantric Buddhism. Buddhas and
bodhisattvas are also present in the teachings of Tibetan Buddhism.
The four major schools: Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, Gelug
Tibetan Buddhism has its own set of clergy (lamas) and they commonly
senior members of the monastic community.
The term lama means “the superior one” and lamas are frequently the
reincarnations of previous lamas.
The Dalai Lama is the most prominent face of Tibetan Buddhism who has
been living in exile in India since he fled Chinese occupation of Tibet in
1959.
The term dalai means “ocean” in Mongol referring to the vastness and
depth of the person.
The current and fourteenth Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso who is the leader
of the Gelug school and is believed to be the reincarnation of
Avalokiteshvara.
Until 1959, the chief residence of the Dalai Lama was a 13-storey structure
called Potala Palace located at the Red Hill in Lhasa, Tibet. It is now a
UNESCO World Heritage Site which has been transformed into a museum Buddhist monk. He voluntarily burned himself to death in a busy Saigon
but remains a sacred place for many Tibetans. road intersection in 1963.

vi. Selected Issues Later on, several other monks followed his example.

1. Tibet Invasion The regime tried in vain to suppress Buddhist resistance through massive
For centuries, both China and India have been claiming Tibet as part of retaliation and nation-wide assaults in Buddhist pagodas. Temples were
their territories. Tibet practically enjoyed some degree of independence as defaced, monks were beaten, and Quang Duc’s cremated remains were
none of the claimants pressed their claim. confiscated.

In 1950, China annexed Tibet and negotiated the so-called “Seventeen
Point Agreement” with the government of the 14th Dalai Lama. Rejected
repeatedly by the Dalai Lama, this document confirmed China’s authority
over Tibet, but the area was granted autonomy.
In 1959, the Dalai Lama failed in his bid to oust China’s puppet rule as the
Tibetan uprising was defeated by the more powerful Chinese force. Dalai
Lama, together with his followers, escaped to India and are now living there
as refugees.
With the implementation of Mao Zedong’s “Great Leap Forward” from
1958 to 1961, or China’s socio-economic campaign to transform the
country into a socialist society, between 200,000 to 1,000,000 Tibetans
tragically met their death.
During Mao Zedong’s “Cultural Revolution”, from 1966 to 1976, around
6,000 monasteries were destroyed.
Eventually, the regime lost support from the US and an army coup brought
down Diem. Amid religious protests and non-violent struggle, Diem was
assassinated in 1963.
In Japan, a militant and missionary form of Buddhism was founded in 1930
called the Soka Gakkai, a religious movement based on the teachings of
Nichiren Buddhism.
During the WWII, the group temporarily disbanded only to emerge mightily
after the war. After its hiatus, the members of this group grew rapidly while
employing hard-line and contentious recruitment methods, including
coercion, fear, intimidation and the use of threats.
A political party was even formed by Soka Gakkai, the Komeito, that
became the third most powerful in Japan.

From 1959 to 1977, almost all elements of Tibetan Buddhism were

obliterated. Presently, the Dalai Lama has been continuously visiting other
countries preaching a message of hope and peace.

2. Engaged Activism
Ritual suicides led by Buddhist monks have transpired in the 20th century
as a form of protest to governmental actions.

For example, a crisis occurred between Buddhists and the South

Vietnamese government led by Ngo Dinh Diem in the 1960s that had
tremendous effect in politics, militancy and religious tolerance.

As a result of persecutions undertaken by the government against

Buddhists, monks began to lambast the regime that eventually resulted in
the self-immolation of Thich Quang Duc, a Vietnamese Mahayana