TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATION Subject Code : 17EI35

Module -1

Classification and Functional Elements of Instrument/ measurement system:

Measurement, significance of measurement, instruments and measurement systems,
mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments, Deflection & Null type instruments
and their comparison, Analog and digital modes of operation, functions of instruments
and measurement systems, applications of measurement systems, Elements of
generalized measurement system, Input-output configuration of measuring
instruments and measurement systems, methods of correction for interfering and
modifying inputs. Transducers, Classifications of transducers-primary & secondary,
active & passive, analog and digital transducers. 10 Hours L1, L2

Module -2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics: Static calibration and error calibration curve,
accuracy and precision, indications of precision, static error, scale range and scale span,
reproducibility and drift, repeatability, signal to noise ratio, sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis,
threshold, dead zone and dead time, resolution, signal to noise ratio, factors influencing the
choice of transducers/instruments. Dynamic response – dynamic characteristics, time domain
analysis &different types of inputs, frequency domain analysis. Time domain response – zero
order system, first order system, response of a first order system to step & ramp input,
frequency response of first order system. 8 Hours L1, L2, L3, L4

Module -3
Measurement of Displacement: Introduction, Principles of Transduction, Variable
resistance devices, variable Inductance Transducer, Variable Capacitance Transducer,
Hall Effect Devices, Proximity Devices, Digital Transducer
Measurement of Level: Capacitance probes, conductivity probes, differential pressure
level detector, float level devices, optical level switches, radiation level sensor,
ultrasonic level detector, thermal level sensors 10 Hours L1, L2,
L3, L4

Module -4
Measurement of Strain: Introduction, Factors affecting strain measurements, Types of
Strain Gauges, Theory of operation of resistance strain gauges, Types of Electrical
Strain Gauges – Wire gauges, unbounded strain gauges, foil gauges, semiconductor
strain gauges (principle, types & list of characteristics only), Materials for Strain
Gauges, Strain gauge Circuits – Wheatstone bride circuit, Applications.
Measurement of Force & Torque: Introduction, Force measuring sensor – Load cells –
column types devices, proving rings, cantilever beam, pressductor. Hydraulic load cell,
Electronic weighing system. Torque measurement: Absorption type, transmission type,
stress type & deflection type.
10 Hours L1, L2, L3, L4

Module -5
Measurement of Pressure: Introduction, Diaphragms, Other elastic elements,
Transduction methods – potentiometric device, strain gauge transducer, variable
reluctance, LVDT type, variable capacitance device (principle & working, no derivation),
force balance transducer with analysis, thin-film pressure transducers, piezoelectric
pressure transducer, pressure multiplexer, pressure calibration. Miscellaneous Sensors:
Noise (sound) Sensors, Speed Sensors, Thickness Measurement, Weather stations
10 Hours L1, L2, L3, L4

Course Outcomes: After studying this course, students will able to:
1. Define the transducer, instrument, measurement and classify different types of
transducers
2. Explain the functional elements of instrumentation / measurement systems
3. Discuss the input-output configuration of measurement systems
4. Define, interpret and analyze the static and dynamic characteristics of
instruments
5. Explain the principle, design and analyze the transducers for the measurement
of displacement, level, strain, force, torque, pressure, sound and speed
Graduate Attributes (as per NBA)
1. Engineering knowledge
2. Problem analysis
3. Design & Development of Solutions
4. Engineer and society
5. Environment & sustainability
6. Lifelong learning
Question Paper Pattern:
The question paper will have TEN questions.
APPROVED (13-04-2018)

Each full question consists of 16 marks. There will be 2 full questions (with
maximum of THREE sub questions) from each module. Each full question will have
sub questions covering all the topics under a module. The students will have to
answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module.

Text Books:
1. Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation – A. K. Sawhney, 17th
Edition (Reprint 2004), Dhanpat Rai& Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2004. (Module 1 & 2)
2. Instrumentation: Devices and Systems- C. S. Rangan, G. R. Sarma, V. S. V. Mani, 2nd
Edition (32nd Reprint), McGraw Hill Education (India), 2014. (Module 3-Displacement
measurement, Module 4, Module 5 – Measurement of pressure)
3. Process Measurement Instrument Engineers Handbook- Bela G. Liptak, Revised
Edition, Chilton Book Company, 1982. (Module 3 – Level measurement, Module 5-
Miscellaneous Sensors)

Reference Books:
1. Transducers and Instrumentation – D.V.S.Murty, 2nd Edition, PHI, 2009.
2. Introduction to Measurements and Instrumentation - A. K. Ghosh, 2nd Edition, PHI,
2007.
3. Instrumentation Measurement and Analysis- B.C.Nakra and K.K.Choudhry, 3rd
Edition, McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt.Ltd. 2009.
4. Measurement Systems Application and Design- Ernest O.Doeblin and Dhanesh N
Manik, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2007
Module -1

Classification and Functional Elements of Instrument/ measurement system:

Measurement, significance of measurement, instruments and measurement systems,
mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments, Deflection & Null type instruments
and their comparison, Analog and digital modes of operation, functions of instruments
and measurement systems, applications of measurement systems, Elements of
generalized measurement system, Input-output configuration of measuring
instruments and measurement systems, methods of correction for interfering and
modifying inputs. Transducers, Classifications of transducers-primary & secondary,
active & passive, analog and digital transducers. 10 Hours L1, L2

Classification and Functional Elements of Instrument/ measurement system:

Measurement,
Measurements always involve a comparison.
 Measurement
Measurement is collection of quantitative data. A measurement is made by
comparing a quantity with a standard unit. 
Measurement is thus essentially an act or the result of comparison between
the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard. Since
both the quantities are compared, the result is expressed in numerical values.
In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is
the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world
objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as
units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item
under study and the referenced unit of measurement.
There are two essential requirements of the measurements, in order to make
the results meaningful;
(i)     The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately
defined and should be commonly accepted.
(ii)   The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

Significance of Measurements
Science is based on objective observation of the changes in variables. The
advancement of Science and Technology is therefore dependent upon a
parallel progress in measurement techniques. It can be safely be said that,
the progress in Science and Technology of any country could be assessed by
the way in which the data is acquired by measurements and is processed.
In R&D applications the design of equipments and processes require the
basic engineering design data on the properties of the input raw materials
and processed products. The operation and maintenance of equipments for
optimal processing variables to achieve best quality product and energy
efficient equipment utilization require the monitoring and control of several
process variables. Both these functions require measurements. The
economical design, operation and maintenance require a feedback of
information. This information is supplied by appropriate measurement
systems.
Instruments And Measurement System

Any processing unit operations mainly involve heating, cooling, separating, drying or
freezing of the products. These unit operations are carried out under varying conditions
of temperatures, pressures, flows and physical compositions.

The measurement and control of these variable factors at the various stages of
processing call for the accurate and efficient instruments, in addition to the
dependence upon human skills. With the advent of large scale plants the automatic
operation and control through efficient instrumentation and automation has become
even more necessary.

Utilities such as steam, water, electricity air, fuel etc. have to be measured and
controlled at appropriate points in the plant.

Automatic control instruments are employed to measure and control the temperature,
pressure, flow and level of these utilities.

The overall aim of the instrumentation/ automation is to improve the product quality
and enhance the plant efficiency for better economic returns.     

Mechanical instruments

The mechanical instrument used for measuring the physical quantities. This

instrument is suitable for measuring the static and stable condition because the
instrument is unable to give the response to the dynamic condition. 

Electrical instrumentis
.
The electrical instrument is used for measuring electrical quantities likes current, voltage,
power, etc. The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter are the examples of the electrical
measuring instrument. The ammeter measures the current in amps; voltmeter measures
voltage and Wattmeter are used for measuring the power. The classification of the electric
instruments depends on the methods of representing the output reading.

The electrical instrumentis used for measuring electrical quantities likes current, voltage,
power, etc. The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter are the examplesof the electrical
measuring instrument

The electronic instrument has quick response time. The instrument provides the quick
response as compared to the electrical and mechanical instrument.

The instrument provides the quick response as compared to the electrical and mechanical

instrument.
 Deflection & Null type instruments
and their comparison,

In deflection type instruments, the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in
terms of the amount movement of a pointer. The pressure-measuring device shown is
an example of a deflection type instrument.

The deflecting type instrument has opposite effects

which oppose the displacement of moving systems. The opposite effect is so
designed that their magnitude increases with the increases in the deflection or
displacement of the moving system which is caused by the measuring quantity. The
balance is attained when the opposite effects are equal to the cause of producing the
deflection or movement of moving points.
For example: In a permanent magnet moving coil ammeter, the deflection of the
moving point is directly proportional to the current (the quantity under measurement)
flow through it. The torque Td acting to the coil is directly proportional to the current.
And it is expressed in the form of an equation shown below.

Td = GI…………..Equ(1)

Where, G is constant, and it is independent of flux density, the area of moving coil and
number of turns.

Disadvantages of Deflection Type Instrument

1. The accuracy of the instruments is low.

2. The sensitivity of the instruments is less than the null type instruments.

The value of the measured quantity depends on the calibration of the instruments.

Null type instruments

Definition: An instrument in which zero or null indication determines the magnitude of

measured quantity such type of instrument is called a null type instrument. It uses a
null detector which indicating the null condition when the measured quantity and the
opposite quantity are same.
 Such type of instrument has high accuracy and also it is very sensitive. For the
operation of the null type instrument, the following condition requires.

1. The effect produced by the measuring quantity.

2. The opposing effects whose value are accurately known. It is necessary for
measuring for determining the numerical value of the measured quantity accurately.
3. A detector which detects the null conditions, i.e., a detector is a device which indicates
zero deflection when the balance condition occurs.

Consider a null point instruments (i.e., the DC potentiometer) wherein an unknown emf
Ex is measured. The slide wire of the potentiometer has been measured regarding emf
with the help of standard emf source. The null detector is a current galvanometer
whose deflection is proportional to the unbalance emf, i.e., is that the difference
between the emf Eab across portion ab of slide wire and the unknown emf Ex. As soon
as both are equal.

Advantages of Null Types Instrument

1. The accuracy of the null type instrument is high. This is because the opposing effect
is measured with the help of the standards which have a high degree of accuracy.
2. The null type instrument is highly sensitive. In null type instrument, the balanced
quantity is measured out. The detector has to cover a small range around the
balanced point and hence it is highly sensitive. Also in null type instrument, the
detector need not be measured it has only to detect the presence and direction of
unbalance and not the magnitude of unbalance

Null type instrument requires many controls before null condition are obtained and
hence it is not suitable for dynamic measurement. Because in dynamic measurement
the quantity changes rapidly with the time.
An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge which is a null-type
instrument.

Analog And Digital Modes Of Operation

Analog signals are those which vary in a continuous fashion and take on infinity of
values in any given range. The devices which produce these signals are called analog
devices. Analog is usually thought of in an electrical context; however, mechanical,
pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals. An analog
signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For
example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure
information. Electrically, the property most commonly used is voltage followed closely
by frequency, current, and charge. The devices that produce such signals are called
analog devices.

Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal. Often such a signal is a

measured response to changes in physical phenomena, such as temperature, pressure,
sound or position and is achieved using a transducer. An analog signal is one where at
each point in time the value of the signal is significant. For example, in sound recording,
fluctuations in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone
which induces corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an
electromagnetic microphone, or the voltage produced by a condenser microphone.

Digital Signal
In contrast the analog signals which vary in a continuous fashion and take on
infinity of values in any given range, the digital signals vary in discrete steps
and thus take up only finite different values in a given range. The devices that
produce such signals are called digital devices.
Analog and Digital signals are presented in Fig. 4.1 (a) and (b). In an analog
system, the function varies continuously. On the other hand, the digital values
are discrete and vary in equal steps. The figure below illustrates how both an
analog voltage and a digital voltage vary with time.
 
An analog signal is one where at each point in time the value of the signal is
significant, where as a digital signal is one where at each point in time, the
value of the signal must be above or below some discrete threshold. The
display of the quantity to be measured in analog instruments is in terms of
deflection of a pointer, where as digital instruments indicate the value to be
measured in terms of decimal number. The main advantage of the analog
signal is its fine definition which has the potential for an infinite amount of
signal resolution. Compared to digital signals, analog signals are of higher
density.
Another advantage with analog signals is that their processing may be
achieved more simply than with the digital equivalent. An analog signal may
be processed directly by analog components, though some processes aren't
available except in digital form.  The analog instruments are less costly and
simple in design as compared to their digital counter parts.
The primary disadvantage of analog signaling is that any system may have
noise, that is, random unwanted variation. As the signal is copied and re-
copied, or transmitted over long distances, these apparently random
variations become dominant. Electrically, these losses can be diminished by
shielding, good connections, and several cable types such as coaxial or
twisted pair. The effects of noise create signal loss and distortion. This is
impossible to recover, since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts
of the signal amplifies the noise (distortion/interference) as well. Even if the
resolution of an analog signal is higher than a comparable digital signal, the
difference can be overshadowed by the noise in the signal.
The digital devices have high speed and they also eliminate the human error.
With increasing use of digital computers for data handling and automatic
process control, the importance of digital instrumentation is increasing. It
has become necessary to have both analog to digital converter at input to the
computers and digital to analog converters at the output of the computers.  
Analog Modes Analogue or Continuous signal is able to take any value within a dynamic
range.Most currently available sensors operate in the analog mode.

Digital Modes Digital or Discrete signal is able to take on only a finite number of
values.The advantages of the digital mode of operation include greater accuracy,
repeatability, reliability, and immunity to noise.
The instrument which gives output that varies continuously as quantity to be measured is
known as analoginstrument.
The instrument which gives output that varies in discrete steps and only has finite number
of values is known as digital instrument.
The accuracy of analog instrument is less.
The accuracy of digital instrument is more.
The analog instruments required more power.
The digital instruments required less power.
Sensitivity of analog instrument is more.
Sensitivity of digital instrument is less.
The analog instruments are cheap.
The digital instruments are expensive.
The analog instruments are extremely portable.
The digital instruments are not easily portable.
The resolution of analog instruments is less.

The resolution of digital instruments is more.

Function of Instrumentals and Measurement Systems
The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based
upon the functions they perform. There are four main functions performed by
them: indicating, signal processing, recording and control.
i).      Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information
concerning the variable quantity under measurement. Several types of
methods could be employed in the instruments and systems for this
purpose. Most of the time, this information is obtained as the deflection
of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
ii).    Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written
record, usually on paper, of the value of the quantity under measurement
against time or against some other variable. This is a recording function
performed by the instrument. For example, a temperature indicator /
recorder in the HTST pasteurizer gives the instantaneous temperatures
on a strip chart recorder.
iii).  Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and modify the
measured signal to facilitate recording / control.
iv).  Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions,
especially in the food processing industries where the processing
operations are required to be precisely controlled. In this case, the
information is used by the instrument or the systems to control the
 original measured variable or quantity.
Thus, based on the above functions, there are three main groups of
instruments. The largest group has the indicating function. Next in line is the
group of instruments which have both indicating and or recording functions.
The last group falls into a special category and perform all the three
functions, i.e., indicating, recording and controlling.
In this lesson only those instruments would be discussed whose functions
are mainly indicating and recording, especially those instruments which are
used for engineering analysis purposes.
 Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument
The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement
system / instrument:
a)      Ruggedness
b)      Linearity
c)      No hysteresis
d)     Repeatability
e)      High output signal quality
f)       High reliability and stability
g)      Good dynamic response
Applications of Measurement Systems
Before discussing the instrument characteristics, construction and working, it
is pertinent to understand the various ways in which the measuring
instruments are put in use. Different applications of the instruments and
measurement systems are:
i).      Monitoring a process/operation  
ii).    Control a process/operation
iii).  Experimental engineering analysis
i).      Monitoring a Process/Operation
There are several applications of measuring instruments that mainly have
a function of monitoring a process parameter. They simply indicate the
value or condition of parameter under study and these readings do not
provide any control operation. For example, a speedometer in a car
 indicates the speed of the car at a given moment, an ammeter or a
voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored at a
particular instant. Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in
homes and industries provide the information on the commodity used so
that its cost could be computed and realized from the user.
ii).    Control a Process/Operation                                                                          
Another application of instruments is in automatic control systems.
Measurement of a variable and its control are closely associated.
To control a process variable, e.g., temperature, pressure or humidity etc.,
the prerequisite is that it is accurately measured at any given instant and
at the desired location. Same is true for all other process parameters
such as position, level, velocity and flow, etc. and the servo-systems for
these parameters.
A block diagram of a simple process control system is shown in Fig. 1.1.

 Process control system

Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-electrical
quantity and the control action is through electrical means. Since the output
variable is a non-electrical quantity, it is converted into a corresponding
electrical form by a transducer connected in the feedback loop. The input to
the controller is reference which corresponds to the desired value of the
process parameter. The output process variable is compared with the
reference or desired value with the help of a comparator. In case the desired
value and the process variable differ, there is a resultant error signal. This
error signal is amplified and then fed to an actuator, which produces power
to drive the controlled circuitry.
The corrective action goes on till the output is at the same level as the input
which corresponds to the desired output. At this stage, there is no error
signal and hence there is no input to the actuator and the control action
stops.
Common examples of this application are the domestic appliances, such as,
refrigerator, air conditioner or a hot air oven. All of these employ a
thermostatic control. A temperature measuring device (often a bimetallic
element) measures the temperature in the room, refrigerated chamber or in
the oven and provides the information necessary for appropriate functioning
of the control system in these appliances.
iii).  Experimental Engineering Analysis
Experimental engineering analysis is carried out to find out solution of the
engineering problems. These problems may be theoretical designs or
practical analysis. The exact experimental method for engineering
analysis will depend upon the nature of the problem. The analysis could
be grouped into following categories:
1.      Obtaining solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of
analogies.
2.      Formulating the generalized empirical relationships in the cases
where no proper theoretical backing exists.
3.      Testing the validity of theoretical predications.
4.      Generating the basic engineering design data on the properties of
the input raw materials and processed products for R&D
application.
5.      Design of process equipments for specific applications.
6.      Optimization of machine / system parameters, variables and
performance indices.

Common information/measured variables/ physical quantity

Acceleration, Density ,Velocity, Viscosity ,Displacement ,Composition ,Force–Weight ,
pH,Pressure, Humidity,Torque , Temperature,Volume,Heat/Light flux, Mass,Current,
Flow rate, Voltage, Level of a liquid , Power etc..
Measurement and Measurement Units in Physics. Measurement is a process of
detecting an unknown physical quantity by using standard quantity.
In science, a measurement is a collection of quantitative or numerical data that
describes a property of an object or event. A measurement is made by comparing a
quantity with a standard unit. ... The modern International System of Units (SI) bases all
types of physical measurements on seven base units.
 Since this comparison cannot be perfect, measurements inherently include error,
which is how much a measured value deviates from the true value. The study of
measurement is called metrology.
Length: Meter (m) 
Mass: Kilogram (kg) 
Time: Second (s) 
Electric current: Ampere (A) 
Temperature: Kelvin (K) 
Amount of a Substance: Mole (mol) 
Luminous Intensity: candela (cd) 
Liter (L) , m3
Cubic centimeter (cm3)
The General Measurement System
a process as a system which generates information.
Examples are a chemical reactor,
a jet fighter,
a gas platform,
a submarine,
a car,
a human heart, and
a weather system
information variables which are commonly generated by processes: thus
a car generates displacement,
velocity and acceleration variables, and
a chemical reactor generates temperature,
pressure and
composition variables

The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process,

Proces Input true value of Measurement output measured value of Observer

asvariable systema variable

The input to the measurement system is the true value of the variable
the system output is the measured value of the variable. In an ideal measurement
system, the measured value would be equal to the true value.
The accuracy of the system can be defined as the closeness of the measured value to
the true value. The accuracy of a real system is quantified using measurement system
error E,
where E = measured value − true value
E = system output − system input
Thus if the measured value of the flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m3 /h and the true
value is 11.2 m3 /h, then the error E = −0.2 m3 /h.
If the measured value of the rotational speed of an engine is 3140 rpm and the
true value is 3133 rpm, then E = +7 rpm.
Error is the main performance indicator for a measurement system.
Structure of measurement systems The measurement system consists of several
elements or blocks. It is possible to identify four types of element, although in a given
system one type of element may be missing or may occur more than once. The four
types are shown in Figure 1.2 and can be defined as follows.

General structure of measurement system.

Data
Signal
input true Sensing Signal presentation o/p
processing element
element conditioning
value element element measured value

Sensing element This is in contact with the process and gives an output which
depends in some way on the variable to be measured. Examples are:
• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the
process is termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing
elements. Signal conditioning element This takes the output of the sensing element
and converts it into a form more suitable for further processing, usually a d.c. voltage,
d.c. current or frequency signal. Examples are:
• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change(d.c.
voltage)
• Amplifier which amplifies milli volts to volts
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.

Signal processing element This takes the output of the conditioning element and
converts it into a form more suitable for presentation.
Examples are:
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital form for
input to a computer

• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming
digital data. Typical calculations are:

• Computation of total mass of product gas from flow rate and density data

• Integration of chromatograph peaks to give the composition of a gas stream

• Correction for sensing element non-linearity.

Data presentation element This presents the measured value in a form which can be
easily recognised by the observer. Examples are: • Simple pointer–scale indicator

• Chart recorder
• Alphanumeric display

• Visual display unit (VDU).

Example of measurement systems

Video
Thermocouple Auto reference display
ADC Computer
unit
junction Amplifier
compensation

Signal conditioning signal processing Data

presentation

Sensing miivolts Milivolts volts binary( bits.. 01010101)

True value of temperature

Figure shows a temperature system with a thermocouple sensing element;

this gives a millivolt output.

Signal conditioning consists of a circuit to compensate for changes in reference

junction temperature, and an amplifier.

The voltage signal is converted into digital form using an analogue-to-digital converter,
the computer corrects for sensor non-linearity, and the measured value is displayed on
a VDU.

The word ‘transducer’ is commonly used in connection with measurement and instrumentation.
This is a manufactured package which gives an output voltage (usually) corresponding to an
input variable such as pressure or acceleration. We see therefore that such a transducer may
incorporate both sensing and signal conditioning elements;

Calibration of Measurements the concept of accuracy in making a measurement and how the
uncertainty inherent in all measurements must be kept sufficiently small. The process and
apparatus used to find out if a measurement is accurate enough is called calibration. It is
achieved by comparing the result of a measurement with a method possessing a
measurement performance that is generally agreed to have less uncertainty than that in the
result obtained. The error arising within the calibration apparatus and process

Measurement system applications

The first of these is their use in regulating trade, applying instruments that measure physical
quantities such as length, volume and mass in terms of standard units. The particular
instruments and transducers employed in such applications are included in the general
description of instruments

In choosing the most suitable instrument to use for measurement of a particular quantity in a
manufacturing plant or other system is the specification of the instrument characteristics
required, especially parameters like the desired measurement accuracy, resolution, sensitivity
and dynamic.

Transducers

Definition of transducers –

Classification of transducers –

Advantages of Electrical transducers –

Characteristics and choice of transducers –

Principle operation of

resistor,

inductor,

LVDT and

capacitor transducers –

LVDT Applications –

Strain gauge and its principle of operation – Guage factor –

Thermistors –

Thermocouples –

Synchros – Piezo electric transducers –

Photo diodes.

INTODUCTION

A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional electrical signal is called a
transducer. The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency. A transducer
uses many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from one
form to other is called transduction. A transducer is also called pick up. The transduction
element transforms the output of the sensor to an electrical output, as shown in the Fig. A
transducer will have basically two main components. They are
1. Sensing Element The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by
this part of the transistor.

2. Transduction Element The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction
element. This element is responsible for converting the non-electrical signal into its
proportional electrical signal. There may be cases when the transduction element performs the
action of both transduction and sensing.

The best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is used to generate

a voltage corresponding to the heat that is generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

Classification of Transducers the Classification of Transducers is done in many ways. Some of

the criteria for the classification are based on their area of application, Method of energy
conversion, Nature of output signal, According to Electrical principles involved, Electrical
parameter used, principle of operation, & typical applications. The transducers can be
classified broadly

i. On the basis of transduction form used

ii. As primary and secondary transducers

iii. As active and passive transducers

iv. As transducers and inverse transducers.

A component whose output energy is supplied entirely by its input signal (physical quantity
under measurement) is commonly called a „passive transducer‟. In other words the passive
transducers derive the power required for transduction from an auxiliary source.

Active transducers are those which do not require an auxiliary power source to produce their
output. They are also known as self generating type since they produce their own voltage or
current output. Some of the passive transducers ( electrical transducers), their electrical
parameter (resistance, capacitance, etc),

Active and passive instruments

Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether the instrument output
is entirely produced by the quantity being measured or whether the quantity being measured
simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source. This is illustrated by
examples. An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring device shown in
Figure . The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a pointer against a scale.
The energy expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure
measured: there are no other energy inputs to the system. An example of an active instrument
is a float-type petrol tank level indicator as sketched in Figure Here, the change in petrol level
moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a proportion of the external
voltage source applied across the two ends of the potentiometer. The energy in the output
signal comes from the external power source: the primary transducer float system is merely
modulating the value of the voltage from this external power source. In active instruments, the
external power source is usually in electrical form, but in some cases, it can be other forms of
energy such as a pneumatic or hydraulic one. One very important difference between active
and passive instruments is the level of measurement resolution that can be obtained. With the
simple pressure gauge shown, the amount of movement made by the pointer for a particular
pressure change is closely defined by the nature of the instrument. Whilst it is possible to
increase measurement resolution by making the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves
through a longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly restricted by the practical limit
of how long the pointer can conveniently be. In an active instrument, however, adjustment of
the magnitude of the external energy input allows much greater control over Measurement
resolution. Whilst the scope for improving measurement resolution is much greater incidentally,
it is not infinite because of limitations placed on the magnitude of the external energy input, in
consideration of heating effects and for safety reasons. In terms of cost, passive instruments
are normally of a more simple construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to
manufacture. Therefore, choice between active and passive instruments for a particular
application involves carefully balancing the measurement resolution requirements against cost.

Analog and Digital

Analog sensor senses the external parameters (wind speed, solar radiation, light intensity etc.) and gives analog voltage as an output. The
output voltage may be in the range of 0 to 5V. Logic High is treated as “1” (3.5 to 5V) and Logic Low is indicated by “0” (0 to 3.5 V).

analog temperature sensors (RTD) have higher resolution (positive and negative temperature). This feature makes analog sensors suitable
for wide temperature range and stability. The analog output from the sensor is processed by the ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) of the
microcontroller.

Unlike analog sensor, Digital Sensor produce discrete values (0 and 1’s). Discrete values often called digital (binary) signals in digital
communication.
A transducer measures physical quantities and transmits the information as coded digital signals rather than as continuously varying currents or voltages. Any
transducer that presents information as discrete samples and that does not introduce a quantization error when the reading is represented in the digital form
may be classified as a digital transducer.
Most transducers used in digital systems are primarily analogue in nature and incorporate some form of conversion to provide the digital output. Many special
techniques have been developed to avoid the necessity to use a conventional analogue- to-digital conversion technique to produce the digital signal. This article
describes some of the direct methods which are in current use of producing digital outputs from transducers.
Some of the techniques used in transducers which are particularly adaptable for use in digital systems are introduced. The uses of encoder discs for absolute
and incremental position measurement and to provide measurement of angular speed are outlined. The application of linear gratings for measurement of
translational displacement is compared with the use of Moire fringe techniques used for similar purposes. Synchro devices are briefly explained and the various
techniques used to produce a digital output from synchro resolvers are described. Brief descriptions of devices which develop a digital output from the natural
frequency of vibration of some part of the transducer are presented. Digital techniques including vortex flowmeters and instruments using laser beams are also
briefly dealt with Some of them are as follows:
1. Shaft Encoders
2. Digital Resolvers
3. Digital Tachometers
4. Hall Effect Sensors
5. Limit Switches
With computers being used more often in measurement applications, it is attractive to have sensors that can produce digital output directly. Digital “sensors” or
transducers generate discrete-level output signals such as pulse trains or encoded data that can be read directly by a control processor. Motion is easily
detected using different “digital” sensing mechanisms, but using this as a basis it is possible to build digital sensors to detect force, pressure, torque, etc. A
counter is commonly used to count output pulses or clock cycles over a pulse duration

Absolute and incremental encoders:

An "absolute" encoder maintains position information when power is removed from the system. The position of the encoder is available immediately on applying
power. The relationship between the encoder value and the physical position of the controlled machinery is set at assembly; the system does not need to return
to a calibration point to maintain position accuracy. An "incremental" encoder accurately records changes in position, but does not power up with a fixed relation
between encoder state and physical position. Devices controlled by incremental encoders may have to "go home" to a fixed reference point to initialize the
position measurement. A multi-turn absolute rotary encoder includes additional code wheels and gears. A high-resolution wheel measures the fractional rotation,
and lower-resolution geared code wheels record the number of whole revolutions of the shaft