Journal of Management Information Systems

ISSN: 0742-1222 (Print) 1557-928X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/mmis20

A Motivational Model of Microcomputer Usage

Magid Igbaria, Saroj Parasuraman & Jack J. Baroudi

To cite this article: Magid Igbaria, Saroj Parasuraman & Jack J. Baroudi (1996) A Motivational
Model of Microcomputer Usage, Journal of Management Information Systems, 13:1, 127-143,
DOI: 10.1080/07421222.1996.11518115

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07421222.1996.11518115

Published online: 11 Dec 2015.

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 A Motivational Model of
Microcomputer Usage

MAGID IGBARIA, SAROJ PARASURAMAN, AND JACK J. BAROUDI

MAGID IGBARIA is a Professor of Information Science at the Claremont Graduate

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School and at the School of Management, Tel Aviv University. He recently spent a
yearas a Visiting ProfessorofDecision Sciences at the University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Formerly, he was a Professor of MIS at the College of Business and Administration
at Drexel University and lectured at the University of Waikato in New Zealand, and
at Tel Aviv University, Hebrew University, and Ben-Gurion University in Israel. He
holds a B.A. in statistics and an M.A. in information systems and operations research
from Hebrew University; he received his Ph.D. in computers and information systems
from Tel Aviv University. He serves as an associate editor of MIS Quarterly and ACM
Transactions on Information Systems, and on the editorial board of other journals. He
has published articles on computer technology acceptance, IS personnel, management
of IS, economics of computers, compumetrical approaches in IS, and international IS
in Applied Statistics, Behaviour & Information Technology, Communications of the A
CM, Computers & Operations Research, Decision Sciences, Decision Support
Systems, Information & Management, Information Systems Research, Journal of
Management Information Systems, Omega, MIS Quarterly, and others. His current
research interests focus on computer technology acceptance, the virtual workplace,
information economics, the economic impact of IS, IS personnel, gender and race
differences in IS, and cross-cultural differences in IS.
SAROJ PARASURAMAN received her Ph.D. in organizational behavior from the State
University of New York at Buffalo and is currently Professor of Management at Drexel
University. Her research encompasses stress, coping, and psychological well-being of
professionals in different occupations, career development of women and minorities,
and behavioral issues in the acceptance and use of computerized information systems.
Her current research interests include work-family linkages, the role of social support
processes in influencing work-family role dynamics, and entrepreneurial careers. Dr.
Parasuraman 's research has been published in leading academic journals including
the Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Work and Occupations, Group and Organization Studies,
Journal ofManagement, Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, Organi•
zational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, MIS Quarterly, Journal ofSystems
Management, and International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. She is co-editor
(with Jeff Greenhaus) ofa forthcoming book, Work and Family in a Changing World:
A Multiple Stakeholder Perspective. Dr. Parasuraman is a member of the Academy of
Management and serves on the Editorial Review Board of the Journal of Vocational
Behavior.
JACK J. BAROUDI is an Associate Professor of Information Systems at New York
University's Stem School of Business. He received his bachelor's degree in quantita•
tive methods from Boston University and his M.Phil. and Ph.D. in computer applica-

Journal t?{Management lnformation Systems I Summer 1996, Vol. 13, No. I. pp. 127-143
Copyright O 1996 M.E. Sharpe, Inc.
 128 IGBARIA, PARASURAMAN. AND BAROUDI

tions from New York University. Professor Baroudi's research interests include the
management of information systems personnel and their careers. His articles have
appeared in Communications of the A CM, Journal of Management Information
Systems, MIS Quarterly, Office: Technology and People, and Computer Personnel.

ABSTRACT: Survey data gathered from 4 71 professionals and managers in 62 compa•

nies in North America were used to test a motivational model ofmicrocomputer usage.
The model synthesized prior research findings and proposed that perceived usefulness,
perceived fun/enjoyment, and social pressure would motivate increased use of micro•
computers by professionals and managers. Results provided substantial support for
the proposition that perceived usefulness ( rather than perceived fun or social pressure)
is the principal motivator. The findings also demonstrated that perceived complexity
is a key intervening variable linking the antecedent variables (skills, organizational
support, and organizational usage) with the three motivational variables. The results
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also suggested that skills play a critical role in affecting microcomputer usage. Skills
directly promote microcomputer usage and influence usage through their effects on
perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure. The findings of the
study contribute to an expanded understanding of the factors that promote microcom•
puter usage and also have important implications for the management of information
systems.

KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: end-user skills, microcomputer usage, perceived useful•
ness, social pressure.

MICROCOMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES HA VE BEEN INCREASINGLY IN CORPORATED into the

business operations oflarge and small organizations. Despite the adoption of advanced
computer technologies by organizational decision makers, the actual use of micro•
computers by managers and professionals has tended to lag, and the potential benefits
of these technologies have not been fully realized. Consequently, IS researchers have
devoted considerable attention to understanding the factors that inhibit wider use of
microcomputers and identifying the factors that promote or motivate usage of this
technology [ 12, 26, 45].
Extant research on this topic has examined personality and attitudinal variables ( e.g.,
cognitive style, locus of control, math anxiety, computer anxiety, and unfavorable
attitudes toward computers) as well as organizational factors (training and organiza•
tional support) as determinants of computer usage [27, 36, 45]. Much of the prior
research in this area has focused on the utility or perceived usefulness of microcom•
puters as the principal motivating factor in using them. This implies that the decision
to use microcomputers is based largely on a rational calculation of the benefits to be
derived relative to the costs incurred. Relatively little attention has been given to the
recreational basis of microcomputer usage. The limited research in this area indicates
that the use of microcomputers can be stimulated by the intrinsic joy and enjoyment
derived [48]. Moreover, with the growth in the presence of microcomputers in work
organizations, computer literacy is increasingly expected in many jobs and individuals
may be subject to normative social pressures to use microcomputers [45].
 A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
129129129

The objective of this study is to integrate these three perspectives on the reasons
underlying the use of microcomputers and to examine simultaneously the relative
influence of three motivators identified in the literature as affecting individuals'
decision to use computers: ( 1) perceived usefulness; (2) perceived enjoyment/fun; and
(3) social pressure. The study extends previous research by formulating an integrated
model of motivation to use computers and examining the relative contribution of the
three motivators in explaining variation in the use of microcomputers.
The study focuses specifically on microcomputers because of their ubiquitous
presence in most organizations. The expanded capabilities and sophistication of
microcomputers have made them serious tools for managerial decision making, while
their versatility, growing user-friendliness, and responsiveness to users' actions have
contributed to their perception as recreational devices that are enjoyable to use. An
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additional factor underlying the decision to focus on microcomputers is their amena•

bility to custom design to meet user needs [21, 29, 48]. The conceptual model guiding
this study is described in the next section.

Conceptual Model and Research Hypotheses

IN DEVELOPING OUR MODEL WE BUILT ON THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS used or

suggested in previous research. The theory ofreasoned action (TRA) by Fishbein and
Ajzen [ 15] suggests that behavior (in this case microcomputer usage) is determined
by individuals' perceptions and attitudes toward the behavior as well as social
influences. Davis et al. 's [ 12] technology acceptance model {TAM) emphasizes
perceived usefulness as the major motivating factor in the use ofcomputer technology.
Deci 's [ 13] distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivators ofbehavior suggests
that individuals may be motivated to use microcomputers because of the intrinsic
rewards derived (enjoyment and fun), because of the perceived benefits (usefulness),
or because of external pressures (social pressure).
Figure 1 presents the model examined here. The model represents an integration of
the theoretical perspectives discussed above, and posits that microcomputer usage is
a function of three motivational factors, namely, perceived usefulness, perceived
enjoyment, and social pressure. These three factors are hypothesized to have a direct
influence on microcomputer usage. The model also proposes that these three factors
mediate the effects of antecedent individual and organizational variables on usage.
The figure shows that skills, organizational support, and social factors are expected to
influence microcomputer usage through their effects on perceived complexity and
through perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure. The total
network of relationships among the variables in the mode] and the rationale for the
proposed linkages are explained in the following section.

Perceived Usefulness
The importance of perceived usefulness as a motivating factor derives from the TRA
and TAM models that propose that perceived usefulness affects computer usage due
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 132 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
131131131

enon, namely, the individual's perceptions of normatively appropriate behavior with

regard to the use of microcomputers.
Social pressure represents a third motivational factor influencing microcomputer
usage. According to this perspective, individuals may use microcomputers not because
of their usefulness or the enjoyment derived but because of the perceived social
pressure. Such pressure may be perceived as coming from individuals whose beliefs
and opinions are important to them, such as supervisors, peers, and subordinates.
These individuals may use computerized systems because they think they will be
perceived by the people who are important to them as technologically sophisticated.
Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
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H3. Social pressure will be positively related to microcomputer usage.

Antecedent Variables

The model includes perceived complexity as an important intervening variable linking

the three antecedent variables-skills, organizational support, and organizational
usage--with perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure. Davis
et al. [ 12] identified ease ofuse as an important determinant of system usage through
perceived usefulness. Ease of use is similar to perceived complexity as defined by
Davis [IO]. Perceived ease of use "refers to the degree to which a person believes that
using a particular system would be free of effort" (p. 320). Adams et al. [I] found that
both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are important determinants of
system usage (mainly in their first study). Similar findings have been reported by
Mathieson [36], Rogers [42], and Thompson et al. [45]. Moreover, Webster and
Martocchio [49] suggest that playfulness and enjoyment in using computers depends
strongly on perceived complexity or ease ofuse. Therefore, the following hypothesis
is proposed:

H4. Perceived complexity will be negatively related to microcomputer usage,

perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure.

Skills

The use of computer technology depends on the technology itself and the level of skill
or expertise of the individual using it [37]. Computer experience and user training
have been found to be associated with ease of use, enjoyment, and perceived useful•
ness [27, 30, 48, 49]. Computer skills are likely to promote more favorable perceptions
and beliefs about the use of microcomputers. The TRA and TAM models propose that
external factors, such as skills, will affect behavior through their effect on beliefs and
social pressure. On the other hand, the theory of planned behavior (TPB), discussed
by Ajzen [2, 3], proposes that perceived behavior control (PBC) has a direct influence
on behavior. PBC refers to the individual's perceptions of "the presence or absence
ofrequisite resources and opportunities necessary to perform the behavior" [5, p. 457].
 132 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
132132132

It includes skills opportunities and resources needed to use the system. This relation•
ship was empirically supported by Mathieson [36] in predicting computer usage.
Additional support for the direct effect of skills on usage was also found by Thompson
et al. [45]. Further, Webster and Martocchio [49] also report a positive relationship
between skills and playfulness, which is similar to enjoyment. They suggest that the
relationship of playfulness and enjoyment depends on skills of the user and perceived
complexity. Therefore, the following is proposed:

H5. Skills will be positively related to microcomputer usage, perceived useful•

ness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure and negatively related to per•
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ceived complexity.

Support
Davis et al. [ 12] propose that organizational support is an important variable that is
likely to affect perceived usefulness and perceived ease ofuse. Organizational support
was found to be associated with great system usage [20, 34]. Other studies indicate
also that management support is positively related to enjoyment and/or ease of use
[46]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H6. Organizational support will be positively related to microcomputer usage,

perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure and negatively
related to perceived complexity.

Organizational Usage
Characteristics of the organizational environment can play a role in motivating usage
of microcomputers. Perceived complexity, perceived usefulness, perceived enjoy•
ment, social pressure, and usage could be influenced by the extensiveness of organi•
zational use of microcomputers. In organizations where microcomputers are widely
used, individuals are likely to perceive the use of microcomputers as the norm and to
be favorably disposed toward using them. Observation of the widespread use of micro•
computers in organizations could demonstrate their ease of use and enjoyment displayed
by coworkers. Thompson et al. [45] found that extensive organizational usage had a strong
effect on individual usage. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H7. Organizational usage will be positively related to microcomputer usage,

perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure and negatively
related to perceived complexity.

Method

Sample and Procedure

THE DATA FOR THIS STUDY WERE GATHERED BY MEANS OF a questionnaire. A letter
was sent to chief executive officers (CEOs) of seventy-seven companies operating in
 132 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
133133133

North America, explaining the purpose of the study and inviting them to participate
in the study. The CEOs were asked to provide the name of a contact person who would
serve as liaison with the researchers and facilitate the administration of the survey. Of
the seventy-seven companies contacted, fifteen companies declined to participate due
to time constraints. Contact persons nominated by the CEOs in the remaining sixty-two
companies were given a brief description of the purpose of the study, along with
instructions for the distribution of the surveys. They were asked to distribute the
questionnaires randomly to managers and professionals who either had a microcom•
puter on their desk or had easy access to one in the daily performance of their job, and
who had used microcomputers for at least six months. The latter requirement was to
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avoid biasing the results due to learning-curve effects ofnovice users. Seven hundred
and sixty-six questionnaires were distributed by the contact persons in the 62 partici•
pating companies, of which 519 surveys from 52 companies were returned, for an
initial response rate of 67.75 percent. Excluding incomplete questionnaires, the final
sample consisted of 471 managers and professionals. In order to assess the possibility
of nonresponse bias, a comparison of the early response returns to those returned late
was conducted [7]. At-test comparing the differences in the study variables showed
no significant differences for 94.4 percent of the items. Thus, nonresponse bias was
not considered a problem.
The respondents were employed in a variety of manufacturing, service, merchan•
dising, insurance, and financial organizations. They held professional and managerial
positions in a wide range of functional areas including accounting, finance, MIS,
marketing, sales, operations and production, general management, research and de•
velopment, and engineering. The overwhelming majority of the participants (84
percent) were men, and 16 percent were women. They ranged in age from 21 to 63
years, and had a mean age of38.2 years. A substantial majority of the respondents (68
percent) had college degrees, and approximately 31 percent of the managers had
graduate degrees. The participants were mostly in middle management (65.8 percent),
or first-level management ( 17.4 percent).

Measures

Managerial Usage of Microcomputer Technology

On the basis of several studies [9, 14, 28], two indicators of microcomputer usage were
included in this study: ( 1) self-reported daily use of microcomputers, and (2) self-re•
ported frequency of use of microcomputers. Individuals were asked to indicate the
amount of time spent on the microcomputer per day, using a six-point scale ranging
from l ("almost never") to 6 ("more than three hours per day"). Frequency of use has
been suggested by Raymond [39] and used by lgbaria et al. [28] and provides a better
indicator of the extensiveness of usage than measures of time spent. Frequency of use
was measured on a six-point scale ranging from I ("less than once a month") to 6
("several times a day").
 134 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
134134134

These indicators are typical of the kinds of self-reported measures often used to
operationalize system use and acceptance, particularly in cases where objective use
and acceptance metrics are not available. Objective use logs were not practical in the
present study since participants used different microcomputers as well as different
applications for different tasks. Self-reported usage should not be regarded as a precise
measure of actual usage, although previous research suggests it is appropriate as a
relative measure [8].

Perceived Enjoyment/Fun
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According to the work of Davis et al. [ 12], perceived enjoyment/fun refers "to the
extent to which the activity of using the computer is perceived to be enjoyable in
its own right, apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated"
(p. 1113). Three different pairs from the evaluation dimension of the semantic
differential were used on seven-point semantic differential items to assess perceived
enjoyment. Individuals were asked to rate the three items according to how they fee]
about using microcomputers and to check off items that best describe their opinion or
feeling (i.e., Using a microcomputer in my job is: pleasant/unpleasant, enjoyment/frus•
trating, and enjoyable/unenjoyable).

Perceived Usefulness

This measure is defined as "the prospective user's subjective probability that using a
specific application system will increase his or her job performance within an organ•
izational context" [ 12, p. 320]. The items used to construct the perceived usefulness
scale were adapted from prior research [ I 0, 12, 26], with appropriate modifications to
make them specifically relevant to microcomputers. Individuals were asked to indicate
the extent ofagreement or disagreement with the following four statements concerning
microcomputers on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 7 (strongly agree):

I. "Using a microcomputer improves my productivity on the job."

2. "Using a microcomputer helps me make better decisions by giving me
access to higher quality information."
3. "Using a computer allows me to be more innovative by providing the
opportunities for more creative analysis and outputs."
4. "Using a microcomputer gives me the opportunity to enhance my manage•
rial image."

Social Pressure

Social pressure was operationalized according to Ajzen and Fishbein's [15, appendix
A] recommended guidelines. Individuals were asked to indicate their agreement or
disagreement with the following statement: "Most people who are important to me in
 134 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
135135135

my job think I should be using the microcomputer regularly in my job." The response
options, anchored on a seven-point Likert-type scale, range from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 7 (strongly agree).

Perceived Complexity

Based on Davis [10, 11], Davis etal. [12], Rogers and Shoemaker [43],and Thompson
et al. [45], we use perceived complexity to refer to the degree to which computer
technology is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use. Individuals were
asked to indicate the extent of agreement or disagreement with the following three
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statements concerning microcomputers on a seven-point scale ranging from I

(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree):
1. "Using a microcomputer can take up too much of my time in performing
many tasks."
2. "When I use a microcomputer, I find it difficult to integrate the work on the
computer into my existing work."
3. "Using a microcomputer exposes me to the vulnerability of computer
breakdown and loss of data."

Computer Skills

Computer skills are defined as a combination of users' experience with computers,

the training they obtained, and overall computer skills. Computer experience was
assessed by six items asking respondents to indicate the extent of their experience
using different types of computer software and languages and participating in the
development of computerized information systems. The total number of experiences
represents computer experience. Computer training was measured by individual's
responses to four questions asking them to report the extent of training in both
microcomputers and mainframes they had received from four sources: college
courses; vendor training; in-house training; and self-training. The number of training
programs he or she has participated in represents computer training. Fina11y, individ•
uals were asked to rate their computer skills on a seven-point scale ranging from 1
(novice) to 7 (expert).

Organizational Support

The measure of organizational support, developed by Igbaria [26], assesses general

support, which includes top management encouragement and allocation of adequate
resources. Individuals were asked to indicate the extent ofagreement or disagreement
with the following four statements concerning organizational support on a five-point
scale ranging from I (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree):

1. "Management is really keen to see that we are happy using our microcom•
puters."
 136 JGBARIA, PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDJ
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
136136136

2. "Management has provided most of the necessary help and resources to get
us used to the microcomputer quickly."
3. "I am always supported and encouraged by my boss to use the microcom•
puter in my job."
4. "I am convinced that management is sure as to what benefits can be achieved
with the use of microcomputers."

Organizational Usage

Organizational usage was assessed by three items asking individuals to indicate the
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level of usage of microcomputers by their supervisors, peers, and subordinates on a

scale ranging from I (very low) to 5 (very high).
The psychometric properties of the scales in tenns of their internal consistency
reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity for use in this study were assessed
by means of the test of the measurement model that constitutes the first stage of the
data analytic technique of partial least squares, which is described in the next section.

Data Analyses
The hypothesized relationships among the study variables depicted in figure 1 were
tested by means of partial least squares (PLS). PLS is a second-generation multivariate
technique that facilitates testing of the psychometric properties of the scales used to
measure a variable, as well as estimation of the parameters of a structural model, that is,
the strength and direction of the relationships among the model variables [ 16, 33, 51 ].
The test of the measurement model includes estimation of the reliability coefficients
(composite reliability) of the measures, as well as an examination of the convergent
and discriminant validity of the research instruments. In determining the appropriate
minimum loadings required for the inclusion of an item within a scale, we used
Fornell's [16] recommendation to retain items that loaded highly (0.70 is considered
a high loading since the item explains almost 50 percent of the variance in a particular
construct) on their respective constructs. Fornell and Larcker's [ 17] criterion that an
average extracted variance should be 0.50 or more was used to assess the average
variance extracted for all constructs. We also used the guidelines recommended by
Hair ct al. [24] in dctennining the relative importance and significance of the factor
loading of each item-in other words, loadings greater than 0.30 are considered
significant; loadings greater than 0.40 are considered more important; and loadings
0.50 or greater are considered very significant. Finally, the criteria suggested by
Nunnally [38] were applied to determine the adequacy of the reliability coefficients
obtained for each measure.
To assess the discriminant validity of the measures--that is, the degree to which
items differentiate among constructs or measure distinct concepts=-we examined the
correlations between the measures of potentially overlapping constructs [22]. If the
items comprising an instrument that measures a construct correlate more highly with
each other than with items measuring other constructs in the model [ 18, 22], the
 136 JGBARIA, PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDJ
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
137137137

measure is determined to have adequate discriminant validity.

The evaluation of the structural model was conducted with the total sample. The
computer program used for this analysis was LVPLS I .6 (Latent Variables Path
Analysis using Partial Least Squares), developed by Lohmoller [32, 33]. To test the
estimated path coefficients, t-statistics were calculated using a nonparametric test of
significance known as jackknifing [47, 50].
The path coefficient of an exogenous variable represents the direct effect of that
variable on the endogenous variable. An indirect effect represents the effect of a
particular variable on the second variable through its effects on a third mediating
variable. It is the product of the path coefficients along an indirect route from cause
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to effect via tracing arrows in the headed direction only. When more than one indirect
path exists, the total indirect effect is their sum. The sum of the direct and indirect
effect reflects the total effect of the variable on the endogenous variable [6, 44].

Results

The Measurement Model

TABLE ] PRESENTS THE RESULTS OF THE TEST OF THE MEASUREMENT MODEL. The
data show that the measures of the constructs examined in this study are robust in
terms of their internal consistency reliability as indexed by coefficient alpha. The
composite reliabilities of the different constructs included in the model range from
0.80 to 0.92, which exceed the recommended values in Nunnally's [38] guidelines.
The results in Table 1 also demonstrate satisfactory convergent and discriminant
validity of the measures. Consistent with the recommendations of Fornell and Larcker
[ 17], average variance extracted for all constructs exceeded 0.50. The inter•
correlations among the items measuring each construct were stronger than their
correlations with items representing other constructs.
Table 2 presents the intercorrelations among the study variables. In all twenty-eight
entries examined, the squared correlations, representing the shared variance among
variables, were found not to exceed the average variance explained. This suggests that our
constructs are distinct and unidimensional constructs. In summary, the convergent and
discriminant validity of our instruments was satisfactory.

Tests of the Structural Model

The results of the multivariate test of the structural model are presented in Tables 3,
4, and 5. Table 5 shows that the model as a whole explained 28 percent of the variance
(p � 0.001) in system usage. Tables 3 and 4 show that the explained variance in
perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure was 25, 27, and 17
percent, respectively. Table 3 also shows that the antecedent variables explained 16
percent of the variance in perceived complexity.
Consistent with hypotheses 1, 2, and 3, perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment,
 138 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN. AND BAROUDI
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138138138

Table 1. Assessment of the Measurement Model

The composite reliability Average variance

Variables (alpha coefficients) extracted/explained
Skills 0.87 0.63
Organizational support 0.88 0.65
Organizational usage 0.80 0.68
Perceived complexity 0.76 0.52
Perceived usefulness 0.83 0.55
Perceived fun/enjoyment 0.83 0.62
Social pressure 1.00 1.00
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System usage 0.92 0.85

Table 2. lntercorrelations among Study Variables

Variables I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Skills 0.63
2. Organizational 0.14 0.65
support
3. Organizational 0.10 0.37 0.68
usage
4. Perceived --0.35 --0.25 --0.15 0.52
complexity
5. Perceived 0.29 0.27 0.12 --0.46 0.55
usefulness
6. Perceived 0.34 0.26 0.06 --0.44 0.39 0.62
fun/enjoyment
7. Social 0.23 0.23 0.13 --0.36 0.25 1.00
0.27
pressure
8. System usage 0.37 0.21 0.21 --0.31 0.40 0.30 0.27 0.85

The absolute values of correlation z 0.075 are significant at 0.05 or lower. The diagonals represent
the average variance extracted.

and social pressure are all positively related to microcomputer usage. The data show
that perceived usefulness has the strongest direct effect on usage (P = 0.26,p s 0.001 ).
The contributions of perceived enjoyment and social pressure to computer usage (P =
0.08 and 0.11,p s 0.01, respectively) are substantially lower.
Consistent with hypothesis 4, perceived complexity had negative effects on per•
ceived usefulness (P = -0.38, p < 0.00), perceived enjoyment tjl = -0.35, p < 0.001 ),
and social pressure (P =-0.29,p s 0.001). Perceived complexity had both direct and
indirect effects on usage through perceived usefulness, enjoyment, and social pressure.
Note that its indirect effect on usage is much stronger than its direct effect.
The antecedent variables had significant direct effects on perceived complexity,
perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, social pressure, and usage. Consistent
with hypothesis 5, skills had a strong negative effect on perceived complexity,
perceived usefulness, perceived fun, social pressure, and usage (y = -0.32, 0.13, 0.20,
 138 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN. AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
139139139

Table 3. Prediction of Perceived Complexity and

Perceived Perceived
Perceived Usefulness
usefulness
Variables complexity
Direct Indirect Total
Skills -0.32* 0.13* 0.12 0.25*
Organizational -0.19* 0.16* 0.07 0.23*

Organizational usage -0.05* -0.01 0.02 0.01

Perceived
support complexity -0.38* -0.38*

0.16* 0.25*

.Ffs o.or.
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Table 4. Prediction of Fun/Enjoyment and Social Pressure

Variables Perceived fun/enjoyment Social pressure
Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total

Skills 0.20* 0.11 0.31* 0.11* 0.09 0.20*

Organizational 0.18* 0.07 0.25* 0.14* 0.06 0.20*
support
Organizational -0.07* 0.02 -0.05* 0.03* 0.02 0.05*
usage
Perceived -0.35* -0.35* -0.29* -0.29*
complexity

.Ffs
p 0.01.
0.27* 0.17*

0.11, and 0.23, p � 0.001, respectively). In addition, the data confirm the importance
of organizational support in influencing perceived complexity (y = 0.19, p � 0.001 ),
perceived usefulness (y = 0.16, p � 0.001 ), perceived enjoyment (y = 0.18, p � 0.00 I),
and social pressure (y = 0.14,p � 0.001). Organizational support and organizational
usage had a modest direct effect on usage (y = 0.03, p � 0.01 ). These results provide
partial support for hypothesis 6. Finally, organizational usage showed direct effects
on perceived complexity, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure (y =-0.05,-0.07,
and 0.03, p � 0.0 I), as well as on microcomputer usage (y = 0.13, p � 0.00 I).
To sum up, the tests of the structural model show that perceived usefulness is a
dominant motivator of microcomputer usage and has the strongest direct effect on
usage. Perceived enjoyment and social pressure are additional motivators, though their
effect on usage is much smaller. The results also demonstrate the importance of
perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pressure in mediating the
relationships of antecedent variables and perceived complexity on microcomputer
usage.
 140 IGBARIA, PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
140140140

Table 5. Prediction of System Usage

Variables Direct Indirect Total

Skills 0.23* 0.12 0.35*
Organizational support 0.03* 0.08 0.11 *
Organizational usage 0.13* 0.00 0.13*
Perceived complexity --0.02* --0.16 --0.18*
Perceived usefulness 0.26* 0.26*
Perceived fun/enjoyment 0.08* 0.08*
Social pressure 0.11 * 0.11 *
R2 0.28*
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Discussion

THE PRESENT STUDY INTEGRATED THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES and empirical

findings of research on the adoption, acceptance, and use of microcomputers, and
proposed and tested a structural model examining the role of three different motivators
in promoting microcomputer usage by managers and professionals. The results
provide substantial support for the threefold motivational model and demonstrate the
relative contribution of perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pres•
sure to variation in microcomputer usage. The findings reiterate the key motivating
role of perceived usefulness in promoting microcomputer usage and demonstrate the
utilitarian and rational underpinnings of the decision to use microcomputers. That is
to say, individuals are likely to have favorable attitudes about using microcomputers
if they believe that using the system will increase their performance and productivity.
The study results also indicate the incentive properties of anticipated enjoyment and
normative social pressure in stimulating microcomputer usage. The direct effect of
perceived enjoyment on usage is small. However, the negative effect of complexity
on perceived enjoyment suggests that the potential for enjoyment by using microcom•
puters may not be fully realized. The spate of articles in popular journals and
magazines highlighting the increased computerization of business activities and
expanded use of microcomputers across different occupations, organizations, job
categories, and job levels calls attention to the vital importance of a working knowl•
edge of computers as a requisite skill for employee survival in today's organizations.
This creates normative social pressures on individuals to experiment and learn how to
use microcomputers.
The results indicate moderate to strong support for the proposed 1 inkages among the
model variables and provide interesting insights into the routes through which the
antecedent variables influence microcomputer usage. The findings indicate that per•
ceived complexity is a key intervening variable linking the antecedent variables•
skills, organizational support, and organizational usago=-with perceived usefulness,
perceived enjoyment, and social pressure. The importance of perceived complexity is
further illustrated by its direct effect on microcomputer usage. The strong negative
 140 IGBARIA, PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
A MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF MICROCOMPUTER USAGE
141141141

effect of skills on perceived complexity suggests that skills may enhance people's
self-efficacy and demystify microcomputers.
The importance of organizational support in promoting wider usage of microcom•
puter technology has been well recognized [23, 31]. Organizational support can take
a variety of forms, such as encouragement to use the system, providing a wider
selection of user-friendly software of special use to different jobs, offering educational
programs, applying information technology to support a wider variety of business
tasks, and encouraging experimentation with microcomputers. Features that enhance
the potential for enjoyment of microcomputers could be instrumental in stimulating
more extensive usage.
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The findings of the present study contribute to a better theoretical understanding of

the factors that promote microcomputer usage. It should be noted, however, that the
model variables explained 28 percent of the variance on usage. The fact that 72 percent
of the variance was unexplained suggests the need for additional research incorporat•
ing potential unmeasured variables in the current study. Important among these are
user participation and involvement, self-efficacy, and task characteristics [ 12, 19].
Furthermore, it is possible that the variables have interactive effects on motivation to
use microcomputers and eventually usage. Finally, while cross-sectional studies such as
the present one are useful in identifying the patterns of relationships among the relevant
variables, a longitudinal research design is essential to confirm the causal linkages among
the study variables. The strengths of the findings would also be enhanced by the use of
both subjective and objective measures of usage and performance.
This study has important implications for the management of information technol•
ogy. Organizational programs aimed at promoting more extensive use of microcom•
puter technologies should emphasize not only their capabilities and positive
contributions to performance and productivity, but also the features that make them
enjoyable to use. The impact of social pressure on usage suggests that individuals are
responsive to the demonstration effect. The documentation and dissemination ofusage
data could illustrate the ease and fun of using microcomputers and thereby encourage
wider use.
The importance of skills on microcomputer usage is demonstrated in a variety of
ways. Skills directly promote microcomputer usage, and they also influence usage
through their effects on perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and social pres•
sure. Furthermore, skills play a critical role in reducing the perceived complexity of
microcomputer technology and thereby enhance the motivation to use microcomput•
ers. This suggests that educational and training programs designed to increase
individuals' knowledge about computers and their operations may be beneficial in
enhancing computer skills and reducing attitudinal barriers to the use of microcom•
puters. Changes in the mode of delivery of instruction and training may be useful in
developing an individual's skills in using microcomputers, which in tum will enhance
usage through its effects on perceived enjoyment and perceived usefulness. The
creation of opportunities to gain experience in using microcomputers in a nonthreat•
ening way through computer games could enhance perceptions of ease of use and
enjoyment and, thereby, encourage microcomputer usage.
 142 IGBARIA. PARASURAMAN, AND BAROUDI
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142142142

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