9/13/2019

Ferrous And
Non Ferrous Alloys
Dr. Deni FERDIAN, M.Sc

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Ferrous Alloys

Steel Structures

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Steel Production

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Designations and Classification of

Steels
• Designations - The AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) and
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) provide designation
systems for steels that use a four- or five-digit number.
• Classifications - Steels can be classified based on their composition
or the way they have been processed.

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Simple Heat Treatments

 Process Annealing — Eliminating Cold Work: A low-temperature
heat treatment used to eliminate all or part of the effect of cold
working in steels.
 Annealing and Normalizing — Dispersion Strengthening:
Annealing - A heat treatment used to produce a soft, coarse
pearlite in steel by austenitizing, then furnace cooling.
Normalizing - A simple heat treatment obtained by austenitizing
and air cooling to produce a fine pearlitic structure.
 Spheroidizing — Improving Machinability: Spheroidite - A
microconstituent containing coarse spheroidal cementite particles
in a matrix of ferrite, permitting excellent machining
characteristics in high-carbon steels.

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Steel Heat Treatment

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Jominy Test
Measuring hardness on the
Jominy specimen and plotting
the Jominy hardenability curve.

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Figure. Schematic summary of the simple heat treatments for (a)

hypoeutectoid steels and (b) hypereutectoid steels.

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Figure. The effect of carbon

and heat treatment on the
properties of plain-carbon
steels.

Isothermal Heat Treatments

 Austempering - The isothermal heat treatment by which austenite

transforms to bainite.
 Isothermal annealing - Heat treatment of a steel by austenitizing,
cooling rapidly to a temperature between the A1 and the nose of
the TTT curve, and holding until the austenite transforms to
pearlite.

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Figure. The austempering and isothermal anneal heat treatments

in a 1080 steel.
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Figure.The TTT diagrams for (a) a

1050 and (b) a 10110 steel.

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Quench and Temper Heat Treatments

 Retained austenite - Austenite that is unable to transform into

martensite during quenching because of the volume expansion
associated with the reaction.
 Tempered martensite - The microconstituent of ferrite and
cementite formed when martensite is tempered.
 Quench cracks - Cracks that form at the surface of a steel during
quenching due to tensile residual stresses that are produced
because of the volume change that accompanies the austenite-
to-martensite transformation.
 Marquenching - Quenching austenite to a temperature just above
the MS and holding until the temperature is equalized throughout
the steel before further cooling to produce martensite.
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Figure.The effect of
tempering temperature on
the mechanical properties
of a 1050 steel.

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Figure. Retained austenite (white)

trapped between martensite needles
Figure. Dark feathers of bainite (black) ( 1000). (From ASM
surrounded by light martensite, Handbook, Vol. 8, (1973), ASM
obtained by interrupting the isothermal International, Materials Park, OH 44073.)
transformation process ( 1500). (ASM
Handbook, Vol. 9 Metallography and
Microstructure (1985), ASM
International, Materials Park, OH 44073.)
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Figure. Increasing
carbon reduces the Ms
and Mf temperatures in
plain-carbon steels.

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Figure. Formation of quench cracks caused by residual stresses

produced during quenching. The figure illustrates the development of
stresses as the austenite transforms to martensite during cooling.

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Figure. The CCT diagram (solid lines) for a 1080 steel compared with the
TTT diagram (dashed lines).

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Figure .The CCT diagram for a low-alloy, 0.2% C Steel.

Effect of Alloying Elements

 Hardenability - Alloy steels have high hardenability.
 Effect on the Phase Stability - When alloying elements are
added to steel, the binary Fe-Fe3C stability is affected and the
phase diagram is altered.
 Shape of the TTT Diagram - Ausforming is a thermomechanical
heat treatment in which austenite is plastically deformed below
the A1 temperature, then permitted to transform to bainite or
martensite.
 Tempering - Alloying elements reduce the rate of tempering
compared with that of a plain-carbon steel.

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Figure.The effect of 6%
manganese on the
stability ranges of the
phases in the eutectoid
portion of the Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram.

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Figure. The effect of alloying elements on the phases formed during

the tempering of steels. The air-hardenable steel shows a secondary
hardening peak.

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Specialty Steels

 Tool steels - A group of high-carbon steels that provide

combinations of high hardness, toughness, or resistance to
elevated temperatures.
 Secondary hardening peak - Unusually high hardness in a steel
tempered at a high temperature caused by the precipitation of
alloy carbides.
 Dual-phase steels - Special steels treated to produce martensite
dispersed in a ferrite matrix.
 Maraging steels - A special class of alloy steels that obtain high
strengths by a combination of the martensitic and age-hardening
reactions.

Figure . Microstructure of a dual-phase

steel, showing islands of light martensite
in a ferrite matrix ( 2500). (From G.
Speich, ‘‘Physical Metallurgy of Dual-
Phase Steels,’’ Fundamentals of Dual-
Phase Steels, The Metallurgical Society of
AIME, 1981.)

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Surface Treatments
 Selectively Heating the Surface - Rapidly heat the surface of a
medium-carbon steel above the A3 temperature and then quench
the steel.
 Case depth - The depth below the surface of a steel at which
hardening occurs by surface hardening and carburizing
processes.
 Carburizing - A group of surface-hardening techniques by which
carbon diffuses into steel.
 Cyaniding - Hardening the surface of steel with carbon and
nitrogen obtained from a bath of liquid cyanide solution.
 Carbonitriding - Hardening the surface of steel with carbon and
nitrogen obtained from a special gas atmosphere.

Stainless Steels

 Stainless steels - A group of ferrous alloys that contain at least

11% Cr, providing extraordinary corrosion resistance.
 Categories of stainless steels:
• Ferritic Stainless Steels
• Martensitic Stainless Steels
• Austenitic Stainless Steels
• Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels
• Duplex Stainless Steels

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Figure.The effect of 17%

chromium on the iron-
carbon phase diagram. At
low-carbon contents, ferrite
is stable at all temperatures.
(b) A section of the iron-
chromium-nickel-carbon
phase diagram at a constant
18% Cr-8% Ni. At low-carbon
contents, austenite is stable
at room temperatures.

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Figure 12.31 (a) Martensitic stainless steel containing large

primary carbides and small carbides formed during tempering (
350). (b) Austenitic stainless steel ( 500). (From ASM Handbook,
Vols. 7 and 8, (1972, 1973), ASM International, Materials Park, OH
44073.)

Cast Irons

 Cast iron - Ferrous alloys containing sufficient carbon so that the

eutectic reaction occurs during solidification.
 Eutectic and Eutectoid reaction in Cast Irons
 Types of cast irons:
• Gray cast iron
• White cast iron
• Malleable cast iron
• Ductile or nodular, cast iron
• Compacted graphite cast iron

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Figure. Schematic drawings of the five types of cast iron: (a) gray
iron, (b) white iron, (c) malleable iron, (d) ductile iron, and (e)
compacted graphite iron.

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Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.

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Figure. The iron-carbon phase diagram showing the relationship between

the stable iron-graphite equilibria (solid lines) and the metastable iron-
cementite reactions (dashed lines).

3D reconstruction – Cast Iron Graphite

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Figure. (a) Sketch and (b) photomicrograph of the flake graphite in

gray cast iron (x 100).

Figure 12.38 (a) White cast iron prior to heat treatment ( 100). (b) Ferritic malleable iron with graphite
nodules and small MnS inclusions in a ferrite matrix ( 200). (c) Pearlitic malleable iron drawn to
produce a tempered martensite matrix ( 500). (Images (b) and (c) are from Metals Handbook, Vols. 7 and
8, (1972, 1973), ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073.) (d) Annealed ductile iron with a ferrite
matrix ( 250). (e) As-cast ductile iron with a matrix of ferrite (white) and pearlite ( 250). (f) Normalized
ductile iron with a pearlite matrix ( 250).

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Nonferrous Alloys

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Chapter Outline

• Aluminum Alloys
• Magnesium Alloys
• Copper Alloys
• Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
• Titanium Alloys
• Refractory and Precious Metals

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Aluminum Alloys

• Hall-Heroult process - An electrolytic process by which aluminum is

extracted from its ore.
• Temper designation - A shorthand notation using letters and
numbers to describe the processing of an alloy. H tempers refer to
cold-worked alloys; T tempers refer to age-hardening treatments.

Supply Chain ALUMINIUM Industry

Aluminium Aluminium Prime Al.

Smelter ingot Alloy

Source : The Aluminium Times, North Hydro report 2011

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Bayer Process :
from Bauxite (Al2O3.3H2O) to Alumina

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Aluminium production from Alumina

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Figure. (a) FeAl3 inclusions in annealed 1100 aluminum ( 350). (b)

Mg2Si precipitates in annealed 5457 aluminum alloy ( 75). (From
ASM Handbook, Vol. 7, (1972), ASM International, Materials Park,
OH 44073.)

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Figure. (a) Sand-cast 443 aluminum alloy containing coarse silicon and
inclusions. (b) Permanent-mold 443 alloy containing fine dendrite cells and fine
silicon due to faster cooling. (c) Die-cast 443 alloy with a still finer
microstructure ( 350). (From ASM Handbook, Vol. 7, (1972), ASM
International, Materials Park, OH 44073.)

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Magnesium and Beryllium Alloys

 Magnesium alloys are used in aerospace applications, high-

speed machinery, and transportation and materials handling
equipment.
 Instrument grade beryllium is used in inertial guidance systems
where the elastic deformation must be minimal; structural grades
are used in aerospace applications; and nuclear applications
take advantage of the transparency of beryllium to
electromagnetic radiation. Beryllium is expensive, brittle,
reactive, and toxic.

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Copper Alloys

 Blister copper - An impure form of copper obtained during the

copper refining process.
 Applications for copper-based alloys include electrical
components (such as wire), pumps, valves, and plumbing parts,
where these properties are used to advantage.
 Brass - A group of copper-based alloys, normally containing zinc
as the major alloying element.
 Bronze - Generally, copper alloys containing tin, can contain
other elements.

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Nickel and Cobalt Alloys

 Nickel and cobalt alloys are used for corrosion protection and for
high-temperature resistance, taking advantage of their high
melting points and high strengths.
 Superalloys - A group of nickel, iron-nickel, and cobalt-based
alloys that have exceptional heat resistance, creep resistance,
and corrosion resistance.

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Figure. The effect of

temperature on the
tensile strength of several
nickel-based alloys.

Figure. (a) Microstructure of a superalloy, with carbides at the grain

boundaries and γ΄ precipitates in the matrix ( 15,000). (b)
Microstructure of a superalloy aged at two temperatures, producing both
large and small cubical γ΄ precipitates ( 10,000). (ASM Handbook, Vol.
9, Metallography and Microstructure (1985), ASM International, Materials
Park, OH 44073.)

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GE 90 Jet Engine :
Fan Air
Core
Air

Fan Low Pressure Turbine

High Pressure Turbine

Combustor

High Pressure Compressor

Low Pressure Compressor
or Booster

Design/Materials Selection
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for a High-Performance Jet

Engine Turbine Blade
Design a nickel-based superalloy
for producing turbine blades for a
gas turbine aircraft engine that will
have a particularly long creep-
rupture time at temperatures
approaching 1100oC.

Figure (a) A turbine blade designed

for active cooling by a gas. (b) The
high-temperature capability of
superalloys has increased with
improvements in manufacturing
methods (for Example 13.7).

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Different cast structure of turbine blade

Left to right: polycrystalline turbine blade, directionally solidified multi-grain blade, single
crystal jet engine blade
Dendrite micrograph of nickel-base superalloy aligned during DS processing of turbine
blade.

Making single-crystalline turbine blades:

Single crystal
turbine blade

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Titanium Alloys

 Titanium’s excellent corrosion resistance provides applications in

chemical processing equipment, marine components, and
biomedical implants such as hip prostheses.
 Titanium is an important aerospace material, finding applications
as airframe and jet engine components.
 Titanium alloys are considered biocompatible (i.e., they are not
rejected by the body). By developing porous coatings of bone-
like ceramic compositions known as hydroxyapatite, it may be
possible to make titanium implants bioactive (i.e., the natural
bone can grow into the hydroxyapatite coating).

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Figure.The effect of
temperature on the
yield strength of
selected titanium
alloys.

Figure.(a) Annealing and (b) microstructure of rapidly cooled alpha titanium

( 100). Both the grain boundary precipitate and the Widmanstätten plates
are alpha. (From ASM Handbook, Vol. 7, (1972), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH 44073.)

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Figure. Annealing of an
alpha-beta titanium alloy.
(a) Annealing is done just
below the α–β
transformation
temperature, (b) slow
cooling gives equiaxed α
grains ( 250), and (c)
rapid cooling yields
acicular α grains ( 2500).
(From Metals Handbook,
Vol. 7, (1972), ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH 44073.)

Materials for Hip Prosthesis

What type of a material would you choose for an implant to be used for
a total hip replacement implant?
SOLUTION
We need to consider the following factors: biocompatibility, corrosion
resistance, high-fracture toughness, excellent fatigue life, and wear
resistance.
These requirements suggest 316 stainless steel or Ti-6% Al-4% V.
Titanium is bio-compatible and would be a better choice. Perhaps a
composite material in which the stem is made from a Ti-6% Al-4% V
alloy and a head that is made from a wear-resistant, corrosion resistant,
and fractured tough ceramic, such as alumina, may be an answer.
Another option is to coat the implant with a material like porous
hydroxyapatite to encourage bone growth.

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Refractory and Precious Metals

 Refractory metals – These include tungsten, molybdenum,
tantalum, and niobium (or columbium), have exceptionally high-
melting temperatures (above 1925oC) and, consequently, have
the potential for high-temperature service.
 Applications of Refractory metals include filaments for light bulbs,
rocket nozzles, nuclear power generators, tantalum- and
niobium-based electronic capacitors, and chemical processing
equipment.
 Precious Metals - These include gold, silver, palladium, platinum,
and rhodium.From an engineering viewpoint, these materials
resist corrosion and make very good conductors of electricity.

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