LESSONS 1 and 2 – Classification of propulsion systems

Definitions

- Fluid machine
Group of mechanical elements which enable the transfer of mechanical energy with the outside (generally though a shaft) by the variation
of the thermal energy in the fluid passing.
Classifications
1. According to the sense of energy transfer
1. Motive: turbine
Energy (kinetic, potential, intermolecular) held by the fluid is converted in mechanical energy of a rotating
member. Work done by the fluid on the rotor)
2. Generative: pump, compressor, fans
Mechanical energy from moving parts is transferred to a fluid to increase its stored energy by increasing its
pressure or velocity. Work done by the rotor on the fluid.
2. According to the circulation of the fluid inside
1. Positive displacement / volumetric: piston compressors, positive displacement pumps
Depends essentially on the change of volume of a certain amount of fluid.
2. Turbomachine: turbine, compressor
Requires relative motion (rotor) between the fluid and the moving part of the machine.
3. According to the compressibility of the fluid
1. Thermal (compressible)
2. Hydraulic (non-compressible)
- Thermal machine
Fluid machine + compressible flow
· Density variations in the working fluid.
· Temperature variations used for the energy transfer.
· High specific energy variations (energy per unit of mass).
· Energy associated to a phase transition (liquid-vapor) used in some cases (steam machine).

Classification

1. Motive
1. Positive displacement / volumetric
a. Reciprocating Pneumatic piston, Steam machine
b. Rotating Paddle machine
2. Turbomachines Turbines
2. Generative
1. Positive displacement / volumetric
a. Reciprocating Compressor
b. Rotating Compressor
2. Turbomachines Turbocharger
- Thermal engine
Thermal machine + thermal condition generated inside the engine by a combustion process or a nuclear reaction.

The inevitable energy transfer to the environment reduces the thermal engine
efficiency.

Classifications
1. According to the mechanism for increasing the thermal energy
a. Internal combustion engine
The combustion of a fuel occurs in a combustion chamber
that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit.
1. Reciprocating: reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion.
Spark ignition: gasoline engine
Compression ignition: diesel engine
2. Rotating
Based on turbomachines: gas turbines / turboshaft
Volumetric: Wankel
3. Reaction
Produces thrust by expelling reaction mass in accordance with Newton’s third law of
motion.
 Rocket / chemical: Liquid fuel or solid fuel
 Jet engine:
Without compressor: Ramjet, Scramjet
With compressor: Turbojet, Turbofan, Turboprop
b. External combustion engine
The working fluid (contained internally) is heated by combustion in an external source, through
the engine wall or a heat exchanger.
2. According to the way the flow evolves
a. Positive displacement / volumetric engines
b. Continuous flux engines / turboengines
3. According to the motion of the mechanical elements: reciprocating, rotating or reaction
Classification of propulsion systems

Aeroengines
ICE

Non-
Hybrid
Airbreathing airbreathing -
engines
Rockets

Jet propulsion
Reciprocating / reaction Rotating Liquid fuel Turboramjet
engines

With
Without Turbina de gas
Gasoline compressor / Solid fuel Turborocket
compressor / turboshaft
Gas turbine

Volumetric,
Diesel Ramjet Turbojet alternative:
Wankel

Scramjet Turbofan

Pulsejet Turboprop

Propfan

Reciprocating engine R – ICE

Internal combustion engine which develops mechanical energy from the thermal energy introduced into the working fluid by means of a combustion
process, transmitting this energy through the linear motion of a piston.

4 phases: intake, compression, combustion and expansion, exhaust.

Geometrical parameters

𝐵𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐷

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑆

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑆

𝐷

𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎/𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝜋𝐷 2
𝐴𝑝 =
4

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑆

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑧

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑧𝑉𝑑

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑐

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑟𝑐 =
𝑉𝑐
Constructive elements

1. Structural systems (base engine)

a. Support structure: mainly block and cylinder head
b. Slider-crank mechanism: crankshaft, connecting rod, piston
c. Timing system: sprockets, belt/chain, tensioners, camshaft, valves…
2. Ancillary/auxiliary systems
a. Lubrication: carter, oil pump, filter, oil squirter…
b. Cooling: intercooler, radiator, water pump, thermostat…
c. Fuel injection: pump, rail, injectors…
d. Air management: throttle valve, turbocharger, EGR…
e. Ignition in spark ignition engines
Classification or r-ICE

1. According to the ignition process

a. Spark-ignition SI
Combustion process of the air-fuel mixture ignited by a spark from a spark plug.
Gasoline engines
b. Compression-ignition CI
Ignition of fuel caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to the mechanical
compression (adiabatic).
Diesel engines
SI CI
Mixture formation Carburetor Direct injection
Injection (intake) (Compression)
Ignition Induced (spark) Autoignition (high 𝑝, 𝑇)
Design aspects 𝑟𝑐 : 8 − 12 𝑟𝑐 : 13 − 18
𝑁: 6000 − 18000 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑁: 4500 − 6000 𝑟𝑝𝑚
Load regulation Quantitative: Qualitative:
mixture quantity fuel quantity
Fuel High volatility and octane High cetane and lubricity
(Gasoline, NG, LPG) (diesel, fuel-oil)
Equivalence ratio 𝐹𝑅 ≈ 1 𝐹𝑅 < 0.85
Specific power (Kw/l) Automotive: 50-90 Automotive: 30 (ll). 60 (lD)
Competition: 230 Large 2S: 2(ship)
Competition: 90 (Audi R10)

2. According to the working cycle

a. 4-Stroke 4S
Phases Indicated diagram

Timing diagram

b. 2-Stroke 2S
Phases Indicated diagram

Timing diagram
 3. According to the cooling system
a. Air-cooled
b. Water-cooled
4. According to the intake pressure
a. Naturally aspirated

b. Turbo/supercharged

5. According to the number and arrangement of cylinders

Fields of application

4-strokes 2-strokes
SI - Small apps - Moped
- Private cars and motorbikes - Small tools (chainsaw)
- Leisure crafts - Modelling
- Light aircrafts
CI - Private cars - Public work machinery
- Industrial vehicles (MD and - Railway
Heavy Duty) - Great ships
- Agricultural machinery - Big Steady engines
- Steady engines
- Light aircrafts
- Leisure crafts (LD, MD)
- Public work machinery)
- Railway

Advantages and drawbacks

1. Advantages
1. Liquid fuel with high heating value (specific energy)
2. Reasonable thermal efficiency (<55%)
3. Engine power, wide range (0.1-80.000 kW)
4. Easy Load Factor control
5. Good specific power
6. Very different set-up available
7. High autonomy
2. Drawbacks
1. Petroleum fuels
2. Chemical and acoustic pollution
Gas Turbine GT

Develops mechanical energy from the thermal energy given to the working fluid through a combustion process, delivering this energy through the
shaft. Air accelerates when going through the engine. The force required to produce this acceleration creates a force of the same magnitude and
opposite direction on the engine, inducing its movement.

Reaction engine: provides propulsion (thrust) by expelling reaction mass, in

accordance with 3rd Newton's law.

 Systems generating mechanical energy from fuel are the engines

 Systems generating the propulsive force from the mechanical
energy are the propeller (generic)
The gas generator is the core of the GT engine (common element in every GT engine).
Main components: compressor, combustion chamber and turbine.

2. Inlet of compressor
3. Outlet of compressor
4. Inlet of turbine
5. Outlet of turbine

Turbojet

- Generic name to an engine based on Gas Turbine engine.

- Good efficiency at high speeds (M<1)
- Main components:
1. Intake (diffuser)
Duct to deliver the air at the required conditions by the compressor (M=0.4 – 0.5), reducing pressure
losses.
b. Subsonic intakes: no significant difficulties, main design requirement is to reduce
aerodynamic losses.
c. Supersonic intakes: difficult design for wider operation ranges, need to consider
characteristics of the flow at the tip of the compressor blades.
2. Compressor
Different stages, each with a pair rotor-stator. Pressure and temperature increase in each stage.
a. Axial: gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation, or axially.
b. Centrifugal (radial): fluid flow will include a "radial component" through the
compressor.
3. Shaft
Transfers mechanical energy from the turbine to the compressor. Different designs (1, 2 or 3 spools)
running concentrically at different velocities working with different turbine-compressor groups
a. Single-spool turbojet

b. Double-spool turbojet

4. Combustion chamber
Where the fuel is oxidized (combustion) with the compressed air to get high temperature gases
5. Turbine
Extracts energy from hot gases coming from the combustion chamber converting it into mechanical
energy used to drive the compressor, fan, … through the shaft, and eventually to convert the energy
to be used in other components. Air, relatively cold, extracted from certain points along the
compressor is typically used to cool down the blades of the turbine.
6. Afterburner
Gets additional thrust burning more fuel to increase the temperature (available energy) at the nozzle
inlet section. Mainly used in military.
a. w/
b. w/o
7. Nozzle
Hot gases from the gas generator go to atmosphere through the nozzle. The aim of the nozzle is to
get a jet of gas at high velocity. Nozzles may be convergent (subsonic) or convergent-divergent
(supersonic).
Turboprop

- Drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear.

- Design is optimized to generate torque on the shaft moving the propeller (preserving subsonic velocities at the tip)
- Very efficient at flight speeds below 725 km/h
- The reduction gear controls the spinning velocity of the propeller
- Types
a. Fixed shaft turboprop engine: Single turbine drives the compressor and the propeller.

b. Free turbine engine: LP turbine (free) drives the propeller

Turboshaft

- Usage in helicopters
- Similar to turboprop, but turboprop engines generate additional thrust in the nozzle, not present in
turboshaft.

Turbofan

- Compromise between turbojet and turboprop.

- Internal ducted propeller (FAN) and 2 air streams:
o Main / Core flow through all the elements of the engine
o Secondary / bypass flow through the FAN
 By-pass flow through cold/by-pass nozzle
 Core & Bypass flows are mixed downstream the turbine, and pass through 1 nozzle
- Higher thrust and lower specific consumption than turbojet at subsonic flight.
- Lower noise
- More complex, heavy blades, more exposed to damage from the impact of external objects or ice
- Most commercial aviation (9000-12000 m, M≈0.8) jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, and most modern
military fighter engines are low-bypass.
- Classification
o FAN location
Forward / Aft FAN Aft FAN

o Flow streams interaction

Mixed flow Separated flow
 o Bypass ratio BPR

Low BPR High BPR

High speed applications Commercial high-range flights (low speeds)
Military combat aircrafts BPR > 5 : 1

Propfan

- Unducted fan (UDF) or ultra-high BPR (UHB).

- The design is intended to offer the speed and performance of a turbofan, with the fuel economy of a turboprop… the cost is noise.
- A PROPFAN is a modified TURBOFAN, with the FAN placed outside of the engine nacelle.
- Possibility of pitch blade control and gear boxes as for TURBOPROP
- BPR 15:1 y 25:1 (LOWER fuel consumption, but HIGHER noise)
- Swept back propellers (higher efficiency due to shock losses reduction)
- Types:
Single propeller Contra-rotating propeller

Ramjet

- Flying stovepipe or athodyd (Aero thermodynamic duct)

- Uses the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air, without rotary components
- Main elements: diffuser, combustion chamber, nozzle

Advantages
- Low weight
- High thrust / weight ratio (~30)
- No moving components
- Very high temperatures allowed
- High efficiency at M>1
- Usage up to high supersonic
speeds M=6
Drawbacks
- No thrust in static conditions
- Low efficiency at M<1
- The air has to be slowed down to
subsonic (M<1) in the combustion
chamber.
- Combustion issues for M>6
- Noise

Scramjet

- SCRAMJET = Supersonic Combustion RAMJET

- Mechanically simple, but complex aerothermodynamics
- Supersonic combustion (Hydrogen)
- Flight speeds in the range: Mach 12 ~ 24
- Good efficiency above Mach 5 – 7
- Low Thrust – Weight Ratio (~2:1) (Rocket ~100:1)

Pulsejet

- Internal combustion engine

- Pulsed combustion
- Main components: inlet,
combustion chamber, nozzle
Rockets

- Jet propulsion that produces thrust by ejecting stored matter (propellant) at very high velocities.
- Non-air breathing engines.

Turboramjet

- Combination of TURBOJET (up to M = 3) and RAMJET ( ↑↑ M).

Turborocket

- Transport its own O2 for combustion (non-air breathing)

- LPC is driven by multi-stage turbine (moved by energy from combustion)
- Afterburners: Rich mixing + O2atm (air breathing)
- High fuel consumption (high speeds & altitudes, acceleration…)

CLASSIFICATION OF PROPULSION SYSTEMS

 LESSON 3 – Working cycles and parameters of r-ICE
Ideal cycles

Series of thermodynamic evolutions in which the fluid gets back to the initial state.

- R-ICE do not work strictly in a closed cycle. Only used for the high-pressure loop
- Utility:
o Simple evaluation of energetic aspects of the engine.
o Possibility to obtain analytic results based on working/operating parameters.

Similarities with real cycles

- Similar processes and evolution.

- Same compression ratio.
- Same input energy per mass (fuel).
- Same pressure and temperature in a reference point of the compression phase (intake).

Simplifications

- Thermodynamic processes.
- Properties of the working fluid.
- No leakages.

Hypotheses

- Compression:
o Adiabatic and reversible (hence isentropic)
- Combustion:
o Adiabatic (no heat transfer though walls)
o Complete (100% combustion efficiency)
o Types:
 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒
 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒
 Mixed (limited pressure)
- Expansion
o Adiabatic and reversible (hence isentropic)
- Exhaust and intake
o Adiabatic
o Valve events at Dead Centers (BDC, TDC)
 Pressure drop through valves (𝑉 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒) to close the cycle
o Constant Intake and exhaust pressure
o Flow velocity effects are negligible

Kinds depending on combustion process

Otto

- Series of thermodynamic processes in a SI engine (spark ignition internal combustion engine).

- Spark plug initiates the combustion process at the end of the compression stroke (TDC).
- The fuel is burnt at high velocity (𝑡 → 0), while the piston is at TDC. Constant-volume process (ISOCHORIC).
𝑣
- Compression ratio 𝑟𝑐 = 1
𝑣2

Processes

1 – 2 Adiabatic compression: ↑ 𝑝, 𝑇

2 – 3 Addition of heat (𝑉 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒): combustion (spark)

3 – 4 Adiabatic expansion

4 – 1 Rejection of heat (𝑉 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒)

Solving

𝑄𝑎 = 𝑄23 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2)

𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄41 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4) 𝑊 𝑄𝑎 − |𝑄𝑐 | |𝑄𝑐 | 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1) (𝑇4 − 𝑇1) (𝑇4 − 𝑇1)
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝜂𝑡ℎ = = =1− =1− =1− = 1 − 𝛾−1
𝑇2𝑣2 = 𝑇1𝑣1 𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2) 𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑟𝑐 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1)
(𝑇4 ( 3 ) − 𝑇1 ( 1 ) )
𝛾−1
𝑇4 𝑣4
𝛾−1
= 𝑇3𝑣3 𝑣4 𝑣2
{
1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1
𝑟𝑐
As the compression ratio (𝑟𝑐 ) increases, the efficiency (𝜂𝑡ℎ ) increases, but so does 𝑇2. If 𝑇2 is too high, the
mixture will ignite without a spark (at the wrong location in the cycle).
Diesel

- Represents the series of thermodynamic processes in a SLOW Diesel (or CI, compression ignition) engine.
- Fuel is sprayed into the cylinder at 𝑃2 (high pressure) when the compression is complete, and there is ignition without a spark.
- Combustion process initiates at the end of compression stroke (TDC)
- Fuel is burned slowly while it’s injected (piston moves downwards) → Constant
- Pressure Combustion (ISOBARIC)
𝑣
- Compression ratio 𝑟𝑐 = 1
𝑣2
𝑣3
- Cut-off ratio / Load ratio 𝛽 =
𝑣2

Processes

1 – 2 Adiabatic compression: ↑ 𝑝, 𝑇

2 – 3 Addition of heat (𝑝 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒)

3 – 4 Adiabatic expansion

4 – 1 Rejection of heat (𝑉 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒)

Solving

𝑄𝑎 = 𝑄23 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄41 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 )
𝑇3 𝛾−1
1 𝑇1 (𝑇2 𝛽 − 1)
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇2𝑣2 = 𝑇1𝑣1 𝑊 |𝑄𝑐 | 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1) 1 1 (𝛽𝛽 𝛾−1 − 1)
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1− =1− =1− =1− =
𝑇4𝑣4 = 𝑇3𝑣3 𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2) 𝛾 𝑇 (𝑇3 − 1) 𝛾 𝑟𝑐𝛾−1 (𝛽 − 1)
2 𝑇
𝑝3 𝑣3 𝑇3 2
= 𝑇 = 𝑇2 𝛽
{ 𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑇2 3

1 (𝛽 𝛾 − 1)
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1 1 < 𝛽 < 𝑟𝑐
𝑟𝑐 𝛾(𝛽 − 1)
- This cycle can operate with a higher compression ratio than the Otto cycle because only air is compressed and there is no risk of auto-
ignition of the fuel.

Limited pressure

- Represents the series of thermodynamic processes in a FAST Diesel (or CI) engine.
- Most usual for automotive and aircraft CI engines
- Heat addition in 2 stages, firstly fast combustion at V = cte, and secondly slow combustion at P = cte
𝑣
- Cut-off ratio / Load Ratio, 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒 → 𝛽 = 3′
𝑣3
𝑝3′
- Cut-off ratio / Load Ratio, 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒 → 𝛼 =
𝑝2

Processes

1 – 2 Adiabatic compression: ↑ 𝑝, 𝑇

2 – 3’ Addition of heat (𝑉 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒)

3’ – 3 Addition of heat (𝑝 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒)

3 – 4 Adiabatic expansion

4 – 1 Rejection of heat (𝑉 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒)

Solving

𝑄𝑎 = 𝑄23 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3′ − 𝑇2) + 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇3′ )

𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄41 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4)
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇2𝑣2 = 𝑇1𝑣1 𝑇2 = 𝑇1𝑟𝑐
𝑝3′ 𝑣3′ 𝑇3′
= 𝑇3′ = 𝑇2 𝛼 𝑊 |𝑄𝑐 | 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1) 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1)
𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑇2 𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1− =1− =1−
𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3′ − 𝑇2) + 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇3′ ) 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3′ − 𝑇2) + 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇3′ )
𝑝3 𝑣3 𝑇3
= 𝑇 = 𝑇3′ 𝛽
𝑝3′ 𝑣3′ 𝑇3′ 3
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 𝛼 𝛽
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
{ 𝑇4𝑣4 = 𝑇3𝑣3 𝑇4𝑣4 = 𝑇3𝑣3

𝛾−1
𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑣 𝛾−1 𝑇 𝛽𝑣 ′ 1 𝛾−1 𝛽𝑣 ′ 𝛾−1 1 𝛾−1
(𝑇3 ( 3 ) − 𝑇2 ( 2 ) ) ( 3( 3 ) −( ) ) 𝛼𝛽 ( 3 ) −( )
(𝑇4 − 𝑇1) 𝑣4 𝑣1 𝑇2 𝑣4 𝑟𝑐 𝑣4 𝑟𝑐
=1− =1− =1− =1−
(𝑇3′ − 𝑇2) + 𝛾(𝑇3 − 𝑇3′ ) (𝑇3′ − 𝑇2) + 𝛾(𝑇3 − 𝑇3′ ) 𝑇′ 𝑇 𝑇′ (𝛼 − 1) + 𝛾(𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼)
( 3 − 1) + 𝛾 ( 3 − 3 )
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇2

1 𝛼𝛽 𝛾 − 1 𝛼 = 1 → 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − {
𝛾−1
𝑟𝑐 (𝛼 − 1) + 𝛾𝛼(𝛽 − 1) 𝛽 = 1 → 𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜
Comparison

- If 𝑟𝑐 is the same:

𝜂𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 > 𝜂𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 > 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

𝑊𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 > 𝑊𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 > 𝑊𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙

- Although for a given compression ratio the Otto cycle has higher efficiency, because the Diesel engine can be operated to higher
compression ratio, the engine can actually have higher efficiency than an Otto cycle when both are operated at compression ratios that
might be achieved in practice.

- A value of 𝛼 > 1 results in an increased efficiency for a given value of 𝑟𝑐 and 𝛾. Thus, the efficiency of the dual cycle lies between that of
the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle having the same compression ratio.

- Diesel cycle can operate with a higher compression ratio than the Otto cycle because only air is compressed and there is no r isk of auto-
ignition of the fuel.

Real cycles

Previous ideal cycles can be seen as an approximation to the indicated or closed cycle (positive work) of a r-ICE.

Indicated parameters

- Indicated mean effective pressure (pmi): pressure producing the real

engine indicated work during a single stroke. Useful to compare engines
with different geometries.
𝑊𝑖 𝑤𝑖
𝑝𝑚𝑖 = =
𝑉𝑑 𝑣1 −𝑣2
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 2𝑇 → 𝑖 = 1
- Indicated power # : 𝑖{
𝑟𝑒𝑣 4𝑇 → 𝑖 = 0.5

o (per cylinder)
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑖 · 𝑊𝑖 · 𝑛 = 𝑖 · 𝑝𝑚𝑖 · 𝑉𝑑 · 𝑛
o Total
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑖 · 𝑊𝑖 · 𝑛 · 𝑧 = 𝑖 · 𝑝𝑚𝑖 · 𝑉𝑑 · 𝑛 · 𝑧 = 𝑖 · 𝑝𝑚𝑖 · 𝑉𝑇 · 𝑛
- Indicated efficiency
𝑁𝑖
𝜂𝑖 =
𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿
Energy balance

From the indicated power produced inside the cylinder, only a portion is arriving effectively to the crankshaft. The difference is related to the
mechanical losses.

Effective parameters

Take into account all mechanical energy losses (pumping loop, friction losses, auxiliary systems activation)

- Effective work 𝑊𝑒
Indicated work minus the mechanical losses
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑚 𝑊𝑚 = 𝑊𝑏 + 𝑊𝑟 + 𝑊𝑎
- Effective power 𝑁𝑒
Effective work per time
𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁𝑖 − 𝑁𝑚
- Brake mean effective pressure
Constant pressure producing the effective work in a single stroke
𝑊𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑒 =
𝑉𝑑
- Mechanical efficiency
Relationship between indicated and effective parameters
𝑁𝑒 𝑝𝑚𝑒 𝜂𝑒
𝜂𝑚 = = =
𝑁𝑖 𝑝𝑚𝑖 𝜂𝑖

- Effective torque
Mechanical torque obtained at the crankshaft
Proportional to pme.
𝑁𝑒 𝑁𝑒 𝑝𝑚𝑒 · 𝑉𝑇 · 𝑖
𝑀𝑒 = =
𝜔 2𝜋 · 𝑛 2𝜋
- Effective efficiency
The maximum effective (total) efficiency is reached only at specific engine operating conditions.
𝑁𝑒
𝜂𝑒 = = 𝜂𝑖 𝜂𝑚
𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿
- Specific fuel consumption
Depends on the effective efficiency and the fuel properties (heating value)
𝑆𝐼: 0.25 − 0.35
Maximum values: {
𝐶𝐼: 0.35 − 0.55
𝑚̇𝑓 1
𝑔𝑒𝑓 = =
𝑁𝑒 𝜂𝑒 𝐿

Theoretically, the torque is independent from the engine speed, while the power increases linearly with it.
In reality, both curves have a maximum due to engine limitations (scavenging efficiency, turbocharging, combustion duration, emissions…)

LESSON 4 – Working cycles in Gas Turbine Engines

Preliminary design

- RfP (Request for Proposal) document: basis of the design, analysis of setup and weight (size). Influence on
manufacturing, safety, maintenance…
- Accurate analysis not feasible, but qualitative results with overall behaviour.
- Mass does not affect the cycle (specific magnitudes)
- Based on current technology, establish the thermodynamic cycle, component characteristics.
- Competitive engine requires: HIGH EFFICIENCY, THRUST AND LOW FUEL CONSUMPTION (related to cycle)
- The objective of the cycle analysis is to obtain a first approximation to the main parameters affecting the
performance (specific thrust, SFC…) from considerations related to: flight conditions (𝑃0, 𝑇0, 𝑀0, 𝑐𝑝 , 𝜏𝑟 , 𝜋𝑟 ),
design limits (𝑐𝑝 , 𝑇𝑡 )𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 , component performance (𝜋𝑑 , 𝜋𝑏 , 𝜋𝑛 … ), and design choices (𝜋𝑐 , 𝜋𝑓 … ).
- Not only one valid criterion to address the engine design process. Many factors affecting the decision
(experience of the company and the design team, project nature, …)
- The design of a new engine requires a great amount of data ANALYSIS and several ITERATIONS
Constraints analysis

𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝑊𝑇𝑂
- Minimum value of Thrust Loading ( ) as function of Wing Loading ( )
𝑊𝑇𝑂 𝑆
- Examples of restrictions
1. Take-off (in a given distance)
2. Flight at 𝑀0 , ℎ0
3. Required Turn (speed and altitude)
4. Landing (no-reverse)
- Valid to detect topologies (engine or aircraft) to be rejected from the very early stages of design
process.
- Sometimes, shows conflict between design specifications that cannot be met with a single
aircraft/engine.

Mission analysis

- To establish the scale of the aircraft via the estimation of gross take-off weight 𝑊𝑇𝑂 .
- Accomplished by flying the aircraft through its entire mission on paper.
𝑃 → 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 𝑊𝑃 + 𝑊𝐸 + 𝑊𝐹 { 𝐸 → 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
𝐹 → 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙

Ideal Brayton cycle

- Isobaric lines diverge: more work obtained during the expansion than lost during
compression.
- Valid to evaluate cycles that get mechanical energy directly from the shaft.
|∆ℎ𝐶 | = ℎ3𝑡 − ℎ2𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3𝑡 − 𝑇2𝑡 )
∆ℎ 𝑇 = ℎ4𝑡 − ℎ5𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇5𝑡 )
𝑞𝑎 = 𝑞𝑐𝑐 = ℎ4𝑡 − ℎ3𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇3𝑡 )
∆ℎ𝑢 = ∆ℎ 𝑇 − |∆ℎ𝐶 |
∆ℎ𝑢 ∆ℎ 𝑇 − |∆ℎ𝐶 |
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑞𝑐𝑐 𝑞𝑐𝑐
- In the ideal cycle, for a given 𝛾, the thermal efficiency is a function ONLY of the pressure
ratio:
𝜋𝑐 = 𝑝3𝑡 /𝑝2𝑡
𝛾−1
𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇5𝑡 ) − 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3𝑡 − 𝑇2𝑡 ) 𝑇5𝑡 − 𝑇2𝑡 𝑇2𝑡 𝑝2𝑡 𝛾
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1− =1− =1−( )
𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇3𝑡 ) 𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇3𝑡 𝑇3𝑡 𝑝3𝑡
1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1
𝑝2𝑡 𝛾
( )
𝑝
𝜋𝑐 3𝑡
𝛾 varies with the temperature and the gas composition:
↑ 𝑇4𝑡 → ↓ 𝛾, ↓ 𝜂𝑡ℎ , ↑ 𝑤̇𝑢
↑ 𝜋𝑐 → ↑ ↓ 𝜂𝑡ℎ

- Hipothesis for the ideal cycle calculation:

o Perfect gas
o Isentropic compression and expansion
o Complete expansion
o No refrigeration, pressure or friction losses.
o Negligible mechanical losses in the shaft.
o Instantaneous and complete combustion.

Real Brayton cycle

- Higher 𝑇4 to produce the same power than the ideal cycle. Therefore, the same power requires more fuel and thermal efficient 𝜂𝑡ℎ is
lower
- 𝑇4: turbine inlet temperature (TIT), limited by materials and the engine cooling (𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 1200 𝑘) *capacidad de refrigeración del
motor
 𝛾−1
𝑇4𝑡 1 1 𝑝3𝑡 𝛾
𝜂𝑇 1− 𝛾−1 − 𝜂 ((𝑝 ) − 1)
Δℎ𝐶,𝑠 𝑇3𝑡𝑠 − 𝑇2𝑡 𝑇2𝑡 𝑝3𝑡 𝛾 𝑇 2𝑡 pressure ratio
𝜂𝐶 = = ( )
Δℎ𝐶 𝑇3𝑡 − 𝑇2𝑡 ( 𝑝2𝑡 ) compressor efficiency
𝜂𝑡ℎ = depends on {
Δℎ 𝑇 𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇5𝑡 𝑇
𝛾−1
𝑝3𝑡 𝛾 turbine efficiency
𝜂𝑇 = = 1
Δℎ 𝑇,𝑠 𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇5𝑡𝑠 ( 4𝑡 − 1) − (( ) − 1) temperature ratio
𝑇2𝑡 𝜂𝐶 𝑝2𝑡

It is necessary to take into account:

- The pressure losses in CC.

- The losses by incomplete expansion.
- The losses due to cooling and bleeding for secondary uses: cooling allows increasing Turbine Inlet Temp. Nevertheless, the cooling air
(bleeding) is compressed (energy consumption) and does not generate power during the expansion (it’s a loss).

Calculation considering compressor and turbine losses:

𝑇4𝑡
 If losses are considered 𝜂𝑡ℎ depends on 𝜋𝑐 and
𝑇2𝑡

𝑇4𝑡
 𝜋𝑐 for max Δℎ𝑢 is < 𝜋𝑐 for a max 𝜂𝑡ℎ for a given
𝑇2𝑡

𝑇4𝑡
 Optimal values for Δℎ𝑢 and 𝜋𝑐 increase with
𝑇2𝑡

 En el ciclo real 𝜂𝑡ℎ no es monótona creciente con 𝑇4𝑡 .

Improvements to Brayton cycle

Given a Brayton cycle (known inlet conditions, pressure ratio and T4t), some modifications can be considered to improve performance:

- Increase thermal efficiency: REGENERATION

Internal energy of the exhaust gases is used to heat the air at the CC inlet, lower heat to be provided in the combustion chamber 𝑞𝑐𝑐
- Increase specific power:
REHEATING: expansion split into 2 stages. Exhaust gases are RE-HEATED between HP turbine and LP turbine
INTERCOOLING: compression split into 2 stages. Air is cooled between LP compressor and HP compressor
Regeneration

- Regeneration allows increasing thermal efficiency of the cycle by recovering some of

the energy from the exhaust gases.
- It is necessary that the exhaust gases temperature is higher than the temperature at
the inlet of CC.
- In an ideal cycle with complete regeneration (𝑇35𝑡 = 𝑇5) the thermal efficiency
depends only on the pressure ratio and the temperatures along the cycle:

𝛾−1
𝛾
(𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇5𝑡 ) − (𝑇3𝑡 − 𝑇2𝑡 ) 𝑇2𝑡 𝜋𝑐
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇35𝑡 𝑇4𝑡

- Real Brayton cycle vs Real Brayton cycle + refrigeration

 Specific work decreases (slightly) due to pressure losses of regenerator.
 In the range where is possible to regenerate: high increase in thermal
efficiency and lower optimal pressure ratio.
 Increase of 𝜂𝑡ℎ increases with 𝑇4𝑡 /𝑇2𝑡
𝑇35𝑡 −𝑇3𝑡
 ↑ 𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑔 → ↑ 𝜂𝑡ℎ ↓ 𝜋𝑐,𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑔 =
𝑇5𝑡 −𝑇3𝑡

Intercooling and reheating

- Increase the useful specific work provided by the standard Brayton cycle, keeping the same pressure ratio and temperature
ratio (𝑇4𝑡 /𝑇2𝑡 ).
- Cycle:
𝑇2𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑇4𝑡
 Carnot cycle: 𝜋𝑐 and 𝑇4𝑡 are the same → it is not possible to keep the intake
temperature → ↓ 𝑤̇𝑈
 Ericsson cycle: Ideal cycle that allows operation in the same conditions than
Brayton cycle, increasing the useful specific work. Compression and expansion
must be isothermal to increase useful specific work, to do so additional heat is
added during expansion.

Reheating

 Combustion process between HPT and LPT.

 Temperature of Reheating is limited by materials of LPT and cooling requirements
 Useful specific work increases more than the one used for cooling (isobaric lines divergence)
 Lower thermal efficiency of the cycle (lower as the cycle temperature ratio increases)

Intercooling

 Intercooling consists of temperature reduction of air coming from LPC. The useful specific
work increases.
 Intercooling temperature is limited by the temperature of the cold node and the efficiency of
the heat exchanger.
 In general, modifications in the cold side of engines are less significant than in the hot side.
 Can induce a reduction of the thermal efficiency, which could only be overcome if intercooling
was done together with regeneration.

Single/real Brayton cycle vs Brayton + intercooling + reheating

 Specific work increases for all pressure ratios. Regeneration does not significantly affect, only slightly lower work
when considering pressure losses.
 Higher 𝜋𝑐 that optimizes Δℎ𝑢 , flat shape around max values.
 Lower 𝜋𝑐 that optimizes 𝜂𝑡ℎ
𝑇4𝑡
 Higher operation range of 𝜋𝑐 for the cycle for low ratios.
𝑇2𝑡
𝑇4𝑡
 Given a , 𝜂𝑡ℎ improves just high 𝜋𝑐 , once the max for the single cycle is over.
𝑇2𝑡
 Higher 𝜂𝑡ℎ for the complete range of 𝜋𝑐 .
 LESSON 5 – Thrust generation and performance
Conservation equations applied to reaction engines

- The engine uses fluid to generate propulsive forces.

- Fluid mechanics general equations: conservation equations
- Integral equations: definition of a control volume to obtain the global characteristics of the flow. Control Volume (W) defined by internal
surfaces of the engine, together with inlet (e) and outlet (s) sections.
- Quasi-steady condition: transient terms are not considered.

Mass conservation equation

Net mass flow rate through boundaries (surfaces) of the V.C. is = 0 ALL inlets are discharged to atmosphere:

∬ 𝜌 (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 + ∬ 𝜌 (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 + ∬ 𝜌 (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = 0

∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒 𝑠

Developing each term:

No mass flux through walls ∬∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝜌 (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = 0

Inlet ∬𝑒 𝜌 (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = −𝜌̅𝑒 𝑉̅𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝐴𝑓 = −𝑚̇𝑎 − 𝑚̇𝑓 = −𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)

Outlet ∬𝑠 𝜌 (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = 𝜌̅𝑠 𝑉̅𝑠 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑠

Finally:

𝑚̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)

Momentum conservation equation

∬ 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 + ∬ 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 + ∬ 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡
∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒 𝑠

Developing each term:

No momentum flux through walls ∬∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = 0

⃗̅⃗𝑒 𝐴𝑒 = −𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉
Inlet ∬𝑒 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = −𝜌̅𝑒 𝑉̅𝑒 𝑉 ⃗⃗̅𝑒

⃗⃗̅𝑠 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑠 𝑉
Outlet ∬𝑠 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = 𝜌̅𝑠 𝑉̅𝑠 𝑉 ⃗̅⃗𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉
⃗̅⃗𝑠

∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∬∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡(−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 ̅ + 𝑇̅) · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 − (𝑝̅𝑒 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠

Finally:

⃗̅⃗𝑒 + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉

−𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉 ⃗̅⃗𝑠 = ∬(−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 ̅ + 𝑇̅) · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 − (𝑝̅𝑒 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠
∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡

Installed thrust

Pressure and Friction Resultant Forces applied by the fluid on the internal & external walls of the engine, minus the frictio n forces applied on the
external walls.

𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑜 = − [ ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 ̅ + 𝑇̅ ) · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 − ∬ 𝑇̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎] = − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 ̅ + 𝑇̅ ) · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎

∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡, ∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡

If the momentum conservation equation is considered:

⃗⃗̅𝑒 + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉

∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 ̅ + 𝑇̅) · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 = −𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉 ⃗̅⃗𝑠 + (𝑝̅𝑒 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑒 𝐴𝑒 + (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠
∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡

Finally

⃗̅⃗𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉

𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉 ⃗̅⃗𝑠 − (𝑝̅𝑒 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠 − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡

It is necessary to make independent the Installed Thrust from the conditions at (e). Usual/universal convention considers conditions at (0).

Thrust (0) = f (engine operation, flight conditions)

Momentum Conservation Equation applied to the VC between (0) and (e):

External boundary ∬∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡(0,𝑒) 𝜌 𝑣⃗(𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = 0

⃗̅⃗0 𝐴0 = −𝑚̇0 𝑉
Free Stream Boundary ∬0 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 == −𝜌̅0 𝑉̅0 𝑉 ⃗̅⃗0

⃗̅⃗𝑒 𝐴𝑒 = −𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉
Inlet ∬𝑒 𝜌𝑣⃗ (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗) 𝑑𝜎 = −𝜌̅𝑒 𝑉̅𝑒 𝑉 ⃗⃗̅𝑒

External Forces ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∬∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡(−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 ̅ + 𝑇̅ ) · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 − (𝑝̅0 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗0𝐴0 − (𝑝̅𝑒 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑒′ 𝐴𝑒

Considering also the installed thrust definition:

⃗̅⃗0 − 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉

𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉 ⃗⃗̅𝑠 − (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠 − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡(0,𝑒)

Considering also that:

𝑛⃗⃗𝑒′ = −𝑛⃗⃗𝑒 → ∬∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡(0,𝑒)(−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 = − ∬∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡(0,𝑒)(−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎

Thrust vector

⃗⃗0 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗0 𝑖⃗
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠,𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑠 cos 𝛼 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉0 + (𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝐴𝑠 cos 𝛼 + 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡,𝑖 + 𝐷𝑎𝑑,𝑖
{𝑉
⃗⃗𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 (cos 𝛼 𝑖⃗ + sin 𝛼 𝑗⃗)
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠,𝑗 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑠 sin 𝛼 + (𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝐴𝑠 sin 𝛼 + 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡,𝑗 + 𝐷𝑎𝑑,𝑗
𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 = cos 𝛼 𝑖⃗ + sin 𝛼 𝑗⃗

Thrust definitions

Thrust appears as a reaction to the momentum increase produced into the flow passing through a body

⃗̅⃗𝑠 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉 ⃗⃗̅0 + (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠 − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎 − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡(0,𝑒)

As a consequence, due to action-reaction principle, the same forces are generated into the walls, but with an opposite sense.

Installed Thrust vs. Net Thrust Estimation of additional an external drag terms

𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝐸 − 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐷𝑎𝑑 = 𝐸(1 − 𝜙𝑎𝑑 − 𝜙𝑒𝑥𝑡 )

𝐸 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ] + (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 )𝐴9

Thrust and drag definitions

Taking into account the Action-Reaction Principle, these contributions to thrust can be defined:

External drag: Pressure forces (ref to amb) applied by the fluid on the external surfaces.

⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = − ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎

𝐷
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡

Additional drag: Pressure forces (ref to amb) applied by the fluid on the boundaries of the tube stream from (0) to (e).

⃗⃗𝑎𝑑 = −
𝐷 ∬ (−(𝑝 − 𝑝0 )𝐼 )̅ · 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝜎
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑡(0,𝑒)

Installed thrust

⃗⃗̅𝑠 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠 = −𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉 ⃗⃗̅0 + (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠 − 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐷𝑎𝑑

Installed gross thrust: Does not take into account Flight Speed

⃗⃗̅𝑠 + (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠 − 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐷𝑎𝑑

𝐸⃗⃗𝑏,𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉

Net thrust

⃗⃗̅𝑠 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑠 + 𝐷𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐷𝑎𝑑 = 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉 ⃗⃗̅0 + (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠

Non-installed gross thrust

⃗⃗̅𝑠 + (𝑝̅𝑠 − 𝑝0 )𝑛⃗⃗𝑠 𝐴𝑠

𝐸⃗⃗𝑏,𝑛𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉
 THRUST

If the exist of the nozzle is adapted (𝑝0 = 𝑝9 ) and fuel flow rate is considered to be very small (𝑚𝑓 < 𝑚𝑎 ), net thrust can be simplified as:

𝐸 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ] → 𝐸 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑉9 − 𝑉0 )

Therefore, there are two strategies to increase thrust in reaction engines:

Energy conservation equation

𝑣2
∫ 𝜌 (ℎ + ) (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗)𝑑𝜎 = ∑(𝑇̅ · 𝑣⃗ − 𝑞⃗) · 𝑛⃗⃗𝑑𝜎
2
∑𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒,𝑠

Dimensionless numbers

𝜇𝜈
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜇 𝜈 𝑀2
= 𝐿 = ≈ ≪1
𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑇 𝜌𝐿 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 𝑅𝑒

𝑘𝑇
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝜇 𝑘 1 1
= 𝐿𝜈 = = ≪1
𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑇 𝜌𝐿𝜈 𝜇𝑐𝑝 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟

Finally, the energy equation of a reaction engine is:

𝑣2
∫ 𝜌 (ℎ + ) (𝑣⃗ · 𝑛⃗⃗)𝑑𝜎 = 0
2
∑𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒,𝑠

Once the combustion efficiency is defined, the energy equation results in:

𝑉𝑠2 𝑉02
𝜂𝑐𝑐 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) (ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 ) − ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇0)) + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) − 𝑚̇𝑎
2 2

Energy into the

system (useful from Heat Accelerate
combustion)

The energy introduced is reduced by means of the combustion efficiency (incomplete combustion), and the result is used to inc rease the
temperature of the exhaust gases and to accelerate the flow.

Performance parameters

Two engines with the same thermal efficiency may have different performances when propelling the aircraft

It is necessary to evaluate in detail the parameters defining the performance of a reaction engine. These parameters will be analysed:

- Thermal efficiency
Ratio between the useful work and heat provided by combustion
𝑐𝑝 (𝑇5𝑡 − 𝑇9 ) − 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2𝑡 − 𝑇0)
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4𝑡 − 𝑇3𝑡 )

𝑉𝑠2 𝑉02
𝜂𝑐𝑐 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) (ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 ) − ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇0)) + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) − 𝑚̇𝑎
2 2
Power loss by the increase of gases
Power introduced Kinetic energy increase
temperature
In reaction engines, can be expressed as the efficiency in the conversion of chemical energy of fuel
into kinetic energy of the fluid passing through the engine
1 1
𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉92 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉02
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 2 2
𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿
If the energy equation and net thrust definition (considering adapted nozzle) are combined, it is clear that not all the heat obtained during
combustion is used to get mechanical power:
Thrust power
𝐸𝑉0 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ((1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑠 𝑉0 − 𝑉02 )
Energy equation

𝑉𝑠2 𝑉02
𝜂𝑐𝑐 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) (ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 ) − ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇0)) + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) − 𝑚̇𝑎
2 2

Combining both

𝑉𝑠2 𝑉02
𝜂𝑐𝑐 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 − 𝐸𝑉0 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) (ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 ) − ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇0)) + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) − 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑠 𝑉0 + 𝑚̇𝑎
2 2

1 𝑉02
𝜂𝑐𝑐 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 = 𝐸𝑉0 + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)(𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉0 )2 − 𝑚̇𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓) (ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑠 ) − ℎ𝑝𝑐𝑐 (𝑇0))
2 2
Power Power loss by the increase of gases
Mechanical power
introduced temperature

The thermal efficiency is an internal efficiency

- Definition 1
1 2 2
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 2 [𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑉9 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉0 ]
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿

- Definition 2
1
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡+𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑉0 [(𝑚̇𝑎 +𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑉9 −𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉0 +𝐴9 (𝑝9 −𝑝0 )]+2(𝑚̇𝑎 +𝑚̇𝑓 )(𝑉9 −𝑉0 )2
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿
If the nozzle is adapted and 𝑚̇𝑓 is neglected (compared to 𝑚̇𝑎 ), both expressions are the same.

For bypass engines (turbofan, propfan)

- Definition 1
1
Δ𝐸𝑐𝜋 + Δ𝐸𝑐𝜎 𝜋 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒) Δ𝐸𝑐𝜋 = 𝑚̇ ((1 + 𝑓)𝑉92 − 𝑉02 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = { 2 𝜋
𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑏𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑) 1 2
Δ𝐸𝑐𝜎 = 𝑚̇𝜎 (𝑉19 − 𝑉02 )
2
If the nozzle is adapted and 𝑚̇𝑓 is neglected compared to 𝑚̇𝑎 :
𝑉92 + 𝛽𝑉19
2
− (1 + 𝛽)𝑉02 𝑚̇𝜎
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝛽 =
2𝑓𝐿 𝑚̇𝜋
- Definition 2
1 1
𝑉0 (𝐸𝜋 + 𝐸𝜎 ) + 𝑚̇𝜋 (1 + 𝑓)(𝑉9 − 𝑉0 )2 + 𝑚̇𝜎 (𝑉19 − 𝑉0 )2 𝐸𝜋 = 𝑚̇𝜋 ((1 + 𝑓)𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) + 𝐴9 (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 2 2 {
𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 𝐸𝜎 = 𝑚̇𝜎 (𝑉19 − 𝑉0 ) + 𝐴19 (𝑝19 − 𝑝0 )
If the nozzle is adapted and 𝑚̇𝑓 is neglected compared to 𝑚̇𝑎 :
𝑉92 + 𝛽𝑉19
2
− (1 + 𝛽)𝑉02 𝑚̇𝜎
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝛽 =
2𝑓𝐿 𝑚̇𝜋

If the analysis is focused on the gas generator (core) of the engine the core efficiency can be defined as the rate of kinetic energy available
at the exit, and the power added during combustion process.

𝑉02
(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 ) (𝑑ℎ𝑠 − )
2
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿

𝜂𝑡ℎ
Transmission efficiency Describes the quality of energy transfer from the hot flow to the cold flow: 𝜂𝑡𝑟 =
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
 - Propulsive efficiency
Rate of kinetic energy at the fluid
1
∆𝐸𝑐 = [(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑉92 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉02 ]
2
Thrust power (power to the aircraft)
𝑃𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑉0 𝐸 = 𝑉0 [(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑉92 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉02 + 𝐴9 (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 )]
Power wasted in the exhaust
1
𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑎_𝐸𝑐 = 𝑚̇ (1 + 𝑓)(𝑉9 − 𝑉0 )2
2 𝑎
Propulsive efficiency definition:
- Definition 1
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑉0 [(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑉92 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉02 + 𝐴9 (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 )]
𝜂𝑝 = =
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 1
[(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑉92 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉02 ]
2
If nozzle is adapted and 𝑚̇𝑓 neglected (compared to 𝑚̇𝑎 ):

2𝑉0
𝜂𝑝 =
𝑉9 + 𝑉0

 Analysing the definitions of net thrust and propulsive efficiency, it is worth noting that:
 If the jet velocity is much higher than flight velocity (𝑉9 ≫ 𝑉0 ), the net thrust is maximized, but the
propulsive efficiency tends to 0.
 If the jet velocity approaches the flight velocity, the net thrust tends to 0, but the propulsive
efficiency is maximum (tends to 1).
 From this analysis: high thrust with high propulsive efficiency requires high air flow rates (GE90 → Turbofan 3.2
m diameter).
 Additionally, a big difference between the jet velocity and the flight velocity generates acoustic pollution, which
needs to be avoided.
- Definition 2
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑉0 [(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 )𝑉92 − 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉02 + 𝐴9 (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 )]
𝜂𝑝 = =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 + 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑉 [(𝑚̇ + 𝑚̇ )𝑉 2 − 𝑚̇ 𝑉 2 + 𝐴 (𝑝 − 𝑝 )] + 1 𝑚̇ (1 + 𝑓)(𝑉 − 𝑉 )2
0 𝑎 𝑓 9 𝑎 0 9 9 0 2 𝑎 9 0

If nozzle is adapted and 𝑚̇𝑓 neglected (compared to 𝑚̇𝑎 ):

2𝑉0
𝜂𝑝 =
𝑉9 + 𝑉0

For bypass engines (turbofan, propfan):

- Definition 1
𝐸𝜋 = 𝑚̇𝜋 ((1 + 𝑓)𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) + 𝐴9 (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 )
𝐸𝜎 = 𝑚̇𝜎 (𝑉19 − 𝑉0 ) + 𝐴19 (𝑝19 − 𝑝0 )
𝑉0 (𝐸𝜋 + 𝐸𝜎 ) 1
𝜂𝑝 = Δ𝐸𝑐𝜋 = 𝑚̇𝜋 ((1 + 𝑓)𝑉92 − 𝑉02 )
∆𝐸𝑐𝜋 + ∆𝐸𝑐𝜎 2
1 2 2
{ Δ𝐸 𝑐𝜎 = 𝑚̇𝜎 (𝑉19 − 𝑉0 )
2
- Definition 2
𝑉0 (𝐸𝜋 + 𝐸𝜎 ) 𝐸𝜋 = 𝑚̇𝜋 ((1 + 𝑓)𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) + 𝐴9 (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 )
𝜂𝑝 = {
1 1 𝐸𝜎 = 𝑚̇𝜎 (𝑉19 − 𝑉0 ) + 𝐴19 (𝑝19 − 𝑝0 )
𝑉0 (𝐸𝜋 + 𝐸𝜎 ) + 𝑚̇𝜋 (1 + 𝑓)(𝑉9 − 𝑉0 )2 + 𝑚̇𝜎 (𝑉19 − 𝑉0 )2
2 2

If the nozzle is adapted, and neglecting the fuel mass flow compared to the air mass flow, definition 1 and definition 2 become
the same
2𝑉0 (𝑉9 + 𝛽𝑉19 − (1 + 𝛽)𝑉02 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑉9 + 𝛽𝑉19 − (1 + 𝛽)𝑉02

0
- Overall efficiency
𝐸
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑉0 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉0
𝜂0 = = =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐿 𝑓𝐿
On the other side, using definition 1 (the same for def 2)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝜂𝑝 =
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝜂0 = 𝜂𝑝 · 𝜂𝑡ℎ
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝜂0 = 𝜂𝑝 · 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 · 𝜂𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
{ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

- Specific fuel consumption

𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑘𝑔
𝐶𝑒 = = = [ ]
𝐸 𝜂0 𝐿 𝜂𝑃 𝜂𝑇𝐻 𝐿 𝑁𝑠
Order of magnitude of 𝐶𝑒 = 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 for different engines
Measurement of the overall eff of the engine for a given 𝑉0

- Specific impulse
𝐸 1
𝐼𝑠 = = [𝑠]
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑔 𝐶𝑒 𝑔
Variable used to compare different high speed engines (ramjet, scramjet and rocket engines)
- Specific Thrust
Quantifies the thrust per air flow unit
𝐸 𝐴9 𝑚 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑+𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸 𝑚
= (1 + 𝑓)𝑉9 − 𝑉0 + (𝑝9 − 𝑝0 ) [ ] → = 𝑉9 − 𝑉0 [ ]
𝑚̇𝑎 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑠 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑠
- If specific thrust increases the inlet area can be reduced, which yields to less weight and losses (drag).
- Reductions in TSFC allow to increase the flight range, the payload or reduce the size of the aircraft.

2𝑉0 𝐸
𝜂𝑝 = +2
𝑉9 − 𝑉0 2 𝑉0 𝑚̇ 𝑉
𝜂𝑝 = → 𝐶𝑒 = = 𝑎 0
𝐸 𝐸 𝜂𝑝 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝐿 2𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝐿
𝑉 = + 𝑉0 +2
{ 9 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉0

- The relation between TSFC and specific thrust is a trade-off that does not allow the desired trend. The only way to overcome
this trade-off is by means of technological advances yielding to better thermal efficiencies.

- If the nozzle is adapted (𝑝0 = 𝑝9 ) assuming the ideal turbojet:

𝛾−1
𝑇4𝑡
𝐸 2 𝑇4𝑡 𝛾−1 2 𝛾 𝑇0
= √𝛾𝑅𝑇 √ − (1 + 𝑀0 ) (𝜋𝑐 − 1) − 𝛾−1 − 𝑀0
𝑚̇𝑎 𝛾 − 1 𝑇0 2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾
( (1 + 𝑀0 ) 𝜋𝑐 )
( 2 )

- Order of magnitude of specific thrust for different engine topologies

- Performance parameters

Improvement of TSFC

- The overall efficiency of the engine has to be improved. Therefore, both the propulsive and thermal efficiencies should
increase.
- Increase of propulsive efficiency:
 Decrease jet velocity
 Increase BPR (Bypass ratio)
- Increase thermal efficiency
 Increase the Overall Pressure Ratio (OPR)
 Increase the max temperature of turbine
 Improve component efficiencies

 The reduction in specific fuel consumption achieved on the last years came mainly from an increase on the
pressure ratio and the bypass ratio (BPR)
 An increase in turbine inlet temperature has also been achieved

 Range of usage in reaction engines.

 𝑀0 < 0.5 → (𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ → 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑, 𝜂𝑝 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑟
𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 → 𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐵𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃
 0.5 < 𝑀0 < 0.9 → (𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ → 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑, 𝜂𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑟
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 → 𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐵𝑂𝐹𝐴𝑁
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 → 𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐹𝐴𝑁
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 → 𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝐵𝑃𝑅, ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑛
 1 < 𝑀0 < 2.5 → (𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑜 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ → 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑, 𝜂𝑝 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝐵𝑃𝑅, ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑛
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐹𝑇𝐸𝑅 − 𝐵𝑈𝑅𝑁𝐸𝑅
 2.5 < 𝑀0 < 3.5 → (𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑤 → 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑, 𝜂𝑝 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐵𝑂𝑅𝑂𝐶𝐾𝐸𝑇𝑆
𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜n
Use of AFTER-BURNER
 3.5 < 𝑀0 < ⋯ → (𝑉9 − 𝑉0 ) 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑤 → 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑, 𝜂𝑝 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝐴𝑀𝐽𝐸𝑇𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐶𝑅𝐴𝑀𝐽𝐸𝑇𝑆
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑦 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Mission requirements: design point

- The design of a new engine is always subjected to the market requirements and the available technology.
- The thermodynamic cycle will be determined by the mission analysis and the restrictions.
- Efficiency must be maximized for the required conditions.

- Aircraft range: Breguet equation