CDI 6 Course Outline Fire Technology Arson Investigation

Compilations in Fire Technology and Arson Investigation 2017
Course Outline
Course Description: CDI 6
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The Technology of Fire

Introduction
To fully appreciate and understand the science of fire as it pertains to fire investigations you will need to
obtain a basic understanding of the behavior of fire. To conduct detailed fire investigations effectively,
you will also need additional training in topics such as college chemistry and physics. You will learn about
heat and molecular movement as well as heat transfer and other basic scientific concepts that relate to fire.
Basic concepts in electricity and mechanics, including friction, are topics you will also need to master.
However, this is just the beginning; books, research papers, and professional articles can add to your
knowledge as an investigator. Continual studies of such documents are a necessity for every investigator,
young and old, new and experienced. In this education endeavor, you need to ensure you are studying
good science that can be used in the fire scene evaluation process. Good science is that which is based on
proven and reproducible scientific principles, whereas junk science is that which is unproven, founded on
speculation, conjecture, and outdated concepts and principles.
To ensure a more accurate determination of the area of origin and the cause of the fire it is best always to
use a process called the scientific method. This is a means of providing a systematic framework to assist
the investigator. The scientific method is a technique to acquire new knowledge by gathering evidence
and evaluating that evidence using reasoning (Chandler, 2009).
SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY
Walking onto a fire scene where there has been massive destruction can be daunting. Even a single-family
dwelling fire can give you pause, as you stand in the front yard and ponder what happened.
One aid in the process is to use a systematic approach to examine the fire scene, which is referred to as
the scientific method. This method was not invented by the fire service but takes a fundamental principle
from the scientific community and adapts it to the process of conducting fire investigations.
Chemistry and behavior of Fire

To appreciate how fire is controlled, we must first understand the chemical and physical properties of fire
itself. This information can be used to predict what the fire will do with the fuel and where it is headed.
With this knowledge, we are able to choose the proper extinguisher agent and its method of application.
(Klinoff, 2005)
Fire defined
Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of head and light in
varying intensities. Combustion is described as a chemical reaction that releases energy as heat and
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usually light. When a substance is undergoing combustion we usually refer it to as being on fire. Another
very common oxidation reaction is the rusting of iron. This is not considered to be combustion because it
evolves insignificant amounts of head without light, and proceeds at slow rate.
Fire Triangle.
Fire was originally believed to be based on three elements being
present: fuel, air (oxygen), and heat. Fire could be controlled or
prevented by removing one of these three elements. To be more
accurate, in the discussion of fires and combustion from a chemical
and physical standpoint, the air leg of the triangle will be replaced
with oxidizer and the heat leg will be replace with energy. (See
Figure)
Fire Tetrahedron
Scientists have determined that a fourth component, called the chemical chain
occurs when the fuel is broken down by heat. When paper burn, the molecules
in the paper (Fuel) are broken down by heat, producing chemically reactive
species called fire radicals, which combine with the oxidizer. This
recombination process releases more heat and chemical reactants
causing the fuel to break down further and the process continues.
(See Figure)
As long as there is fuel and oxidizer, and energy, in the appropriate amounts
and the chemical chain is not interrupted. (Klinoff)
The fire tetrahedron, which is a four sided solid object with four triangular faces, a pyramid. The first
three sides are the same as the fire triangle: heat, fuel, and oxygen. The fourth side is the self sustained
chain reaction, sometimes referred to as the uninhibited chain reaction. This one side explains why the
fire continues to grow rather than stay in one place.
Self-Sustained Chain Reaction Combustion is a complex process that results in the rapid oxidation of
the fuel, producing heat and light. When this fuel continues to burn on its own in a self-sustained manner
through an exothermic reaction, the fire continues to grow. An exothermic reaction is a chemical
reaction created when the bonds of molecules are broken, which releases heat and light. Another term
for this chain reaction is “uninhibited chain reaction,” which is one side of the fire tetrahedron (Chandler,
2009).
For example, an exothermic reaction occurs when you hold a piece of paper horizontally and expose
the underside to the heat from a match, as shown in the Figure. Even without the flame of the match
touching the paper, the heat is sufficient to start the ignition process. The heat begins to break down the
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paper, the paper starts to turn brown, and vapors

from the decomposing paper are given off. These
vapors are combustible, and when they are heated
to their auto ignition temperature or come in
contact with the flame, they ignite. Now the paper
is burning. The leading edge of the flames heats
up more of the paper surface area, releasing more
vapors that in turn ignite, contributing to the
growth of the fire. This self-sustained chain
reaction continues across the surface of the paper
until the fire is extinguished. If disturbed by no
other outside factors, the fire will eventually go
out as a result of the lack of fuel because the paper
is completely consumed, which leaves behind
carbon and other compounds in the form of ash.
If the paper is next to other combustibles, the fire
could continue to grow as the nearby materials
are exposed to the heat and those items too begin
to give off vapors and eventually ignite, creating
a larger fire. Investigators sometimes might have
to explain fire in the simplest terms to a judge and
jury when testifying how such a small fire can
eventually burn down a large structure.
Explaining how fire behaves at the molecular
level can help others to understand fire and its
behavior.
Oxygen Fires cannot occur without an oxidizer. In most situations, the atmosphere, which contains
approximately 21 percent oxygen, is the primary oxidizer to complete the combustion process. However,
fires can occur in the absence of atmospheric oxygen. Many compounds, when mixed with other chemicals
or when heated, can give off oxygen in sufficient amounts to allow combustion to occur or to continue.
One such chemical, ammonium nitrate, was the fuel for one of the United States’ largest accidental
disasters and was also used to make explosive devices on multiple occasions.
Heat
A fire investigator must understand and recognize how heat is produced and
transferred, and how it applies to the fire’s ignition and development. Heat
should not be confused with temperature, which the measurement of relative
amount of heat energy contained within a given substance.
Temperature is an intensity measurement, with units in degrees on the
Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheight or Kelvin scales.
Heat is a measurement of quantity and is given in British Thermal Unit
(BTU). One Btu is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree fahrenheight (1’F).
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Solid or liquid materials do not bum. For combustion to take place, these materials must be heated
sufficiently to produce vapors. It is these vapors which actually bum.
The lowest temperature at which a solid or liquid material produces sufficient vapors to burn under
laboratory conditions is known as the flashpoint. A few degrees above the flashpoint is the flame point,
the temperature at which the fuel will continue to produce sufficient vapors to sustain a continuous flame.
The temperature at which the vapors will ignite is the ignition temperature, sometimes referred to as the
auto- ignition temperature. If the source of the heat is an open flame or spark, it is referred to as piloted
ignition.
Ignition Temperature and Ignition Energy

The ignition temperature is the minimum temperature a substance must attain before ignition can
occur. Many variables must be taken into account for a wide range of circumstances. With the exception
of a few solid materials that can burn at the surface, such as coal or magnesium, all other solid fuels must
be heated sufficiently to release vapors; the vapors ignite and burn. Liquids are the same: mostly, they
need to be heated to release vapors that in turn can be ignited at the proper temperature for that vapor.
Some liquids already produce sufficient vapors at their ignition temperature below ambient air
temperature. These fuels, such as gasoline, are capable of ignition if in the right mixture with air and heat.
Sources of Heat
Heat is a factor in providing sufficient energy to release vapors from solids and liquids. It is also a factor
in providing the energy to cause the ignition of a fire. Heat also promotes flame spread and subsequent
fire growth. There are four sources of heat: mechanical, chemical, electrical, and nuclear. Some you
experience every day and take for granted, whereas others are more unusual and infrequently a source of
ignition.
The investigator must be familiar with all potential heat sources. Before identifying the actual heat source
involved in a fire, all other heat sources must be eliminated. The investigator with a weak level of
knowledge about any of these heat sources is limited in the ability to form a viable hypothesis about the
source of ignition.
Mechanical
Mechanical heat is the heat of friction. Two or more objects rubbing together create friction. Friction
by itself does not mean there will be a fire. Factors such as the roughness of the surface, the types of
materials rubbing together, dryness of the materials in question, and the speed at which they come in
contact are variables that must be taken into account by the investigator. For example, two smooth
pieces of plastic coated with a silicone lubricant slowly rubbed together with little pressure will produce
heat, but it is not likely that they will produce enough energy to start a fire.
Truck brakes are another example of two materials coming in contact that create mechanical heat.
Take into account the surfaces of the materials and the fact that they are designed to slow down the rate
of movement, combined with pressure of the brake cylinder they will do as they are designed on a regular
basis. However, with a mechanical failure of misalignment or when the cylinder creates pressure (gets
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stuck) when not activated during a high rate of speed, pushing the brake pads together, sufficient energy
may be created to ignite nearby combustibles in the form of grease, plastic, and rubber components or
even debris caught in the workings. Brake fires by themselves may cause only local damage. However, in
some circumstances they can result in the extension of the fire into the vehicle, causing massive destruction
of the vehicle and its contents.
Chemical
A mixture of two or more chemicals can create heat (exothermic reaction) and in some circumstances
may heat sufficiently to cause ignition. Although not an everyday circumstance, chemical heat can be
found in industrial applications, and even some household chemicals are capable of creating such a
reaction.
Chemical heat can also be an arsonist’s tool and can even be used as a time delay. Regardless of the
circumstances, investigators need to collect evidence in the form of debris for analysis along with possible
examples of chemicals for further analysis.
One form of heating can occur without an external source of energy. Spontaneous heating can occur
from biological action as well as chemical. Biological items such as damp hay or manure or sawdust
give off heat as they break down and decay. If these products are well insulated so that the dissipation of
the heat is prevented, the heat can increase to the point of reaching the ignition temperature of the material.
When this happens in the presence of sufficient oxygen, spontaneous ignition can occur, where the fire
starts with no external source of heat or energy.
Electrical
Electricity is all around. You need only to lose electricity to see how much you depend upon it. Electricity
and electrical devices are heat producers either as a by-product of their workings or intentionally, as in
electric baseboard heaters. Fires caused by electrical devices can result from malfunction because of poor
design, improper construction, or poor installation. Just as likely, a failure can occur from misuse of
electricity and associated appliances. Investigators must be aware that just because electricity is present
does not mean that it is responsible for the fire.
Electrical sources can be as small as a static electrical arc or as massive as a lightning bolt. Investigators
most often come in contact with the other forms of electrical heating, which are generally man-made.
Resistance heating, which occurs in two forms, is the result of an appliance or fixture design. This can be
a light bulb or a heater. Heaters can heat rooms or can cook food. Then, there is resistance heating in the
form of an appliance or fixture failure when it does not act as designed, manufactured, or used. This
unintended resistance heating is more than capable of igniting nearby combustibles.
The electrical wiring designed to deliver energy throughout a structure can fail in the form of an over
current or an overload. Although this too can be a form of resistance, it can also create arcs or sparks
that are capable of being an ignition source.
Nuclear
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The first generation to deal with the term nuclear thought of it only in the aspect of an unbelievably
devastating bomb. Today’s populace is still aware of the military use of radioactive materials, but nuclear
energy is used in the making of electricity as well as in industrial applications and medical treatments.
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is a common topic in most fire

suppression manuals. The intent is to teach
fire fighter students how heat travels so that
they can understand how to extinguish or
where to look for fire extension.
Heat can travel throughout a burning building

by one or more of three methods, commonly
referred to as conduction, convection and
radiation. Since the existence of heat within
a substance is caused by molecular action, the
greater the molecular activity, the more intense
the heat. A number of natural laws of physics
are involved in the transmission of heat. One
is called the Law of Heat Flow. It specifies
that heat tends to flow from a hot substance to
a cold substance. The colder of two bodies in
contact will absorb heat until both objects are
the same temperature.
By its very nature, radioactive materials are unstable. As such, they are constantly releasing atomic
particles and in this process heat is a by-product. When used in a reactor, the controlled release of these
atomic particles heat water, turning it to steam that powers the turbines and creating electricity. There
are various types of radioactive isotopes with a wide variety of industrial applications for testing steel,
quality of welding points, and the thickness of materials. Agricultural uses include improving nutritional
value of some crops, making pest-resistant plants, and for research. Medical uses include medical testing,
treatments, and medical research.
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Conduction
Heat may be conducted from one body to

another by direct contact of the two bodies
or by an intervening heat-conducting
medium. The amount of heat that will be
transferred and its rate of travel depend
upon the conductivity of the material
through which the heat is passing. Not all
materials have the same heat
conductivity. Aluminum, copper and iron
are good conductors. Fibrous materials,
such as felt, cloth and paper are poor
conductors.
Liquids and gases are poor conductors of

heat because of the movement of their
molecules. Air is a relatively poor
conductor. Certain solid materials when
shredded into fibers and packed into batts,
make good insulation because the material
itself is a poor conductor and there are air
pockets within the batting. Double building
walls that contain an air space provide
additional insulation.
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by the

movement of air or liquid. When water is
heated in a glass container, the movement
within the vessel can be observed through the glass. If some sawdust is added to the water, the movement
is more apparent. As the water is heated, it expands and grows lighter, hence, the upward movement. In
the same manner, air becomes heated near a steam radiator by conduction. It expands, becomes lighter
and moves upward. As the heated air moves upward, cooler air takes its place at the lower levels. When
liquids and gases are heated, they begin to move within themselves. This movement is different from the
molecular motion discussed in conduction of heat and is knows as heat transfer by convection.
Heated air in a building will expand and rise. For this reason, fire spread by convection is mostly in an
upward direction, although air currents can carry heat in any direction. Convected currents are generally
the cause of heat movement from floor to floor, from room to room and from area to area. The spread of
fire through corridors, up stairwells and elevator shafts, between walls and through attics is mostly caused
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by the convection of heat currents and has more influence upon the positions for fire attack and ventilation
than either radiation or conduction.
Another form of heat transfer by convection is direct flame contact. When a substance is heated to the
point where flammable vapors are given off, these vapors may be ignited, creating a flame. As other
flammable materials come in contact with the burning vapors, or flame, they may be heated to a
temperature where they too, will ignite and burn.
Radiation
The warmth of the sun is felt soon after it

rises. When the sun sets, the earth begins
to cool with similar rapidity. We carry an
umbrella to shade our bodies from the
heat of the sun. A spray of water
between a firefighter and a fire will
lessen the heat reaching the
firefighter. Although air is a poor
conductor, it is obvious that heat can
travel where matter does not exist. This
method of heat transmission is known as
radiation of heat waves. Heat and light
waves are similar in nature, but they
differ in length per cycle. Heat waves are
longer than light waves and they are sometimes called infrared rays. Radiated heat will travel through
space until it reaches an opaque object. As the object is exposed to heat radiation, it will in return radiate
heat from its surface. Radiated heat is one of the major sources of fire spread, and its importance demands
immediate attention at points where radiation exposure is severe.
PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION
All forms of fire and explosion are subtypes of the larger term, combustion. Fire is a fundamental
chemical reaction based on oxidation. Explosion is a two-tiered chemical reaction based on the volatility
of mixing at least two substances.
The following list of definitions might be helpful:
 Accelerant -- anything that helps spread fire (gas, diesel, kerosene, butane, turpentine, etc.)
 Binary -- a mixing of two substances
 Blast -- the circular pattern of escaping gases
 Bomb -- device consisting basically of an explosive and detonator
 Booster -- also called "primer", an explosive that detonates a primary explosion
 Brisance -- a shock wave produced by rapid thermal decomposition
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 Combustion -- heat & light, but no shock wave (fire is a subtype of combustion)
 Detonation -- heat & shock
 Explosion -- heat, shock, and noise
Heat is one of the most basic terms. It is produced from the breaking and formation of chemical bonds.
In a chemical reaction, atoms are not lost but merely redistributed. Molecules absorb energy when their
chemical bonds are broken apart, and release energy when their bonds are reformed. All oxidation
reactions give off more energy than they absorb, which is released in the form of heat, light, shock, noise
or some combination thereof, depending upon the single- or double-bonding that takes place when the
molecules reform. Most reactions are exothermic, which means they need very little energy to get
started (a lower ignition or kindling temperature), and some reactions are endothermic, which means
they need more energy to get started (a booster).
Reactions also take place at various rates of speed. Fire, for example, is a fairly slow reaction because
molecular change usually only takes place on the surface of substances (this is called glow as opposed to
pyrolysis which is flame and indicates irreversible molecular change).
Pyrolysis only takes place when fire has a continuous source of oxygen. Fuel-air mix determines what is
called the flammable range, and below this is the ignition range, and even further below is the flash point
(vapor) range. Conditions are right to support combustion (give an outside source) at the flash point range,
reactions will sustain themselves at the ignition range, and fuel-air mix is perfect at the flammable range.
How quickly reactions move through these three ranges is the speed of the reaction. Speed can be
increased by temperature, however, as any 18 degree Fahrenheit increase in temperature usually doubles
or triples the reaction rate. Fires, for example, burn faster once they can raise the environment's
temperature.
The earth's atmosphere consists of 21% oxygen, and most fires will extinguish themselves at less than
16% oxygen. However, it's not a simple matter as the external supply of oxygen. Chemical reactions have
their own way of extracting the oxygen they need. With a fire involving hydrocarbons (wood), the reaction
extracts oxygen from carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxide, and nitrogen oxide. With a fire
involving plastic, the reaction relies on poisonous gases released: hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride,
and phosgene. Explosions rely upon oxygen released from nitrates or potassium substances, usually
potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate, or nitrogen itself. Much of what chemical reactions need to supply
their own oxygen is abundantly available in the air (carbon dioxide) or nature (nitrogen and potassium).
These readily-available substances are called oxidizers.
Fire Triangle:
FUEL + OXYGEN + HEAT SOURCE = COMBUSTION
Explosion Triangle:
FUEL + OXIDIZER + IGNITION = EXPLOSION
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THE FUELS
(Combustible Materials) A fuel can easily be defined as any substance that will combust.
Fuels Simply stated, a fuel is anything that can burn. Fuels can be in any physical state: solids, liquids,
or gases. The physical state of the fuel affects the combustion process. Most fuels are required to be in
the gaseous state before combustion can occur, but this is not always the case.
FUEL is matter and matter exists in three physical states: solid, liquid and gas. Solids melt to become
LIQUIDS, and these may vaporize and become GASES Each of the physical states exhibits different
physical and chemical properties that directly affect a fuel’s combustibility
Solids
Solids have a physical size and shape. To ignite, solids must be heated to the point of decomposing
and, thus, producing vapors. Sometimes you can see this, such as in a fireplace where a log is burning
and you can see a space between the surface of the log and the visible flame. The space is the layer where
the solid log is being vaporized and the vapors above the log are burning. This can be seen even more
clearly on a burning candle. It is not so much that the wick is burning but that the solid, wax, in this case,
is heated and turned into a liquid. Capillary action allows the liquid to be drawn up the wick where the
liquid is vaporized. Once these vapors reach the correct proportion of vapor/air mixture, there is
combustion.
The only way to truly understand combustion is to break the process down into its molecular components.
With solids, the molecules are packed closely together by bonds that help give the material its shape
and form. Some molecules hold a tighter bond than others do. This is evident in how easy it is to break or
pull the material apart. All atoms and molecules are in motion. When heated, this motion increases. As
the rate of movement increases so does the number of times when the molecules collide. The more heat,
the faster the molecular movement and the greater the impact of these collisions. Eventually, these
collisions result in the breaking of some of the molecular bonds. When these bonds are broken apart,
energy is released in the form of heat and light.
As the heat continues to rise and the collisions become more intense and more frequent, resulting in more
bonds being broken, the heat from this process intensifies as well. When these molecules break apart,
some combine with oxygen; this is the oxidation process. As a result of the oxygen bonding with these
other molecules, heat is given off; this is an exothermic reaction. In time, this process becomes self-
sustaining in a form known as combustion. The heat being applied to the solid matter must be sufficient
to overcome the amount of heat that solid object is capable of absorbing.
A good example is an 8-inch-diameter log placed in a fireplace by itself. It is impossible to just place a
match to the bottom of the log, as shown in Figure below, and expect it to ignite. What takes place is the
heat from the flame of the match is absorbed by the mass of the log. There is localized charring, but the
log will not ignite.
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Solid -
Molecules are closely packed

together.
Liquid -
Molecules are loosely packed.
Gas -
Molecules are free to move.
Liquids
A liquid’s ability to ignite and
burn depends on its form. When
diesel fuel in a large container is
exposed to heat, to some extent
that heat can be absorbed,
prevents ignition. However, if
you were to take that liquid,
spray it into the air or upon a
piece of paper (increasing its
surface area); ignition requires
perhaps only the energy from a
match.
Liquids have two other

important characteristics. The density of a liquid fuel dictates whether it will sit on top of water or sink
and rest below the water’s surface. Fuels such as gasoline and kerosene are lighter than water and will
rest on the water’s surface and allow the fuel to continue its vaporization process and to burn if ignited.
The solubility of a liquid fuel dictates whether it will readily mix with water. Polar solvents such as alcohol
will mix with water.
This could be an important factor when suppression forces apply their water streams in and around the
area of origin. Alcohols are soluble in water. If an alcohol was used as the first fuel ignited, the residue
and unburned fuel may very well mix with the suppression water, essentially being washed away and
leaving little trace.
Liquids will not ignite in the liquid state; the fuel must be vaporized and those vapors will burn. As with
solids, investigators should consider the fuel in its molecular state. In basic terms: When heat is applied
to the liquid, the molecules become agitated and move faster and faster. Atmospheric pressure and surface
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tension keep many of these molecules from flying from the liquid. But, as collisions between the molecules
occur and the temperature rises, some molecules will have sufficient force to break free of the surface
tension and enter the atmosphere where they will be suspended in the air as vapor. This process—the
collision of the molecules and the breaking of bonds—creates heat in the form of an exothermic reaction,
the same as in solids.
These processes continue until sufficient vapors are given off to support a flaming fire across the surface
of the liquid, but not sufficient to allow combustion to continue. This is considered to be the flash point
of the liquid. As the temperature of the liquid rises, usually just a few more degrees above the flash point,
the liquid generates sufficient vapors to allow the flame to continue to burn. This is considered the liquid’s
fire point. In both circumstances, there is an external source of ignition. If the liquid was allowed to
continue to heat without an external source of ignition and the liquid heats to the point that it ignites on
its own (reaching its ignition temperature), this point is called its auto ignition temperature.
Gases
Relatively few gases are ignitable at room temperature. However, with increased temperature other solids
and liquids begin to break down and produce vapors. Vapors are indeed in a gaseous state, but a true gas
is one that is in a gaseous state at normal temperatures and pressure. Vapors and gases can mix with air
and ignite under the proper conditions. However, not all gases burn; in fact, some such as carbon dioxide
are used to extinguish fires. Dealing with gases requires considerable scrutiny to make sure that all the
facts match the hypothesis. Many variables must be taken into account along with a lot more science, such
as vapor density.
Vapor density is the weight of a gas when compared to air. This measurement is made at sea level where
air is considered to be 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi) and is given a designation of 1. Should a gas be
heavier than air, it has a designation greater than 1; should a gas be lighter than air, it has a designation
less than 1, such as 0.66.
Characteristics of FUELS
Solids
› Have definite volume and shape.
› In order for combustion to occur, sufficient heat must be present for the solid to liquefy and then
vaporize into the gaseous state.
› During oxidation, it is the gaseous form that is capable of combining with oxygen.
› In order for a solid to burn, it must reach its ignition temperature.
Terms to learn:
 Ignition Temperature
 Pyrolysis
 Heat of Combustion
Liquids
› Assumes the shape of its container and may diffuse.
› It has a definite volume and may be compressed slightly.
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› Like a solid, in order for combustion to occur, sufficient heat must be present to vaporize
it into the gaseous state.
Gases
› Have no definite shape or volume and assumes the shape and volume of its container.
› A gas will spread and eventually equalize its distribution throughout a fixed room or
container.
› Combustion in this state needs no heating and only requires the proper mixture of oxygen
and an ignition source.
General Categories of Fuel
1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic
solid materials.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.
Common Solid Fuels
A. Bulky B. Finely Divided C. Dust
1. Coal 1. Plastic 1. Saw dust

2. Wood 2. Paper 2. Sugar
3. Wax 3. Cork 3. Grain
4. Grease 4. Leather 4. others
Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary accepted combustibles: wood, paper and so on.
The vapors released by their chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This exemplifies a gas-
to-gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with oxygen in the air to produce a flame.
Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A common example is charcoal.
Chemical decomposition does not occur because there are no pyrolyzable elements present. No vapors are
released. The glowing combustion that results is an example of a gas-to-solid reaction.
Common Liquid Fuels
1. Gasoline 8. Lacquer 5. Cod liver oil

2. Kerosene 9. Olive oil 6. Paint
3. Turpentine 7. Varnish
4. Alcohol
Common Gas Fuels
1. Natural gas 4. Hydrogen

2. Propane 5. Acetylene
3. Butane 6. Carbon monoxide
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Understanding the Factors Affecting Burning Process
Fuel load
› The total quantity of combustible contents of a building, space, or fire area, including interior finish
and trim expressed in heat units or the equivalent weight in wood.
› The total amount of combustible material in a defined space. Fuel load is quantified in heat units or in
its equivalent weight in wood. Excessive fuel load for what would normally be expected in a space of
that type can be an indicator of incendiary fire
Perpetrator attempted to accelerate fire spread and burning by moving combustible materials into the
fire area
The fire growth rate is controlled by:

1. Physical and Chemical Properties of the Fuel
2. Fuel condition
3. Fuel configuration
4. Compartmentation/ventilation
Fuel Conditions
› Moisture content of Fuel and its equilibrium point
 A fuel when exposed to air will become in equilibrium with the air and have the same
moisture content as the air.
 The amount of exposure and age would also effect its wetness or dryness.
 This will affect the fuels ignition temperature and the rate that it burns.
 Generally when the moisture content is above 15%, ignition is rather difficult, even when it
is exposed to heat for a prolonged period of time.
(Equilibrium = fuel wetness vs. humidity)
 Dry fuels burn readily

 Wet fuels must first have excess moisture evaporated before it can be raised to its ignition
temperature
Configuration of Fuel
 The combustion of solid fuels is more complex than the combustion of a liquid or gas.
 Fuels take on many shapes and can be divided into many forms.
 The severity and the duration of the fire will be dependant upon;
 Arrangement and/or Placement
 How a fuel is normally configured in a structure will determine how it will burn and how it
will affect other fuels present in the structure.
Physical characteristics
 A fuel must be present in a suitable condition to be ignited.

 An example would be a heavy petroleum distillate spread on a floor will not easily ignite,
however by placing a wick in it, the wick will easily ignite and draw the fuel to the flame.
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• Level of ignition on the fuel, size of ignition source relative to mass/surface area of fuel
• The location of ignition on the fuel will determine the rate of fire development.
(An example would be a fire starting on the arm rest of a chair verses starting at the bottom of the chair)
(As fire burns upward it will progress faster if the fuel is above it, especially in the earlier stages)
 Amount - the total amount of fuel present must be balanced with the amount of air in the area in order
to continue the burning process.
 Density - the measure of a substance’s mass per unit volume.
This effects the fuels ability to transfer and spread heat energy.
Low density materials burn faster than high density materials.
 Heat capacity - the amount of heat energy required to change a materials temperature by one degree.
These effects the time required to transfer heat.
 Thermal conductivity - conducts heat readily
How a material will conduct heat determines how rapid the flame will spread across the surface of a
material.
 Heat loss
If the thermal insulation between two materials is increased, the flame spread rate will increase since
less energy would be lost from the burning area
Thermal properties of Fuels
Heat release rate

During the early stages of a fire, the rate of fire spread is determined by the heat
release rate of a burning fuel.
(An example could best be illustrated by burning wood shavings and a block of wood of the same weight)
The wood shavings would ignite and burn much faster than the wooden block.
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Power Usage of Electrical Devices compared with Fire Heat Release Rates
Item Approx. Power Usage/Peak Heat Release Rate

Burning cigarette 5W
Standard “A” Light Bulbs 15 to 200 W
Burning match 80 W
Coffee maker, hair dryer, toaster 500 to 1500 W or 0.5 to 1.5 kW
Burning Coffee Maker 40 kW
Small Trash Can, Trash Bag Fires 50 to 300 kW
Burning Upholstered Chair 80 kW to 2.5 MW
Burning Upholstered Sofa 3,000 kW or 3 MW
Burning Christmas Tree 1.6 MW to 5.2 MW
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS AND SOME OF THEIR EFFECTS
Combustion is a chemical change, which brings about new substances. These products of
combustion can be divided into four categories:
SMOKE
1. Smoke – is made up of very fine particles and condensed vapor as a consequence of combustion.
The observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has assumed
a major proportion, the value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used
by the arsonists.
o When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire,
it indicates humid material burning. Ex. Burning hay, vegetable compound, phosphorous (with
garlic odor).
o Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lachrymation and coughing indicates
presence of chlorine.
o Black smoke indicates lack of air but if accompanied by large flames it indicates petroleum and
petroleum products and rubber.
o Reddish – brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, hydrochloric acid, etc.
o Blue smoke- burning alcohol
o Yellow or brownish yellow smoke- from film, nitric acid, sulfur hydrochloric acid or smokeless
gunpowder
Smoke color should be noted while the fire is still in progress. If the fire has been put out when you
arrive, ask the firefighters what color the smoke was. Determine whether substances likely to produce
smoke of that color were on the premises before the fire.
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2. Fire gasses – refers to gasses that remain when the products of combustion are cooled to normal
temperature.
These are substances which have no shape or volume of their own and will expand to take the shape
and volume of the space they occupy. Fire gases include carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia,
hydrogen chloride, and acrolein. (See box below for the effects of several typical fire gases.)
3. Flames – incandescent gasses that accompanies rapid oxidation of a combustible material is called
flames.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLAMES:

1. Based on color and completeness of combustibility of fuel:
a. Luminous flame – is orange-red, will deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated
due to incomplete combustion of fuel and has a lower temperature.
b. Non-luminous flame – is blue, forms no soot deposit due to complete combustion of the
fuel and has relatively high temperature.
According to burning fuel and air mixture

b. Premixed flame. Bunsen burner
c. Diffusion flame. Flame from oxyacetylene torch.
Based on smoothness
d. Laminar flame. (Smooth flame) particles follow a smooth path through a gaseous flame
e. Turbulent flame. (Rough flame) having unsteady, irregular swirls
Color of the Flame
Color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an important factor in determining
incendiarism.
A reddish flame indicates presence of petroleum. Blue flame indicates use of alcohol as accelerant.
4. Heat – is the combustion product mostly responsible for the spread of fire in the building.
It is also defined as a form of energy characterized by vibration of molecules and capable of initiating
and supporting chemical changes and changes of state.
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
When a material (fuel) burns, it undergoes a chemical change. None of the elements making up the
material are destroyed in the process, but all of the matter is transformed into another form or
state. Although dispersed, the products of combustion equal in weight and volume that of the fuel before
it was burned.
When a fuel burns there are four products of combustion:

 Fire gases  Heat
 Flame  Smoke
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The smoke encountered at most fires consists of a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide gases, finely divided carbon particles (soot), and a miscellaneous assortment of products that
have been released from the material involved.
Heat is a form of energy that is measured in degrees of temperature to signify its intensity. In this sense,
heat is the product of combustion that is responsible for the spread of fire. In a physiological sense, it is
the direct cause of burns and other forms of personal injury. Injuries caused by heat include dehydration,
heat exhaustion and injury to the respiratory tract, in addition to burns.
Flame is the visible, luminous body of a burning gas. When a burning gas is mixed with the proper
amounts of oxygen, the flame becomes hotter and less luminous. This loss of luminosity is because of a
more complete combustion of the carbon. For these reasons, flame is considered to be a product of
combustion. Heat, smoke and gas, however, can develop in certain types of smoldering fires without
evidence of flame.
Some materials give off more smoke than others. Liquid fuels generally give off dense black smoke. Oils,
tar, paint, varnish, molasses, sugar, rubber, sulfur and many plastics, also generally give off a dense smoke
in large quantities.
Phases of Fire
The burning process occurs in clearly defined stages. By recognizing the different phases (or stages), a
fire fighter can better understand the process of burning and fighting the fire at different levels and with
different tactics and tools. Each phase (or stage) is characterized by differences in room temperature and
atmospheric composition.
A firefighter may be confronted by one or all of the following three phases (or stages) of fire at any
time:
Incipient Phase (Growth Stage)
In the first phase, the oxygen content in the air has not been
significantly reduced and the fire is producing water vapor, carbon
dioxide, perhaps a small quantity of sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide and other gases. Some heat is being generated, and the
amount will increase with the progress of the fire. The fire may be
producing a flame temperature well above 1,0000F (5370C), yet the
temperature in the room at this stage may be only slightly
increased.
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Free-Burning Phase (Fully Developed Stage)
The second phase of burning encompasses all of the free-burning

activities of the fire. During this phase, oxygen-rich air is drawn
into the flame as convection (the rise of heated gases) carries the
heat to the upper most regions of the confined area. The heated
gases spread out laterally from the top downward, forcing the
cooler air to seek lower levels, and eventually igniting all the
combustible material in the upper levels of the room. This heated
air is one of the reasons that firefighters are taught to keep low and
use protective breathing equipment. One breath of this super-heated air can sear the lungs. At this point,
the temperature in the upper regions can exceed 1,3000F (7000C). As the fire progresses through the
latter stages of this phase, it continues to consume the free oxygen until it reaches the point where there
is insufficient oxygen to react with the fuel. The fire is then reduced to the smoldering phase and needs
only a supply of oxygen to burn rapidly or explode.
Smoldering Phase (Decay Stage)
In the third phase, flame may cease to exist if the area of confinement
is sufficiently airtight. In this instance, burning is reduced to
glowing embers. The room becomes completely filled with dense
smoke and gases to the extent that it is forced from all cracks under
pressure. The fire will continue to smolder, and the room will
completely fill with dense smoke and gases of combustion at a
temperature of well over 1,0000F (5370C). The intense heat will
have vaporized the lighter fuel fractions such as hydrogen and
methane from the combustible material in the room. These fuel
gases will be added to those produced by the fire and will further increase the hazard to the firefighter
and create the possibility of a backdraft.
The records of fatal fires show that more people died from inhaling these superheated and toxic fire gases
than from any other source.
Intensity of fire
Means simply how hot the fire is burning. Some types of fuels naturally burn hotter (more
intensity) than others. For example, a gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood fire, while acetylene flame
is hotter than a gasoline flame.
Factors to determine the intensity of fire
1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present
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Magnitude of Fire.
Magnitude of fire means the size of a fire. And it is governed by the surface area of fuel exposed to the
air. The magnitude of fire is not always determined by the amount of fuel involved but more often by the
amount of fuel exposed to the air. (Figure)
Flash point.
The temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off enough vapors
to cause a flame to “flash” across the surface.
Fire point.
The temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning. There is usually about
5 to 10 degrees difference between the flashpoint and the fire point of most materials. Since the two are
just a few degrees apart, the term “flashpoint” is used to express the condition of a fuel vaporizing, whether
or not it is vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.
Ignition Temperature
Ignition temperature is the degree of heat necessary to ignite flammable vapors. This temperature can
come from an external source (match, spark, and friction): or if the fuel itself is raised to this temperature,
auto-ignition (self-ignition) will occur.
Oxygen & Oxidation
In nearly all fires, Oxidation takes place by using the oxygen that is present in the atmosphere. However,
in some cases, certain chemical compounds known as oxidizing agents are involved. Though not
flammable themselves, when they are heated or when they come in contact with water, they give off
oxygen in turn, supports the burning of flammable materials. (Figures)
The more common Oxidizing Agents:
1. Nitrates
2. Chlorates
3. Peroxide
If a small quantity of potassium chlorate is added to a pile of sugar, flour or starch and heat is applied the
mixture will burst into flame and burn violently. Without the addition of the oxidizing agent, these same
fuels would be extremely slow in igniting. (Bustria, 200)
For combustion (specifically oxidation) to take place, a combustible fuel and an oxidizing agent (oxygen)
must come together. The air we breathe is 21 percent oxygen. The oxygen levels drop below 15 percent a
fire maybe extinguished in time or literally smothered, due to lack of oxygen. This is an example of an
oxygen-regulated fire.
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Flame Defined
It is the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with more
oxygen. Flame fades when carbon burns completely, so flame fades when carbon burns completely, so
flame is considered a product of incomplete combustion.
It is the manifestations of fire when the fires is in its gas phased combustion.
Diffusion- is the uniform distribution, seemingly in contradiction to the laws of gravity of molecules of
one substance through those of another. The rate at which gas diffuses is inversely proportional to the
square root of its density.
Permeability- means that others substances may pass through or permeates a gas. (Redsticker &
O’Connor)
Gases are classified by their chemical, physical properties and usage.
A. Chemical Properties-
Chemical Properties of gases are of prime interest to firefighters as they reflect the ability of the gas to
react within it or with other materials.
The chemical properties of gases may be broken down as follows:
1. Flammable gases- any gas that which in normal concentration of oxygen in the air. These gases
are subjected to the same conditions as flammable vapors.
2. Non-flammable gases- any gases that will not burn in air. Some of these will support combustion
and are called oxidizes. Thos that do not support combustion are called inert gases.
3. Reactive gases- any gases that will react within itself or with other materials under conditions
other than fire, i.e. shock, heat, and etc.
4. Toxic gases- any gases that may complicate firefighting efforts due to its serious life hazards.
B. Physical Properties- is the physical behavior of a gas both outside and inside its container and
when accidentally released these are of prime interest to firefighters.
Physical Properties are:
1. Compressed gases matter which is solely in a gaseous state in its container with lower pressure unit
of 25 psig (pounds per square inch guage) at normal temperature of 70 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Liquefied gases- matter which exist partly as a liquid at normal temperatures inside the container and
remain under pressure as long as any liquid is in the container.
3. Cryogenic gases- matter which remain as liquefied gas in its container at temperature far below
normal temperature.
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C. Usage – classification of gases is made by their usages. However, there will be much overlapping
in these usages.
1. Fuel gases- gases which burn with air to produce heat, power, or light.
2. Industrial gases- gases used in industrial processes such as: water treatment, welding and cutting,
refrigeration, and etc.
3. Medical gases- gases for medical purposes such as therapy and anesthesia.
Types of Flames
A. According to color and completeness of combustions.
1. Luminous flame- a reddish- orange in color it deposits soot because it is a product of
incomplete combustion: it has lower temperature
2. Non- luminous flame- bluish in color; it does not deposit soot because it is a product
of complete combustion; it has a higher temperature that luminous flame.
B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture.

1. Premixed flame- example of a Bun sen burner
2. Diffusion flame- example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch (different-dispersed;
widely spread)
C. Based on Smoothness:
1. Laminar flame- (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle follows a smooth
path through a gaseous flame
2. Turbulent flame- (rough flame) those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies.
Nature of Fire
Even the most flammable materials (capable of being easily ignited) do not actually burn. The vapor given
off by a material is part that burns. When a piece of wood is ignited, the fire is from the burning wood,
rather, from the vapors that are given off by the wood. The heat causes the substance in the wood to
vaporize. The heated vapors mix quickly with oxygen in the air and fire results. This process is known as
pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis defined
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It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the thermal
decomposition of a solid fuel through the
action of the heat. (See figure)
The process of Pyrolysis involves the
following:
1. The fuel is heated until its
temperature reaches its fire point
2. Decomposition takes place moisture
in its fuel is converted to vapor.
3. Decomposition produces combustible
vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel.
These combustible vapors are technically
termed as free radicals.
4. Free-radicals undergo combustion if
proper amount of oxygen is present.
The most common type of free-radicals:

(Combustible Vapors)
1. Hydrogen gas
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Nitrogen
CHAPTER II
FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION
Behavior of Fire
The way that a fire develops is affected by many factors. At first, it is most affected by the initial fuel
supply; obviously sufficient. Oxygen is readily available in the surrounding air. Fire evolves and spreads
to other combustibles following a natural path of least resistance. It extends up and away from its point of
origin, leaving behind distinctive patterns common to all fires. The color of the smoke and flame
produced by a fire is also indicative and depend on the type of fuel and temperature at which it is
burning.
As a fire continues to grow, environmental factors become increasingly important in influencing its extent.
Of particular importance include fuel supply and composition, structural design, contraction and fire
suppression.
The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and thermal
imbalance.
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Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the normal behavior when the
pattern is undisturbed. Thermal imbalance, on the other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to the
interference of foreign matter.
Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire
originated.
Dangerous Behavior of Fire
Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:
1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs
in the form of explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If a room is not properly
ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is suddenly
opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden combustion
occur, which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete
combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash produced
when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly
burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the
form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards within a few seconds.
3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations and become
stronger and bigger instead.
4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is completely
covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously
thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.
Accidental Fire Causes

The determination of the cause of any fire requires the clear identification of those conditions necessary
for the fire to have occurred. These conditions include, but are not limited to, the device or equipment
involved, the presence of a competent ignition source, the type and form of the material first ignited, and
the circumstances or actions that brought all the factors together.
The Causes of Fire
Determining Origin and Cause
The main reason for conducting a post fire examination of the fire scene is to the principal area of
expertise that separates a fire/arson investigator from other investigative specialist.
The point of origin of a fire is the location where the fire started – the place of beginning. The term
area of origin is sometimes used when fire originates over a larger tract or space or when the exact point
25
of origin cannot be determined. Multiple points of origin are said to exist when there is more than one
place of beginning, or when several separate fires burn in the same structure at the same time.
The cause of the fire usually can be determined from a detailed inspection of the charred debris
combustibles, devices, and residues located at the point of (or within the area of) origin. Theoretically, the
cause of a fire can be categorized into one of four classifications.
In fire investigation, the place where a fire starts is referred to as the "point of origin." This may be an
exact point or a general area. In almost all cases, the point of origin must be located correctly in order to
determine the fire cause properly. In the past, individuals often referred to cause and origin; the correct
phrase and procedure is origin and cause.
In general, fire will bum longer at or near the point of origin, thus the damage generally will be greater.
Normally the fire cause will be found at, or very near, the point of origin, and physical evidence of the
fire cause, whether accidental or incendiary, is often recovered. Once the point of origin is determined, it
may confirm or contradict the statements of owners/occupants/witnesses/suspects. One of the most
important aspects of any fire investigation is the proper recognition, identification, and analysis of fire
patterns.
Fire patterns are the actual physical effects that can be seen or measured after a fire. Including charring,
oxidation, distortion, melting, color changes, and structural collapse.
Lines or areas of demarcation are the borders defining the different levels of heat and smoke as they
affect various items at the fire scene. The production of these lines and areas is dependent upon a
combination of variables: the material itself, the Rate of Heat Release (RHR), fire suppression activities,
temperature of the heat source, ventilation, and the length of time of exposure.
Surface effect is the result of the nature and material of the surface which contains the fire pattern,
affecting the actual shape of the lines of demarcation displayed, or increasing or decreasing the amount of
pyrolysis and combustion in different areas. For example, if both smooth and rough surfaces of the same
material are equally exposed to the same level of heat, the rougher surface will sustain more damage.
Surfaces such as paint, tiles, brick, wallpaper, plaster, etc., can increase or decrease the amount of damage
sustained to the surface.
The penetration of horizontal surfaces (bum-throughs) from above or below can be the result of radiant
heat, direct flame impingement, or smoldering in a localized area. Downward penetrations often are
considered unusual, since the more natural direction of heat and fire spread is upward. However, once
flashover has occurred, the hot fire gases may be forced downward through small preexisting openings,
such as for ductwork, resulting in a penetration. Downward penetrations also can result from the intense
burning of polyurethane mattresses, couches, or chairs. Dropping off laming or smoldering materials also
can lead to floor penetrations. Any downward penetration should be examined carefully and its cause
determined.
The burn direction of a penetration can be determined by an examination of the sides of the hole. Sides
that are wider at the top of the hole, and slope inward, indicate that the fire came from above. On the other
26
hand, sides that are wider at the bottom and slope upward toward the center of the hole indicate that the
fire came from below.
Another method that can be used to determine whether a fire spread up or down through a hole is to
compare the overall extent of damage to the two levels separated by the penetrated surface. If the fire
moved inward, most often the damage to the underside of the surface will be more severe. If the fire
moved downward, then the opposite most likely will be true.
Given the many circumstances that can affect fire behavior, it is possible for both upward and downward
fire spread to occur through the same penetration. However, it is likely that only the last direction of
movement will still be evident.
Loss of material and mass may occur when wood or other combustible materials bum. The remains of
these materials themselves can display lines of demarcation, and ultimately fire patterns that can be
analyzed. Examples of this are the top of wall studs burned away at progressively lower levels, which can
be used to determine the direction of fire travel. Likewise, the extent of damage on opposite sides of a
door opening can be used to determine the direction of fire travel.
Classifications of Fire Cause
The cause of any fire may be classified as accidental, natural, incendiary, or undetermined.
Accidental fires are those in which the proven cause does not involve any deliberate human act to ignite
or spread the fire. While in most instances, this classification is clear, some deliberately set fires can be
accidental. For example, an individual using a barbecue grill on an apartment balcony unintentionally
knocks the unit over, causing the fire to spread to the structure itself. The spread of the fire is accidental
even though the initial fire was deliberate.
Natural fires involve events such as lightning, earthquake, wind, and the like and do not involve any
direct human intervention. They sometimes are referred to as "Acts of God."
Incendiary fires are set deliberately under circumstances in which the individual knows that the fire
should not be set.
An undetermined fire cause means that the cause cannot be proved. The fire still might be under
investigation, and the cause might be determined at a later date.
The term suspicious should not be used to describe a fire cause. Mere suspicion concerning a fire's
cause is an unacceptable level of proof and should be avoided.
With regard to criminal prosecution, only two classifications are relevant: accidental and incendiary,
NFPA 921 strongly discourages the use of the term “suspicious”. Suspicion is not an acceptable level of
proof for making a determination of cause within the scope of 921 and should be avoided.
Physical Examination of the Fire Scene
27
An investigator must approach the fire investigation systematically. It is important to keep in mind the
application of the scientific method of investigation. It is a six-step approach to analyzing the origin and
cause of fire starting with:
a. Step #1 – recognizing the problem

b. Step #2 – defining the problem
c. Step #3 – collecting data
d. Step #4 – analyzing data
e. Step #5 – developing hypothesis
f. Step #6 – proving the hypothesis
The first step of recognizing the problem is after the fire or explosion has occurred and it is the
investigator’s responsibility to determine its origin, cause, and responsibility. It is at this point that
investigators must recognize that their determinations may lead to criminal and civil litigation which may
affect many lives.
To define the problem, the investigator must conduct a thorough investigation with all the information
available to him. Step 3 involves the collection of data including documents of the scene with photographs,
reports, and collection of physical evidence. It also includes witness accounts, which may require
additional statement taking, notes and diagrams.
The fourth step is the analysis of the data (inductive reasoning). Here the investigator’s knowledge,
training and experience is put to the test in his analysis of the fire pattern, structural damage, fuel source,
ignition sources and any other factors which may affect the correct determination of origin and ultimately
the cause. This is the “fact” portion of the investigation. Your analysis must be confined to these facts
which were deduced from your Observation of known scientific results or through experiment and testing
of physical evidence collected at the scene.
The fifth step is the stage at which an investigator may express his opinion about the origin, cause and
responsibility of the fire/explosion incident. This opinion is based on the facts and data collected by the
investigator.
In the final step, step 6, an investigator’s hypothesis (deductive reasoning) is put to the test, based on the
facts and scientific data that have been developed.
If all other possible origins and causes have been eliminated through deductive reasoning, then the
investigator’s opinion can stand. If not, then, the cause of the fire/explosion must be listed as undetermined
or unknown until such time as a logical, scientifically acceptable cause can be determined.
The physical examination of a structural fire involves a series of increasingly focused analysis: first the
exterior, then the interior, the room of origin, and finally the determination of cause. The reconstruction
and examination of the fire scene can be seriously impeded by indiscriminate or haphazard handling of
the routine fire-fighting operation known as the overhaul.
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This involves the inspection of and, when necessary, the movement or reshuffling of debris is an effort to
discover concealed sparks, embers, or flames that might rekindle the fire. In the case of a suspicious fire,
the overhaul process should be minimized. If circumstances permit, the room of origin should not be
overhauled before an investigator is on the scene and can supervised the operation; otherwise, evidence
could be destroyed or buried.
An object estimate should be completed each area overhauled to determine whether the debris is normal
for that area, and whether items consistent with a normal life style are missing. The presence of items
foreign to the environment is to be viewed with suspicion.
Exterior Examination
The exterior examination begins with interviewing of the fire department, firefighters and police officers
who were first at the scene. As the first-in company, they may observations relevant to the nature and
origin of the fire/ the initial interview should cover the followings types of information:
1. Where any people or vehicles observed in the vicinity?
2. If so, could their conduct or actions be interpreted as suspicious? That is, were they:
* Fighting or arguing?
* Too eager to help or give information?
* Attempting to obstruct fire-fighting operation
* Observe fleeing the scene?
* Observed at other fire scene?
* Dressed in a manner suggesting obvious haste (relative to time of day/night or season)?
If suspicions were raised, record accurate descriptions, license plate numbers, etc.
3. Was structure fully involved?
* Was the fire consistent with the types of combustibles readily available?
* Was it consistent with the class and type of combustible?
* Were flames visible?
* What side of the building was involved?
* Was there fire through the roof?
* Had flames extended through windows? If so, which windows?
* What color were the smoke and flames?
* Were the flames quietly lapping up the side of the structure or were they roaring up violently?
4. Were the doors and windows opened or closed?
* Were they locked or nailed shut?
* Were shades opened or closed, or windows painted to observe view?
* Were entrance blocked (e.g. , by storage or rubbish) ?
* Was forced entry made and, if so, by whom?
5. What was the approximate reflex time (time-lapsed between alarm and first water response time and
set up time)?
29
6. Were any unusual odors noticed?

7. Were hydrants, standpipes, and sprinkler system operational?
* Were hydrants blocked, hidden, or rendered inoperable?
* Were hydrants caps missing or cross threaded?
* Were fire detection or other safety systems circumvented or rendered inoperable?
After completing the initial interviews, the investigators should examine and evaluate the fire damage on
the exterior. If possible walk around the structure. Note the damage around windows and doors, under the
soffit, and around vents or outside openings.
1. Where is the greatest exterior damage?

2. Does it appear that the fire started outside the building and extended into the structure?
3. Is a “V” pattern on the exterior shell of the structure?
4. Where is the lowest point of exterior burning?
Examine any containers or items on the ground around the structure, and photograph the outside of the
building, Note the construction and use of the structure. Construction refers to the type of building:
wood frame, ordinary, non combustible, heavy timber, etc.
Note the building materials such as type of roof and siding. Also note differences in multiple sections of
the building: for example, a two-storey main structure perhaps with a newer one storey addition. All these
factors may play an important role in the fire spread and amount of destruction.
The use of the structure refers to the type of occupancy: for example, residential, multiple dwelling unit,
commercial or industrial. The type of occupancy may play a factor in the possible causes of the fire. Except
in rare cases where the fire is positively identified as having started outside the building and extended into
it (e.g. from burning rubbish), the origin and cause of a fire cannot be determined and should not be
assumed only on the basis of an exterior examination.
There is generally an inside area or room of the structure that while exhibiting little fire damage relative
to the rest of the interior, adjoins the external point of greatest damage. The extreme point of the fire’s
extension may be the best place to begin the interior examination.
Interior Examination
With the exterior examination completed, the investigation shifts to the inside of the structure. To the
extent possible, the investigator should attempt to complete a detailed survey of the structure interior,
wearing full turnout gear or its equivalent at all times.
Remember, a fire damaged building is a dangerous place in which to work, and an investigator must
evaluate its stability before entering.
Try to reconstruct mentally what happened during the fire. All observations made during this preliminary
survey should be written down. Including answer to the following:
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1. Does the fire spread appear natural?

2. Was the extension of the fire natural?
3. Was the intensity of the fire natural?
4. Were the furnishings, clothing, appliances, and so on normal for the type of occupancy?
5. Were personal items removed before the fire? Was there any substitution of contents ( for instance,
cheap or used in place of expensive)?
6. Was there fire in unusual locations ( under staircase, in closets and attics, in desk drawers of file
cabinets)?
7. Were the body of fire and the path of heat travel consistent with the type of construction and contents?
8. Is your approximation of the burn time consistent with the combustibility characteristics of the type
of material (fuel) involved?
9. Are there any holes in the floors or wall? If so, are they a natural consequence of the fire or a possible
indication that an accelerant was used? ( An arsonist will sometimes punch holes in walls to allow
for better cross ventilation and help the lateral spread of fire).
10. Are there holes in the roof? Are they the result of natural burn-through from the fire or of venting
during the fire fighting operations? Are they residual damage from an earlier fire, or were they pre
cut by an arsonist to accommodate the use of a liquid accelerant?
11. Are there any unusual puddle like burn patterns to show that a liquid accelerant may have been
used?
Room and Point of Origin
By observing the burn patterns and tracking back the order in which they were formed, the investigator
gradually migrates to the area of the most severe damage. This is usually the area where the fire burned
the longest (except when flammable liquids were involved).
The discovery of multiple points of origin is prima-facie evidence that the fire was of incendiary origin,
since such a condition is highly improbable and virtually impossible under normal conditions.
The step from the inside examination to the determination of the fire’s point of origin and cause depends
on the fire/arson investigator’s ability to detect and characterize the visible remain of the fire. These give
information about the fire, including the path of spread, temperatures reached, and fuels involved.
The physical signs and substances that reveal by implication, how a fire developed is referred to as “fire
language” to be effective, a fire/arson investigator must be able to read this technical language. Example
of fire Language include lines or areas of demarcation, depth of char, spalling, oxidation, heat indicators
(temperature determination). Thermal indicators of metal, calcinations, various features of glass, heat
shadowing, and protected areas.
Lines or Area of Demarcation
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The line or area of demarcation appears between the affected area and adjacent unaffected or less affected
area of the structure and its contents
These demarcations depend on the material, the rate of the heat release of the fire, fire suppression efforts,
the temperature of the heat, source, any ventilation, and the length of time material was exposed to the
heat.
Depth of Char
Char is the carbonization of a fuel by the action of heat or burning. The term is generally applied to the
combustible residue remaining after the pyrolysis of wood. The depth of char refers to the depth of the
surface of the original dimensional wood (lumber) to the boundary of the carbonized fraction and
comparing this with the remaining unburned matter. (Figure)
From and investigative standpoint, the depth of char indicates the length of time that a wooden structure
member was exposed to flame. Ordinarily, a section by exposed dimensional lumber ignites at about 660
degrees F and chars at the rate of 1 inch in 45 minutes at 1400 degrees F. the char is usually deepest where
the fire burned the longest (excluding the use of accelerants) and, this can be used to identify the point of
origin. (Figure)
Depth of char is often used to estimate the duration of the fire. The rate of charring wood varies widely
depending upon such variables such as:
1. Rate and duration of heating

2. Ventilation
3. Surface area to mass ratio
4. Size, direction, orientation of wood grain
5. Species of wood (pine, fir, oak, etc.)
6. Moisture content
7. Nature of surface coating
By measuring the relative depth and extent of charring, the investigator may be able to determine what
portion of material or construction had been exposed the longest to a heat source.
Spalling
Spalling is a condition ordinarily associated with masonry and cement (concrete) building
materials .it may appear as a distinctive discoloration of brick or concrete and in some cases ,the
surface material may be pitted and rough .Spalling is the result of mechanical forces material
,particularly between surface of the concrete and the underlying substrate aggregate ,The
mechanical forces react to high temperature and the rate of heating in one or more of the following
situation :
1. Moisture in uncured concrete
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2. Different expansion between reinforcing material and the surroundings concrete .

3. Differential expansion between the concrete mix and the aggregate.
4. Differential expansion between the finished surface layer and the concrete substrate layers.
5. Differential expansion between the fire or heat exposed surface and the substrate material
Spalling of masonry may be caused by heat freezing chemicals or abrasion .Spalling is characterized by
distinct lines of striation and the loss of surface material resulting in cracking, breaking, chipping, or the
formation of craters on the surface.
Rapid cooling of heated mass of concrete or other masonry material can also cause spalling .One of the
most common sources of rapid cooling to a heated surface is the water from the fire fighting activities .
Oxidation
Oxidation is the basic chemical process of combustion .Oxidation of some materials that do not burn can
produce lines of demarcation and fire patterns useful to the fire investigator.
Some of the effects of oxidation include change of color and texture.
The higher the temperature and the longer exposure to heat, the more pronounced the effect of oxidation
.Galvanized steel subjected to mild heating will have a dull whitish surface from oxidation of the zinc
coating .The elimination of the protective zinc on the steel surface will result in a rust condition on the
unprotected steel .There can be a pattern of rusted compared to non-rusted galvanized steel in the same
area.
Heat Indicators
Heat indicators are those pieces of fused or molten metal (and or glass) that suggest both the path
of fire spread and location of highest temperatures. The most severe heat damage is usually found (use of
Accelerants excluded) at or near the point of origin .on finding a piece or Section of fused material l, the
investigator must do two things
1. Try to identify the materials composition
2. Determine its fusing temperature
Calcinations
Calcinations refer to the changes that occur during a fire either plaster or gypsum wall surfaces. This
may include the elimination of water from the gypsum to charring the paper surface of the wall board. The
gypsum on the side exposed to the fire becomes gray color extending all. The way through the gypsum
board the paper surface on the back side, which will subsequently char, the side exposed to the fire the
longest will become whiter as the carbon deposits are consumed. The color itself has no Significance to
the fire investigator, however, the difference between colors May show lines of demarcation.
Glass as an indicator
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Glass items such mirrors window panes and so on are also affected by heat buildup, smoke, and
flame heat damage (fusing)and smoke staining on Glass items tends to occur in direct relation to: the heat
buildup, the intensity of the fire, the speed of the spread ,and nearness to the fire.
A detailed inspection of glass items can give a reasonably precise determination of the items location with
regard to the fires point of origin
Heat Shadowing
Heat shadowing is the result of an object blocking the heat transfer through radiation and
connection or direct flame contact from its source to the surface on which the pattern is produced. The
conducted heat does not produce the heat shadowing. The object or items blocking the heat transfer energy
may be solid, liquid, combustible or non combustible any object that absorbs or reflects the heat transfer
may cause the production of a pattern on the material surface it is protecting.
Protected areas
Similar in appearance to heat shadowing is what is commonly referred to as a protected area. A

protected area results when an object prohibits the deposit of the products of incomplete combustion on
the material surface that the object is protecting
Both heat shadowing and protected areas can help the fire investigator perform the fire scene
reconstruction for the purpose of determining the origin and cause of a fire
Evidence of Incendiarism
There are many kind of evidence that may indicate the incendiary nature of fire. The following
recapitulates them:
1. Suspicious behavior of people observed at the fire scene
2. Signs of forced entry unrelated to fire fighting operations.
3. Precut holes in floors or roof.
4. Sabotaged fire detection or water delivery system (e.g. hydrants, sprinklers)
5. Multiple points of origin
RULES OF FIRE BEHAVIOR
1. Hot gases (including flames) are much lighter than the surrounding air and therefore, rise. In the absence
of strong winds of physical barriers (such as non combustible walls), which forced flames to Travel
elsewhere, fire will always preferentially burn upward (with some downward travel as a result of radiation)
2. Combustible materials in the path of the flames will be ignited, Thereby, increasing the extent and
intensity of the fire. The more Intense (higher heat release rate) the fire grows, the faster it will rise and
spread.
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3. If there is no more fuel above or beside the initial flame to be ignited by convicted or radiated heat ,or
if the initial fire too small to create the necessary heat flux on those fuels ,the fire will be self limiting and
often will burn itself out. A flame plume that is large enough to reach the ceiling of a compartment is
likely to trigger full involvement of a room ,for it is charging the upper gas layer in the room with gases
that have not cooled by mixing or radiative losses as much as gases in a shorter plume .As a result the hot
gas layer maintains a higher temperature and is more likely to reach its critical temperature (-600 degrees
centigrade or 1150 degree Fahrenheit in a typical room ) which then induces flashover .
4. The Fuel load of the room or structure is of paramount importance in the development of a fire
.This fuel load is not only the structure itself, but the furnishings, and the wall, floor and ceilings coverings
that feed a fire and offer its path and directions with optimum fuel conditions .In evaluating a fire’s
progress through a room, the investigator must establish what fuels were present and where they were
located. The chemical nature of fuels and their physical forms will affect their ignitability and the heat
release rate that can be expected from them.
In the reconstruction of a fire, the fuel load is not just the total number of joules or Btus of the heat that
can be generated, but the rate at which that heat is release. In evaluating a fire’s progress through a room
,the investigator must establish what fuels were present and where they were located. The chemical nature
of fuels and their physical forms will affect their ignitability and the heat release rate that can be expected
from them. In the reconstruction of a fire, the fuel load is not just the total number of joules or Btus of the
heat that can be generated, but the rate at which that heat is release.
5. Variations on the upward spread of fire will occur when air currents deflect the flame. When air
currents deflect the flame, when horizontal surfaces block the vertical travel, or radiation from established
flames ignited nearby surfaces .If fuel is present in these new areas it will ignite and spread the flames
laterally.
6. Upward vertical spread is enhanced when the fire finds chimney like configurations .Stairways,
elevators, utility shafts, air ducts and interior walls –all offer openings for carrying flames generated
elsewhere and fires may burn more intensely because of the enhanced draft.
7. Downward spread will occur whenever there is suitable fuel in the area .Combustible wall covering
particularly paneling courage the travel of fire downward as well as outward .Fire will burn downward in
a solid fuel but at a rate that is tiny fractions of its upward spread rate .Burnings portions of ceiling and
roof coverings and lighting fixture can fall onto ignitable fuel below and start new fires that quickly join
the main fire overhead.
Radiation from overhead fires ignite floor coverings ,furniture ,and walls ,even at some distance ,creating
new points of origin The resulting fire patterns can be complex to interpret ,and once again ,the
investigator must remember to take into account what fuel packages were present from the stand point of
their potential heat release rate contributions .
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8. Suppression efforts can also greatly influence the fire spread. Positive pressure ventilation or an
active attack on one face of the fire may force it back into other areas that may or may not have already
been involved, and push fire down, even under obstructions such as doors or cabinets. The investigator
must remember those “unusual” conditions and check with the fire fighter present.
9. Fire tends to flow through a room or structure much like a liquid in relatively straight paths and
outward and around barriers.
10. The development of a fire in compartment (which may be a room or a portion of a room) can be
likened to filling a leaky bucket from a water hose. One can fill even a leaky bucket if the flow of water
is greater enough. Similarly the hot gas layer in a room can reach its critical intensity if the fire is large
enough to overcome the leaks of hot gases due to openings or due to radiant and conductive losses.
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DEFINITIONS:
The following are some terms used to define and describe fire activity.
1. BOILING POINT - The temperature of a substance where the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of
condensation.
2. BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU) - The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
pound of water one degree F.
3. CALORIE - The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree
Centigrade.
4. CENTIGRADE (Celsius) - On the Centigrade scale, zero is the melting point of ice; 100 degrees is
the boiling point of water.
5. ENDOTHERMIC HEAT REACTION - A chemical reaction where a substance absorbs heat
energy.
6. EXOTHERMIC HEAT REACTION - A chemical reaction where a substance gives off heat energy.
7. FAHRENHEIT - On the Fahrenheit scale, 32 degrees is the melting point of ice; 212 degrees is the
boiling point of water.
8. FIRE POINT - The temperature at which a liquid fuel will produce vapors sufficient to support
combustion once ignited. The fire point is usually a few degrees above the flash point.
9. FLAMMABLE OR EXPLOSIVE LIMITS - The percentage of a substance in air that will burn
once it is ignited. Most substances have an upper (too rich) and a lower (too lean) flammable limit.
10. FLASH POINT - The minimum temperature at which a liquid fuel gives off sufficient vapors to form
an ignitable mixture with the air near the surface. At this temperature, the ignited vapors will flash,
but will not continue to burn.
11. HEAT - The form of energy that raises temperature. Heat is measured by the amount of work it does.
12. IGNITION TEMPERATURE - The minimum temperature to which a fuel in air must be heated in
order to start self-sustained combustion independent of the heating source.
13. OXIDATION - The complex chemical reaction of organic material with oxygen or other oxidizing
agents in the formation of more stable compounds.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FIRE
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1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal
volume of water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of dry air at the same
temperature and pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.
4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at which the substance must be heated
in order to initiate combustion.
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are evolved fast
enough to support combustion.
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid forms a vapor-air mixture that ignites
(mixture with in the explosive range).
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIRE
1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place.
2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce substances
with less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which combustible material (fuel) and
an oxidizing agent (air), react. Example of oxidation is combustion which is the same as actual burning
(rapid oxidation)
4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a combustion
product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased combustion.
CHAPTER III
BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONS
Building Construction and It’s Components
A basic understanding of the characteristics of building construction is a critical element in

conducting a proper fire loss analysis.
The type of construction, materials used, and any fire protection systems in place will influence
fire behavior. Failure to consider the effects of construction methods, materials, and fire protection
systems can result in an incorrect determination of the origin and cause of a fire.
Building Materials and Fire Spread
The amount of heat produced by burning is determined almost entirely by the chemical
composition of the material. The physical form of the material determines the speed with which heat is
produced. Hydrocarbon- based materials consume 50 percent more oxygen, and thus produce about 50
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percent more heat than equivalent amounts of other materials. On a weight basis, pound for pound,
hydrocarbons produce twice the heat.
Fire loading is the measurement of the maximum heat that would be liberated if all combustibles
in the fire area burned.
Fuel load is quantity (in Ibs/sq. ft.) of combustibles in a given area, and is normally expressed in
weight of combustibles having a value of 8,000 Btu's per pound—given as equivalent weight of wood.
Wood
Depending on its form, wood may or may not provide reasonable structural integrity in a fire. Fire-
retardant treatment delays ignition and retards combustion; however, all wood will bum. Burning produces
charcoal, which initially provides a protective coating that insulates the unbumed wood. Thicker members
provide much more structural integrity over the period of fire exposure than do thin ones. Heavy timber
has proven to be an excellent form of construction. Wood-frame construction uses structural members
smaller than mill construction and, when exposed to fire, it offers relatively little structural integrity.
OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATIONS
The use of a building or structure determines its occupancy or use classification. While the specific
terminology may vary among the different building codes used in various countries, the following
designations are commonly accepted.
1) Assembly occupancies include, but are not limited to, all buildings or portions of buildings used
for gatherings of 50 or more persons for such purposes as deliberation, worship, entertainment,
eating, drinking, amusement, or awaiting transportation.
2) Educational occupancies include all buildings or portions of buildings used for educational
purposes through the 12th grade by six or more persons for 4 or more hours per day or more than
12 hours per week. Educational occupancies also include day-care centers. Colleges generally are
classified as business occupancies.
3) Health-care occupancies are used to provide medical or other treatment or care for persons
suffering from physical or mental illness, disease, or infirmity; and/or care of infants,
convalescents, or infirm aged persons. Health-care occupancies provide sleeping facilities for four
of more occupants and are occupied by persons who mostly are incapable of self- preservation
because of age, physical or mental disability, or because of security measures not under the
occupants' control.
4) Detention and correctional occupancies are those used to house occupants under some degree
of restraint or security. Detention and correctional occupancies are occupied by persons who
mostly are incapable of self-preservation because of security measures not under the occupants'
control.
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5) Residential occupancies are those in which sleeping accommodations are provided for normal
residential purposes such as apartments, hotels and motels, dormitories, lodging/rooming houses
and one- and two-family dwellings.
6) Mercantile occupancies include stores, markets, and other rooms, buildings, or structures for the
display and sale of merchandise.
7) Business occupancies are used for the transaction of business, for the keeping of accounts and
records, and for other similar purposes. Doctors' and lawyers' offices are included in this category.
8) Industrial occupancies include factories making products of all kinds and properties devoted to
operations such as processing, assembling, mixing, packaging, finishing or decorating, and
repairing.
9) Storage occupancies include all buildings or structures used primarily for the storage or sheltering
of goods, merchandise, products, vehicles, or animals. All of the building codes and National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) 101*, Life Safety Code, base many of their requirements on the
occupancy or use classification. Among those requirements are the type of construction permitted,
the height and area of the building, interior finishes, means of egress (exits), and fire protection
systems such as fire alarms, heat and smoke detection, and suppression systems such as automatic
sprinklers.
STRUCTURAL LOADS
Specific terminology is used to describe the different loads that are or can be placed on a building.
1) Dead load is defined as the weight of the building itself and any equipment permanently attached or
built in. Additional dead loads may be added to a structure during alterations without any strengthening
of the structure. Additions such as roof-top air conditioning units may cause early structural failure
under fire conditions.
2) Live loads are any other loads other than dead loads. This includes furniture and occupants.
3) Impact loads are those which are delivered in a short period of time. This would include such things
as the overturning of a heavy object, i.e., a safe, the collapse of heavy, nonstructural, ornamental
masonry onto a roof, or a firefighter jumping onto a floor or roof.
PATTERNS AND SURFACE EFFECTS OF CHAR
Types of Patterns
Fire patterns fall into two general types, both of which are regulated by the chemistry and physics of fire,
as well as by building construction.
Movement patterns are those which are the result of growth and extension of fire and products of
combustion away from the original heat source.
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Proper inspection of the fire scene will result in tracing these patterns back to the original heat source.
Intensify patterns are produced by the effects of the various intensities of heat exposure to the structure
and its contents. The varying heat levels can produce lines of demarcation which can be used to determine
the characteristics and quantities, of fuel loading, as well as to indicate the direction of fire spread.
General Effects of Charring The heat produced during a fire will result in the decomposition of various
surfaces. The extent and degree of the discoloration and charring that result from this decomposition are
compared to other areas to find the areas of heaviest damage.
Charred wood is likely to be found in nearly every structural fire. Wood undergoes a chemical
decomposition when exposed to elevated temperatures. During this decomposition, gases, water vapor,
and various pyrolysis products such as smoke are produced. After extended or intense heat exposure, the
remaining solid residue is mainly carbon. As the charring is taking place the material shrinks, and develops
cracks and blisters. Char is the carbonaceous material that has been burned and has a blackened
appearance.
Rate of Wood Charring
An old rule of thumb was that wood would char at a rate of I inch per 45 minutes of burning. This rate of
charring is based upon one set of laboratory conditions in a test furnace using pine lumber. Since fires
burn with intensities that are different from those produced during this test, this rule of thumb should not
be relied upon to determine the length of time that a fire has burned. In other words, no specific time of
burning can be determined based solely upon the depth of char.
Another old rule of thumb is that old wood burns faster. However, wood tends to gain or lose moisture
according to the ambient conditions to which it is exposed. Because of this, old, dry wood is no more
combustible than new, kiln-dried wood, under the same conditions.
Depth of Charring
The depth of char can be used as a reliable means of establishing fire spread. By measuring the relative
depth and extent of chairing, it is possible to determine what portions of a material or construction have
been exposed longest to a heat source. The relative depth of char from point to point is the key to
appropriate use of chairing: that is, locating the places where damage was more severe due to exposure,
ventilation, or fuel placement. In comparing the extent of charring, it also is important to take into
consideration the type of materials involved. For example, a room in which wood paneling is the interior
finish, may be charred more heavily than an adjoining room in which the interior is gypsum board, even
though the fire may have originated in the gypsum board room. In comparing charring, remember not to
"compare apples to oranges."
In comparing the depth of charring it also is critical to consider the effects of ventilation. Wood can
exhibit a deeper charring when adjacent to a ventilation source or an opening where hot gases can escape.
For example, the portion of a room adjacent to a sliding glass door can be charred more heavily than a
point of origin across the room, if the fire ventilated through the door opening.
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The depth of char can be measured using blunt-ended probes such as certain types of calipers, tire tread
depth gauges, or specifically modified metal rulers. The same measuring tool should be used for any set
of compared measurements. Char depth measurements should be made in the center of char blisters.
When fuel gases or oxygen are the initial fuel sources for a fire, they generally produce relatively even
char patterns over the often wide area that they cover. Deeper charring may exist in close proximity to the
point of gas leakage. This type of charring may be highly localized because of the pressurized gas jets that
can exist at the leakage point.
Certain segments of the fire investigation community have accorded greater significance to the appearance
of charring, cracks, and blisters than is substantiated by scientific experiments. One of the old rules of
thumb was that the presence of large, shiny blisters (sometimes called alligator char or alligatoring) is
proof that a liquid accelerant was present. This is false. These types of char can be found in many different
types of fires and there is no scientific justification they are an exclusive indication of an accelerated fire.
Another old rule of thumb was that the surface appearance of the char- dull, shiny, or colored-points to
the use of a hydrocarbon accelerant. Again, there is no scientific justification for this correlation.
Investigators should not claim that indicators such as large, shiny blisters or dull or SPALLING colored
char are indications of accelerant, based on the appearance of the char alone.
The depth of char can be used to estimate the duration of a fire. Remember that the charring of wood
varies depending on such things as rate and duration of heating; ventilation effects; surface area to mass
ratio; direction, orientation, and size of wood grain; species of wood; moisture content; and nature of
surface coating.
SPALLING
Spalling is a condition ordinarily associated with masonry and cement (concrete) building materials. It
may appear distinctive discoloration of the brick or concrete and in some cases; the surface materials
may be pitted and rough.
Determining the Point of Origin, the spalling of concrete or masonry floors may indicate the presence of
a liquid accelerant. Spalling is the result of the concrete reaching a sufficiently high temperature and then
being cooled rapidly by water. This causes the surface to crack and loosen and produce a pitted
appearance. Some investigators look upon the spalling of concrete as a strong indication that a liquid
accelerant has been distributed on the surface and burned. But spalling also can be produced by a fire set
in ordinary combustibles.
Spalling of the concrete should be considered only as a possible indicator of an accelerant's presence.
Spalling also may consist of larger craters in the concrete which may be mistaken for the results of
explosives. Spalling also is caused by the boiling and rapid evaporation of the moisture found in most
concrete.
Other actors that may cause spalling include the age of the concrete, concrete mixture, chemical reaction
mechanical breaks, extreme cold or extreme heat; and fall down of heavy objects. If in doubt, take samples
from the spalled area and have them analyzed for accelerant presence.
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OXIDATION
Oxidation is a very basic chemical process associated with fire. Even though some materials do not bum
readily, oxidation of these materials can produce lines of demarcation and fire patterns. The effects of
such oxidation can include changes of color or texture. Generally, the higher the temperature and the
longer the exposure time, the more pronounced the oxidation will be.
The surface of bare galvanized steel exposed to a mild level of heating will become a dull white. When
uncoated iron or steel is exposed to a fire, the surface first becomes a dull blue-gray. Further oxidation
can result in thick layers of oxide that flake off. After the fire, if the metal has been wet, the usual rust-
colored oxide may appear.
Since the steel surface is being oxidized by the fire, and most probably is being wetted down during
suppression activities, it is not unusual to find holes in thin metal surfaces.
On stainless steel, mild oxidation has color fringes, while severe oxidation will result in a dull gray
color.
When exposed to heat, copper forms a dark red or black oxide. The color of the oxide is not important.
What is significant is that oxidation can form a line of demarcation.
Patterns of oxidation even can be found on rocks and soil. When heated, these materials often change to
colors which range from yellowish to red.
Soot and char also are subject to the effects of oxidation. The char of the paper surfaces of gypsum
wallboard, soot deposits, and paint can be oxidized by continued exposure to heat. The result of this
oxidation is that the carbon will turn to gases and disappear from the surfaces on which i was present. This
oxidation results in what is known as a "clean bum' which will be discussed later in this unit.
MELTING OF MATERIALS
The melting of any material is a change in its physical state brought about by its exposure to heat. The
border between melted and solid portions of materials can produce lines of heat and temperature
demarcation which can be used to define fire patterns.
THERMAL EXPANSION AND DEFORMATION OF MATERIALS
All common materials will expand when heated. Such expansion can adversely affect structural stability,
as discussed in Unit 3. The bending of steel beams and columns will occur when the temperature reaches
1,100°F (593°C) and steel will not support its own weight at 1,500°F (816°C). The more loads the steel
object is carrying, the more severe the deformation will be.
SMOKE AND SOOT
Smoke is an airborne paniculate product of incomplete combustion suspended in gases, vapors, .or solid
and liquid aerosols. Soot consists of the black particles of carbon produced in a flame.
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Any fuel that contains carbon will produce soot under normal fire conditions. This is especially true with
petroleum products and almost all plastics. Soot can be deposited on walls and ceilings by direct flame
contact or it can be deposited on surfaces by settling.
Smoke and soot can collect on cooler surfaces of the structure and/or its contents, and quite often on upper
portions of walls in rooms away from the fire. Smoke, especially smoke generated by a slow, smoldering
fire, has a tendency to condense on walls, windows, and other cooler surfaces.
Brown deposits are from smoke; soot deposits are black. Smoke condensates can be wet and sticky, thin
or thick, or dried and resinous. After drying, such smoke deposits are not easily wiped off. Where there
has been open flame, both soot and smoke are likely to be deposited. During some fires, only dry soot
deposits will be produced. Such deposits are wiped easily from windows and other surfaces. When smoke
deposits on a window are heated later in the fire, the brown deposits will turn black due to carbonization.
CLEAN BURN
Clean burn occurs on noncombustible surfaces when the soot and/or smoke deposits are burned off. Such
clean burning is most commonly a result of direct flame contact or intense radiant beat. Although such
clean burns can indicate intense heating, they do not, by themselves, necessarily indicate point of origin.
Demarcation lines between the clean burn and the sooted/smoked areas may be used to determine the
direction of fire spread or differences in intensity or time of burning.
CALCINATION
The numerous changes which occur in plaster or gypsum board under fire conditions are known as
calcination. Calcination is the result of the fire driving off the naturally contained water in these materials.
When gypsum wallboard is exposed to heat, the paper surface will char.
Depending on the intensity of the exposure, the paper also may bum off. The exposed side of the gypsum
board will gray from the charring of the organic binder. Further heating will result in the gray. color going
all the way through, and charring of the paper surface on the backside. The exposed surface will become
whiter as the carbon is burned away. When the gypsum board has turned completely white, there will be
no paper left on either side and the remaining gypsum will be a crumbly solid.
Fire-rated gypsum board has mineral fibers or venniculite particles added to it in order to preserve the
strength of the wallboard during fire exposure. These fibers add strength to the material even after it has
been thoroughly calcined. The lines of demarcation between the calcined and noncalcined portions are
fire patterns that can be used by the fire investigator.
WINDOW GLASS
Current research indicates that temperature differences of 140°F or more between the exposed and
insulated portions of the glass will result in long, smooth undulating cracks radiating from the edges of
the frame to the center of the pane.
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Sudden flame contact with one side of the window pane, as occurs during flashover, will cause the glass
to fracture. It once was thought that such rapid heating would result in a complicated pattern of small
cracks (often called crazing), but this has not been confirmed by scientific research.
As a general rule, the pressures developed during a building fire alone are not sufficient to either break
windows or force them from their frames. However, it should be remembered that a back draft explosion
is capable of doing both. Crazing, small craters, or pits are caused by the application of water to the glass
surface when the surface of the glass is heated to at least 600°F (316°C).
Finding glass fragments that are free of soot or smoke deposits is evidence that the glass has been subjected
to rapid heating, failure early in the fire, or flame contact. The proximity of the glass to the area of origin
or heat source can affect the amount of deposits.
The presence of thick, oily soot on glass was once thought to be positive proof of the presence or use of
an accelerant. This has not been supported by scientific research. The presence of such deposits also can
result from incomplete combustion of wood and other materials.
COLLAPSED SPRINGS
The collapse of furniture springs was thought to indicate exposure to a flaming accelerant or smoldering
combustion. Scientific laboratory testing has shown that annealing of springs (loss of spring tension) 'is a
function of the total heat treatment.
Testing has shown that short-term heating at high temperatures and long- term heating at moderate
temperatures of about 750°F (399°C), both .can cause annealing and collapse. The presence of any weight
load upon the springs during the heating increases the loss of spring tension.
Any analysis of the condition of springs after a fire must take into consideration all materials that were
placing a load on them, and a comparison of the lines of demarcation. An excellent article on this subject
is included at the end of this unit.
LOCATION OF OBJECTS
The location of objects at the fire scene can be determined by the identification and use of certain patterns.
Heat shadowing occurs when the object blocks the path of radiated heat, convected heat, or direct flame
contact. Conducted heat does not produce heat shadowing. Any object that absorbs or reflects heat energy
can produce a heat shadow on the material that it protects.
Protected areas are caused by an object preventing the deposit of products of combustion on the material
that the object protects. Any object that prevents the settling of the products of combustion may cause the
production of a pattern on the material it protects.
Both heat shadowing and protected areas assist the fire investigator in reconstructing the scene. Quite
often these patterns will be obscured by debris, and in order to properly use these patterns, debris removal
will be necessary.
LOCATION OF PATTERNS
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Patterns developed during the course of a fire may be found on any exposed surface. These include the
structure itself, its contents, and outside features such as outbuildings, adjacent structures, and other
features.
Patterns present on walls are the most observable. These patterns may appear as lines of demarcation
resulting from heating to deeper burning. The patterns may extend to the underlying support members.
Patterns also can occur on ceilings and the bottom surfaces of such items as tables and shelves. Since
heated fire gases rise, they will concentrate the heat energy on the horizontal surfaces above the teat
source. Most horizontal patterns are roughly circular with portions of circular patterns often being found
at the junction of walls and ceilings and at the edges of tabletops and shelves.
Patterns present on the floor are extremely important To inspect the floor properly for patterns, the debris
must be removed. Floor patterns can be the result of intense radiant beat, melted plastics, burning liquids,
or the hot gas layer produced during and after flashover.
Seams or cracks in the flooring materials and around door thresholds can show evidence of burning from
radiation or collection of liquid accelerants. Post flashover burning also can produce holes in floors and
around door thresholds as a result of the hot combustible fire gases and the air gaps provided in
construction. Even very small gaps can provide sufficient air for combustion of floors.
Fire-damaged vinyl floor tiles may have curled edges that expose the floor underneath. While this action
has been attributed to the presence of an accelerant, it also can occur solely because of radiant heating of
the floor surface. Analysis for the presence of accelerants may prove difficult due to the presence of
hydrocarbons in tile adhesives.
External surfaces of structures such as roof and walls also can display fire patterns. In addition to the
regular patterns that may be found, bum- throughs can be present on both vertical and horizontal surfaces.
As a general rule, these burn throughs can point to areas of intense or sustained burning.
Patterns also can be present on the sides, tops, and bottoms of building contents. Any pattern that can
be produced on walls, ceilings, and floors also can be produced on contents. The patterns will be similar
in shape but may display only a portion of the pattern due to the limited size of the items.
• Low burn patterns may be produced by an accelerant, but they are not in themselves proof of an
accelerant fire. Post flashover conditions also can produce low burn patterns.
During the progress of any fire, burning debris quite often will fall to lower levels. This fall down (drop
down) may result in secondary fires. It also can ignite other combustible materials resulting in low burn
patterns and burn-throughs.
FIRE SUPPRESSION, CONTROL, AND EXTINGUISHMENT, AND EXTINGUISHING

AGENTS
Classification of Fires and Extinguishment Methods
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Class A Fire - Fires involving ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and
many plastics.
Water is used in a cooling or quenching effect to reduce the temperature of the burning material below its
ignition temperature.
Class B Fires - Fires involving flammable liquids, greases and gases.
The smothering or blanketing effect of oxygen exclusion is most effective. Other extinguishing methods
include removal of fuel and temperature reduction.
Class C Fires - Fires involving energized electrical equipment.
This fire can sometimes be controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing agent. The safest procedures is
always to attempt to de-energize high voltage circuits and treat as a Class A or B fire depending upon the
fuel involved.
Class D Fires - Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and
potassium.
The extremely high temperature of some burning metals makes water and other common extinguishing
agents ineffective. There is no agent available that will effectively control fires in all combustible
metals. Special extinguishing agents are available for control of fire in each of the metals and are marked
specifically for that metal.
Class K Fires - Class K is a new classification of fire as of 1998 and involves fires in combustible cooking
fuels such as vegetable or animal fats.
Its fuels are similar to Class B fuels but involve high temperature cooking oils and therefore have special
characteristics. Class K agents are usually wet chemicals, water-based solutions of potassium carbonate-
based chemical, potassium acetate-based chemical, or potassium citrate-based chemical or a combination.
These agents are usually used in fixed systems, but some extinguishers are available.
Methods of Fire Extinguishment and How It Works
The proper selection of an agent or method of control of extinguishment is the most important factor in
determining the degree of success of firefighting operation.
Fire Suppression- Means slowing down the rate of burning, whereas control means keeping the fire from
spreading or holding the fire to one area. Extinguishment is putting the fire completely out.
Extinguishing a fire is somewhat comparable to the elimination of life. For example: the cooling of the
fire maybe compared to asphyxiation (elimination of oxygen supply) and the separation maybe compared
with malnutrition or starvation. The tetrahedron concept adds a fourth element- chemical reaction
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Under the triangle of fire concept, there are three (3) ways of suppressing, controlling, and extinguishing
a fire namely:
1. Cooling – (removing heat) the cooling process uses an extinguishing agent whose primary
characteristic is heat absorption. Water is the best general cooling agent for firefighting purpose.
Used on Class A fires, the water absorbs the heat generated at the surface of the burning material,
thus reducing the temperature of the material below its flash point. Water can also be used as Class
B fires, which include petroleum products.
As with Class A fire, the water absorbs much of the heat, reducing the vaporization rate of the
liquid fuel. This is the most noticeable in a fire involving lubricating oil, whose flash point is
between 300 to 450 degrees F. it is of less value in a fire involving gasoline, with its flash point at
45 degrees F. Water could never cool gasoline below its flashpoint. The extinguishing ability of
the water is broken into fine particles to accelerate heat absorption.
2. Smothering – (removing oxygen) excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that the gases or vapor of
the fuel cannot ignite and continue the combustion. CO2 and AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam)
are used for the purpose.
3. Separation – (removal of fuel) as in the example of turning off a valve in a gas line prevents the
fuel and oxygen from coming together. If fuel is not available, then heat, regardless of the
temperature, cannot affect the fuel, therefore, there is no fire.
4. Chemical chain reaction – the fourth method of extinguishment is known as inhibition or the
interruption of chemical reaction.
The sequence of events in suppressing or extinguishing a fire with dry chemicals or vaporizing liquids
includes some aspects of the first three methods.
Using potassium bicarbonate (dry chemical) as an example, you can follow the process of the fourth
method of extinguishment. Remember this is a rapid reaction and does not necessarily happen one step at
a time.
First, the heat of the fir vaporizes the potassium bicarbonate thereby producing water, carbon dioxide. In
the process of vaporation and the change of these compounds, a substantial amount of heat is absorbed by
the water and some smothering occurs due to the release of CO2.
Second, the chemical reaction resulting when the potassium dioxide unites with the water formed by the
fire creates an amount of potassium hydroxide.
Third, some potassium hydroxide reacts with certain products released from the fuel, thus forming water
and potassium monoxide. Other potassium hydroxide molecules react with the fire hydrogen of the
combustion to form a potassium atom and molecules of water.
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Finally, this combination of reaction halts the process of fuel uniting with oxygen of the air, thereby
breaking the chemical chain reaction and stopping the fire.
Extinguishing Agents
The effectiveness of an extinguisher on a particular fire depends on the amount and type of agent in the
extinguisher. Different extinguishing agents can be used to put out a certain class of fire by one or more
methods.
1. Removing oxygen 3. Removing the heat; and

2. Removing the fuel 4. Interrupting the chemical chain reaction
Some extinguishing agents may be able to extinguish more than one class of fire. They are mark with
multiple numerical- letter writings.
The following are the most common extinguishing agents, the class of five they are used, and the
extinguishing methods used;
1. Water – used only on Class A fires
Water is the most effective in cooling the burning material below its ignition temperature. It is the most
commonly used agent in fire fighting.
In its natural state, it is highly stable and maybe used to extinguish most type of fire if properly applied.
Due to its conductive properties, water should not be used on electrical fires.
Additives
There are many additives for water used in firefighting. Each of these has specific purpose and effect on
the water.
Ways or Methods of Water Extinguishes Fires
Cooling – the outstanding heat absorbing qualities of water make it an excellent cooling agent. In the
cooling process, water is applied in large enough amounts to reduce the temperature of the surface of the
burning material below its flashpoint. The amount of water depends on the burning material (temperature)
and the manner in which water is applied (straight or fog stream).
Smothering – when water is used to smother afire, stream must be generated in sufficient amounts to
exclude or displaced air. If the stream generated is confined in the combustion zone, the smothering action
will be enhanced.
In Ordinary combustible, the cooling effect of the water not the smother normally causes extinguishment.
The smothering effect does not completely extinguish the fire; rather it has a tendency to suppress flaming
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Usage;
Water is generally used on Class A fires. Fires involving high flashpoint liquids (such as heavy
fuel and asphalt) may be extinguished when water is effectively applied in spray form. Water may also be
used to extinguish Class C and D fires in some cases. In these cases, use extreme caution to avoid injury
to personnel and or damage to equipment.
2. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) –
A number of its properties make CO2 a desirable extinguishing agent. It is noncombustible and non-
reactive with most substances. CO2 provides its pressure for discharge from storage cylinders or
extinguishers. Being a gas, CO2 can penetrate and spread to all parts of the fire.
Effects:
Extinguishment with CO2 is primarily by smothering. It covers or blankets the burning materials
and reduces the oxygen content to below levels needed for combustion. Even though it is very cold, it has
a little cooling effect on the fire when compared with equal amount of water. This is the reason when fires
that have been apparently extinguished with CO2 re-ignite from hot surfaces or embers as the CO2
dissipates.
Usage:
Due to its non- conductivity, CO2 is very effective for use on Class C fires. It is also used on Class
B fires, but another agent is needed in blanketing or smothering a large area fires to prevent re- ignition.
3. Dry Chemical –
The dry chemical extinguishment agents in use today are mixture of powders and various additives that
improve the storage, flow, and water repellency of the powders. Sodium bicarbonate, potassium
bicarbonate, and mono ammonium phosphate are some of the powders commonly used today. Dry
chemicals are stable at low temperatures, but it has an upper storage temperature of 140 degrees
Fahrenheit. At temperature above 140 degrees Fahrenheit, some caking or sticking of the powders occurs.
These agents are to be non- toxic, but in discharging large amounts they may cause some breathing and
visibility problems.
Effects:
Flames banish almost at once when dry chemical is applied directly to the fire area. But the exact
chemistry and mechanism of the fire extinguishing agent are not fully known. It has been suggested that
the dry chemical agents inhibit the chain reaction of the combustion zone has greater effect in the
extinguishment than the smothering or cooling actions and radiation shielding have.
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Usage:
There are two (2) basic types of dry chemical
1. Ordinary and Regular Dry Chemical - generally refer to those powders that intended for use
on Class B or Class C fires.
2. Multi- purpose dry chemical – refers to powders listed for use on Class A, B, C fires.
Be careful not to confuse ordinary regular, or multi- purpose dry chemical with “dry powder”.
4. Dry Powder – Dry powder is a general term for agents used to extinguish combustible metal fires. No
one dry powder has been found to be effective on all types of combustible metals.
Effects:
Dry powder generally extinguishes fires by excluding air from the combustible metal. To some extent,
heat is absorbed by the powder to lower the temperature of the metal below ignition point.
Usage:
Dry powder is used primarily on Class D fires and should not be used on other types of fires, due to its
limited value on these fires.
5. AFFF – Aqueous Film forming foam has replaced protein foam for all around purposes.
Protein base foam is now primarily for runaway foaming operations and for some training purposes.
Effects:
The quick “knock-down” and “heat reduction” properties of AFFF have proven it to be a highly
effective agent. These properties, combined with its ability to seat the surface of burning hydrocarbon
fires to prevent “flashback”, make it an outstanding and effective extinguishing agent with which to work.
When AFFF is applied to the surface of flammable liquid fire, the surface active material (surfactant)
provides a vapor sealing effect. This is not only extinguishes the fire, but also prevents the release of fuel
vapors which could result in flashbacks. This vapor seal is also very hard to break-up by walking or
moving some hose lines through it.
Usage:
As with any other extinguishing agent, its effectiveness depends on the proper application. The
AFFF is designed to be applied at a 6% mixture (94 parts water to 6 parts AFFF concentrate). This mixture
should be applied in a rainfall manner, or lobbing effect to allow rapid spreading over the surface. It is
used primarily to extinguish on Class B fires. It may be used on Class A fires but may be less effective
than plain water. Foam spray (fog) is more conductive than plain water fog because the material contained
in the foam allows the water to conduct electricity.
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6. Halons (Halogenated Agents)
These agents have been used for over 50 years. Continuous research has brought these agents to
the present high degree of effectiveness in interrupting the chain reaction they possess along with a
decrease in life safety hazard.
The older (better known) agents such as carbon-chloride (Halon 104) and chlorobromomethane
(Halon 1011) are less effective and more toxic than the newer agents now in use.
Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifloumethane) is a gas at normal temperature, but with its relatively
high boiling point (+25F), requires no pressurizing agent for expulsion at normal temperature. Nitrogen
may be added to storage containers when temperature is below 0 degrees Farenheit, to ensure adequate
discharge pressure.
Halon 1301 is at least toxic of the Halons. This low toxicity allows for safe discharge from total
flood systems in occupied spaces such as computer rooms.
Halon is a generic term for halogenated hydrocarbons and is a chemical compound that contains carbon
plus one more elements from the halogens series (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine).
Although a very large number of halogenated compounds exist, only a few are used to a significant
extent as fire extinguishing agents. Halogenated vapor is a non-conductor of electricity and is effective in
fighting surface fires in such commodities as flammable liquids, most solid combustible materials and
electrical fires.
Halogenated agents work chemically to extinguish fire. They stop combustion process by
breaking the fire chain reaction and prevent further fire propagation. This chemical – fire – stopping action
happens with only a low concentration of halogenated agent used. Application of the agent may be applied
locally by using a compressed bottle of non-combustible gas similar to a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher.
This type of application is effective in controlling or extinguishing surface fire, involving flammable
liquid, solids or gases, such as dip tanks, quench tanks, spray booths, oil filled transformers, or vapor
vents.
Usage: Halogenated agents are very effective on Class B and Class C fires and have some effects or
success on Class A fires.
PRINCIPLE OF STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING
A well-mannered, well-equipped, and well-trained fire department provides a solid based upon
which effective firefighting depends. The strategy and tactics used to suppress fire evolved from the base.
The strategies used in firefighting are:

1. Locate the fire 3. Extinguish the fire
2. Confine the fire 4. Exposures
In addition to the basic tactics, the following are also added:
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1. Rescue
2. Overhaul
3. Ventilation
4. Salvage
Factors to Be Considered In Extinguishment
1. Time of day
A. The hour of the day can have a direct bearing on the life and fire hazards involved.
B. Time has also a direct bearing on the speed of the response of fire fighting and rescue vehicles.
C. During hour of darkness, special lighting equipment may be needed. Night operations may require
auxiliary firefighting personnel.
2. Weather
Some of the weather factors that may be considered.
A. Temperature
B. Humidity
C. Wind and precipitation
The direction of the wind determines where the greatest exposure dangers are located. High humidity
means a smoky fire and difficulty in operating in the building without thorough ventilation. In a situation
where pungent fumes are encountered, more additional hardship and danger for the firefighters operating
and fighting fire in the street and particularly in the narrow alley at the rear or sides of the building on fire.
In this type of situation, it is frequently impossible to get close enough to do inside work and it is necessary
to operate from the outside of the building unless suitable respiratory protection is provided.
Reviewing the entire situation, there are also factors such as excavations or other obstructions in the street
in the immediate neighborhood of the fire that may have a direct bearing upon the operation of the fire
department, as well as the amount of apparatus and personnel that will be needed.
The fire
Factors to Be Evaluated At the Fire Scene
a. Extent of the fire

b. Its location in the building
c. The type of the contents involved
d. The life hazards
e. The fire conditions
f. Type of construction
FIRE TRAVEL PREDICTIONS
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The path of travel and extension of fire, heat, and smoke is influenced by the construction of the building,
building design and layout, fuel load, built-in fire protection features, the heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning (HVAC) system, and fire department operations.
The effects of the type of building construction, fuel loading, or built-in fire protection features on fire
travel were discussed previously in this unit. The building layout or room arrangement can affect fire
spread in several ways. Obviously, in large open areas, there are no partitions to slow the spread of fire,
heat, and smoke. In smaller rooms, the construction of the rooms and protection of openings determine to
what extent the compartmentation will retard fire spread. If the rooms are constructed with some degree
of fire resistance, and openings are protected by properly operating fire rated self-closing doors, the spread
of fire will be slowed.
Almost all buildings have some type of HVAC system. Depending on the size of the system, they may
have smoke detectors and/or heat detectors installed in order to shut down the system in the event of a
fire. If the system fails to shut down or is not equipped to do so, it will provide an additional supply of
oxygen for the fire and also will spread fire, beat, and smoke to remote areas of tile building.
Fire department operations also affect fire spread. The placement and use of hoselines can push the fire
into other areas as well as prevent the fire from spreading to other areas. Likewise, ventilation efforts can
help spread the fire. If positive-pressure ventilation (PPV) is used, then it is possible that the fire can be
accelerated and extended to other parts of the building. PPV involves the use of fans to push fresh air into
the fire building in order to force the heat and smoke out
PPV involves placing a high-powered fan outside the building at a door opening and using it to force air
into the building, causing the heat and smoke to be forced out of other openings. In negative-pressure
ventilation the fan is placed inside of the building and the heat and smoke are drawn out of the building
How Fire Extends
Fire may extend from room-to-room through unprotected door openings, by conduction of heat through
steel beams or pipes, and/or by burning through walls. It also may extend from floor-to-floor through
unprotected stair openings, and through windows, vertical extensions, or floors. Finally, fire may extend
from buildmg-to-buildmg through combustible walls, by radiant heat, or by flying embers.
Occupancy
Determine the number of the people that occupy the building including the materials that are found in it.
Also note the nature of the units occupying the building.
Ventilation
It is a method used for clearing the building of smoke and gases, localized the fire, and reduce smoke and
forcible entry damage.
TYPES OF VENTILATION
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1.Vertical ventilation – the method establish vertical ventilation must be worked from the top down.
Heated gases and smoke rise to the highest point and if confined will tend to mushroom or rise to the
highest point of the building, exerting their heating effect on everything they touch.
2. Cross or horizontal ventilation – if the smoke and gases have not reached the higher level, cross
ventilation clear the building one floor at a time. Windows are the easiest and generally most
available for the common types of building, but the indiscriminate opening of the windows and
doors can defeat the purpose of ventilation.
3. Mechanical or force ventilation – a process or method of ventilation whereby a device such smoke
ejector is utilized to removed faster excessive heat and dense smoke in a confined building.
Factors to determine the location for the opening/Ventilation
1.Location of intensity of fire

2.Highest and point on the roof
3.Direction of wind
4.Existing exposure
5.Extent of fire
6.Obstruction
Post extinguishment procedures
Salvage and Overhaul Operation
Salvage work in firefighting is preventing excessive damage caused by fire, smoke and water. Keeping a
fire loss at a minimum requires a knowledge of salvage operation and the ability to improvise or “make
do” as the need arises.
Two ways of Performing Salvage
1.Remove the material outside the building involved in the fire. This method is used when there is
sufficient time and when there is sufficient time and when there is only small amount of material
to be carried outside or to protect.
2.Protect the material where it stands. This method is used when the size or the quantity of the contents
of the building dictates.
Factors involve in salvage work
a. The amount of salvage equipment available

b. The personnel available
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c. The type and amount of material involved

d. The method of storage
Smoke and heat cause damage, but there is something else that can do more damage than the smoke, the
heat, and the fire, this is water.
Most of the damage from water is usually happened to materials in storage, and results from poor storage
practice over which fire fighters have no control during the fire. However, frequent inspections by the fire
department can uncover such discrepancies beforehand. Correcting of these will help control the damage
if a fire does occur.
Methods Used To Minimized Water Damage
1.Sawdust
2.Salvage covers – these are tarpaulins, known as “torps” they are made of cotton canvass material
treated with a water proofing compound.
Overhaul
This operation involves a complete and detailed check of the structures and materials involved in the fire
to make sure that every spark and ember has been extinguish and there is no possibility of re-ignition.
Structural Stability
Before the search for hidden fires, the condition of the building in the area to be search should be known.
The intensity of the fire during the burning and the amount of water used in its control are the most
important factors that affect the condition of the building.
The amount of water used determines the additional weight on the floor and walls because of their
absorbent qualities. Considering these two factors carefully can prevent unnecessary loss of life during
overhaul because of building collapse.
CHAPTER IV
BUIDING CODE AND BUILDING REQUIREMENTS
Building Code
A standard rules for safety in the construction of buildings. Building codes vary in their fire-resistance
requirements in accordance with the occupancy classification.
Building Code Requirements
1. Intended Occupancy and Use

2. Life safety
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3. Fixed fire protection system

4. Spacing of structure
5. Height requirement
6. Fire retarding features
Intended Occupancy and Use
A building design is based upon the occupancy of the individual structure, considering both the
combustibility of the contents and the human factors of occupancy. Buildings where large occupants are
assembled such as dormitories, schools, hospitals, where crowds may generate panic hazards, call for a
higher and greater degree of fire safety protection than do warehouses and building which are less
populated.
Building that contain high combustible materials call for a greater degree of fire resistance in the structure.
Life Safety
The provision of adequate exits is the most important feature in designing a building for life safety. Once
fire is notified, occupants can leave smoke.
The life factor is affected by many building designs and feature designs and features that prevent, reduce,
or retard the spread of the fire such as: fire stop, fire walls and fire doors.
Spacing of Structure
Planning and construction of an adequate separation of building and structures is very important to prevent
the spread of fire from adjacent building or from area to area. Spacing requirements that restrict types of
occupancies or specified areas have an important bearing upon fire safety. Considerations will be given
to convenience, efficiency and savings. When buildings have different occupancies and different types of
construction are adjacent, maximum spacing requirement have to be observed.
Height Requirements
Owing to the life hazard involve, it is a good practice to limit the height of structures that have an unusually
high degree of combustibility.
The height of the building of masonry or concrete wall and wood construction is generally limited to the
height assumed to be the maximum at which the fire departments can operate and fight fire effectively
working from the street level. The operational limit is usually three (3) or four (4) stories. Wood frame
construction is generally given lower height limit, on the theory that the structural integrity of the building
will be maintained.
Fire Retarding Features
While a facility is still being designed, everything possible should be planned and done to make the facility
eventually fire safe. Fire retarding features must be specified in the plans. For safety of personnel, the
spread of fire (vertically and horizontally in buildings should be constructed).
56
a. Fire Stops – wood is used as a fire stop, at least 2 inches thick. Concealed spaces in the building
should be filled with non combustible material. Fire stop must be inspected during the
construction.
b. Fire Partitions – fire partitions are installed to separate areas of hazardous occupancies from areas
of ordinary or light hazard occupancies that resist the passage of the fire from one area to another.
Fire partitions must be constructed to have fire resistance of 1 to 2 hours. The degree of fire
resistance will be governed by the following factors.
 Type of building constructions

 Size of the hazardous area;
 The severity of the fire hazard
c. Fire Walls – fire walls are installed for the purpose of preventing the passage of fire from one
building to another, or from one area of the building to another. Fire wall must be structural sound
and may serve as an important wall if no combustible structural members are framed into the walls.
Pre- Fire Plan
It is a process of an advanced and organized planning of possible fire fighting operation in a particular
building or group of building.
Fire departments are organized to protect lives and property from fire within the areas they service.
Common sense dictates that firefighters particularly the senior fire officer should have to analyze the
problem encountered intelligently to perform an efficient and effective job. Fire defenses should be
organized to prevent as many fires as possible from occurring while at the same be prepared to combat in
an organized way, those that cannot be prevented.
Purpose and Requirements for Pre Fire Plans
Plans are prepared to explain procedures and geographically important information required during fire
suppression operations.
The first thing to be considered in any pre-fire planning is the specific risk that might be involved for each
physical situation such as:
 The streets, roads, and alleys between the fire station and the scene of the fire.
 Location of the water supply and the volume and pressure available
 Exposure is also given considerations
Factors to be considered in the Pre-Fire planning
 To recognize the specific problems involved when a fire occurs in a given building
 The question of availability of equipment
 The availability of manpower
Basic Information Contains in the Pre-Fire Planning
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1. Data on life hazard in each building including where people sleep, the location of doors, windows,
stairways and fire escapes; an outline of the most logical means of rescue.
2. Information of interior and exterior exposures and have best to protect them, high value storage,
the placement of fire streams, and similar factors, distances involved should be indicated.
3. Considerations of special building or facility hazards such as locations of flammable stores,

hazardous operations and the area most likely to be the origin of fire.
4. The location of hydrant or other sources, indicating the amount of water available and the pressure;
also the necessary lengths of ladders and their proper placement to reach the required areas.
5. The best approaches to the buildings, apparatus that will respond most advantageous hose-laying
procedures, and placement of streams.
6. The cutting-off of utilities including electric power and gas supply, indicating how and by whom
it is to be done.
7. The effects of seasonal changes are the accessibility to a building and the response time.
8. Installed fire protection or detection system including locations and procedures for connecting
pumpers to be installed extinguishing systems.
THE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Classes of Fires and Types of Extinguishers
EACH CLASS of fire—A, B, C, or D—has a different source. Some

principles apply to putting out all fires. However, certain procedures and
products are used only in extinguishing specific classes of fires. Knowing
the basic skills and the materials needed can keep a minor fire from growing
into a major one.
General Principles for Extinguishing All Fires

Any one or a combination of these general principles can be used to extinguish a fire:
Coolthe fire.
Cutoff the oxygen supply.
Remove the fuel.
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An example of cooling a fire is spraying water on burning wood. This lowers the temperature of the wood
below that at which it will burn. An example of cutting off the oxygen supply is covering a container of
burning material until all the oxygen is consumed. An example of removing the fuel is turning off the fuel
valve on an oxy-acetylene torch. In any of the three instances, the fire will go out.
Classes of Fires and Extinguishers
Not all fires are the same. Fires are classified by the types of
materials that are burning. Extinguishers are labeled to correspond
to the classes of fires they are designed to fight. If you use the
wrong type of fire extinguisher on a fire, you can, in fact, make
matters worse. Understanding the four different fire classifications
is therefore very important.
Class A fires Involve ordinary combustibles, like wood, paper,

cloth, trash, and plastics. They do not contain metals, combustible
liquids, or electricity. (Class A fires generally leave Ashes.) Class
A fires can be extinguished with water. A Class A extinguisher is
typically either a pressurized can of water that can be sprayed on a
fire or a container of water with a pump mechanism. Class A
extinguishers are for use only on Class A fires. A Class A fire
extinguisher is marked with a green triangle containing the letter A.
An alternative method of extinguishing a Class A fire is to smother
it with a blanket, a gloved hand, or other material.
Class B fires involve flammable liquids. Typical flammable

liquids are gasoline, oil, grease, paint, and acetone. Class B fires
can be very difficult to control because they involve burning
nonmetals in a liquid state. This classification also includes
flammable gases. (Class B fires generally involve materials that
Boil or Bubble.) Electricity is not present in Class B fires. A Class
B fire is extinguished with carbon dioxide (CO2) contained in a
heavy cylinder and under pressure. CO2 is very cold when under
pressure and displaces the oxygen around the fire, causing the fire
to be extinguished. It should not be sprayed on people or animals.
The use of a Class B extinguisher usually results in very little mess
and no damage to property. However, avoid breathing CO2. Class
B extinguishers may be used to extinguish both Class A and Class
B fires. A Class B fire extinguisher is marked with a red square
containing the letter B.
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Class C fires involve electrical equipment. Thus, electricity is

always present. It is often combined with combustible materials. An
additional hazard of a Class C fire is the potential for electric shock
while fighting the fire. If possible, always turn off the source of
electricity before fighting an electrical fire. The fire may be
extinguished, but if the electricity is not turned off, the fire may
rekindle. (Class C fires deal with electrical Current.) A Class C fire
is extinguished with a dry chemical, which does not conduct
electricity. The chemical is a very fine powder that smothers the fire
when applied. A disadvantage is the mess the chemical makes when
ejected from the extinguisher. Avoid breathing dry chemical
extinguisher powder. Class C extinguishers may be used to
extinguish Class A, Class B, and Class C fires. A Class C fire
extinguisher is marked with a blue circle containing the letter C.
Class D fires involve combustible metals. Potassium, sodium,

aluminum, and magnesium burn at extremely high temperatures.
Unless you work in a laboratory or in an industry that uses these
materials, it is unlikely you’ll have to deal with Class D fires. They
are uncommon in agriculture. Burning metal is very difficult to
extinguish, and only Class D extinguishers are recommended on
burning metal. Class D fire extinguishers are not used on any other
class of fire. The material in a Class D extinguisher is a foam product
that puts out the fire by replacing the oxygen near it.
Class D fire extinguishers are the most expensive. Class D
extinguishing equipment is marked with a yellow star containing the
letter D.
As extinguishers progress from A to D, they become more expensive

to use. Water is generally the cheapest material for extinguishing a
fire. However, water works well on Class A fires only. Water should
not be used on Class B fires. Doing so may actually cause them to
spread, as many flammable liquid fires involve petroleum products
that float on water. Water must never be used on a Class C electrical
fire, as the firefighter could be electrocuted. Water is not of value in
fighting the burning metal of Class D fires.
The temperatures are generally too high for water to be effective. Fire
extinguishers are clearly marked with the classes of fires they will
extinguish safely. Some are suitable for more than one type of fire. A common type is the A-B-C
extinguisher, which is for use in fighting Class A, B, and C fires. Put fire extinguishers close to where
they might be needed. Class A extinguishers should be located in areas where paper, wood, and other
ordinary combustibles are used. Class B extinguishers should be located where flammable liquids are
present. Class C extinguishers should be placed where they would be easily accessible for electrical fires.
Extinguishers labeled A-B-C are good for general use because they contain a dry chemical and are
effective in fighting Class A, B, or C fires.
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Fire extinguishers should be located in clean, dry areas that are easy
to access. They should be hung so the top is between 31/2 and 5 feet
above the floor and must be quick and easy to remove. Their
locations should be clearly marked, and everyone familiarized with
their locations and use.
CLASS F/K:
New class specifically dealing with high temperature ( 360°C)
cooking oils used in large industrial catering kitchens, restaurants
and takeaway establishments’ etc. Cooking oil fires, because of their
high auto-ignition temperatures, are difficult to extinguish.
Conventional extinguishers are not effective for cooking oil fires, as
they do not cool sufficiently or may even cause flash back, thereby
putting the operator at risk. These extinguishers contain a specially
formulated wet chemical which, when applied to the burning liquid,
cools and emulsifies the oil, extinguishing the flame, sealing the
surface and preventing re-ignition.
Types of extinguishers
There are different types of fire extinguishers. Each type of
extinguisher is rated for one or more classes of fire.
Important: You must use the appropriate fire extinguisher for the class of fire. It can be dangerous if you
use the incorrect fire extinguisher for the fire. For example, water extinguishers would be dangerous for
fires involving electrically energized equipment or cooking oils or fats.
Each type of extinguisher has different contents and uses different colored label:
 water (red): suitable for Class A fires

 foam (blue band or label): suitable for Class A and Class B fires
 powder (white band or label):
- if rated ABE, then suitable for Class A, B, C and E fires
- if rated BE, then suitable for Class B, C and E fires
 carbon dioxide CO2 (black band or label): suitable for Class E fires
 vaporizing liquid (yellow band or label): suitable for Class A and Class E fires
 wet chemical (oatmeal band or label): suitable for Class F fires.
TYPES AND USES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
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Water (Stored Pressure) Extinguisher
It consists of welded body that is plastic lined to prevent corrosion (as pressure tends to speed up corrosion)
and has a screwed cap containing the valve assembly. It is filled with water and then pressurized by
compressed air to 4 – 10 bars. The pressure is identified by means of a gauge. The method of operation
usually follows the basic procedure illustrated.
Water (Gas Cartridge) Extinguiser
Water is contained in a steel container, lined to prevent corrosion. The head cap assembly incorporates a
plunger device and connection for 57g CO2 cartridge. The cartridge allows the CO2 to pressure the
extinguisher and force the water through the discharge tube:
Advantages:
 Often quickest for first attack

 Requires only one person to operate it
 Self contained
 Reliable
 Instantaneous
Disadvantages:
 Conductor of electricity
 Not ideal for inaccessible fires
Chemical Foam Extinguisher
Chemical foam extinguishers consist of an inner container within an outer extinguisher body. When the
contents of the two are mixed together, a chemical reaction occurs producing foam and carbon dioxide
CO2. The CO2 fills the bubbles and also acts as an expellant.
Contents:
Outer container - Sodium Bicarbonate Solution

Stabilizer - Saponin, Liquorices, Turkey-red oil
Inner container - Aluminum Sulphate Solution
More modern types containing self-aspiration foam have largely replaced these.
Mechanical Foam Extinguishers
Foam concentrate is contained in solution in the extinguisher body. When expelled, the foam is aerated
by means of a small foam-making branch at the end of the extinguisher hose. The foam is expelled by a
gas cartridge or stored pressure.
Advantages: These are similar to water-type extinguisher
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 Coats surface and exclude oxygen

 Heat resisting qualities acts as insulator, preventing re-ignition
 Not affected by draughts
 Floats on liquids
Disadvantages:
 Some fires require alcohol resistant foam

 Some foam reacts with dry chemical and are broken down
 Chemical and mechanical foam have harmful effects on each other (do not use together)
When using foam, it should not be allowed to strike the surface of the burning material directly, but should
be allowed to strike a vertical wall or side of the container so that it may run down and form a blanket
which will spread over the liquid. If the liquid is not confined, allow the foam to fall gently over the
surface of the liquid.
Vaporizing Liquids
Extinguisher may also contain substances called vaporizing liquids. These are Halogenated Hydro
Carbons (Halons). The more common types are:
 Bromochlorodiflouromethane (BCF)
 Bromothriflouromethane (BTM)
 Chlorobromomethane (CBM)
These extinguishers are generally stored pressure types using CO2 or nitrogen as pressure agents. This
extinguishing medium has an “inhibitory factor”. This is the proportion of extinguishing medium which
is required to be resent in air in order to prevent combustion. Because of their negatives impact on the
environment, these extinguishers are being phased out.
Dry Powder Extinguisher
Various chemicals are used in dry powder extinguishers; depending on the job they are intended. For
example:
 Sodium Bicarbonate - for flammable liquids (class B)

 Potassium Bicarbonate - used in the USA for class B fires
 Ammonium Phosphates - “General Purpose” for class A & B fires
 Ternary Eutectic Chloride - (TEC) for Uranium, Plutonium and Magnesium Alloys
All dry powders are treated to improve their “flow” properties and reduce “caking”. This treatment may
be involved the adding of a small portion of very fine silica to the contents.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers
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These consist basically of a pressure cylinder with a valve for releasing the gas and a discharge horn.
The gas is maintained in liquid form at a pressure of 50 bars (750 psi). The discharge horn allows the
gas to expand at a ratio of 450:1 and when it is directed into the fire, prevents air from being pulled
along entrainment by reducing the velocity of gas. The average discharge time is 16 – 30 seconds.
Points to note:
 The gas makes considerable noise, this however indicates that the extinguisher is working.
 CO2 forms a dense vapor that may impair visibility in a confined space.
 CO2 has not cooling effect so there is risk of re-ignition.
 If the orifice at the sealing disc freezes, preventing discharge of the gas, it may be cleared in
most models by closing and opening the control valve.
Advantages:
i. Rapid in action, independent of atmospheric temperature.

ii. It is an inert gas which quickly disperses, leaving no trace.
iii. It is a non-conductor of electricity.
iv. Can be used in the incipient (first) stage of highly flammable liquid fires.
v. Penetrates inaccessible places
Disadvantages:
i. The total weight in relation to the contents is considerable

ii. There is no visible way to check the contents
Testing is usually in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruction and at the times specified. In
addition to these hand-held extinguishers, there are also what is known as trolley units and fixed
installations.
Wet Chemical (K Class) Extingusihers
Due to new and improved cooking appliances, higher heating rates and industry trends toward using more
unsaturated oils, the potential for severe restaurant fires is greater than ever. A new “K Class Extinguisher”
rated to specifically identify and address these commercial “combustible cooking media” fire hazard in
the kitchen is developed. It contains a special Potassium Acetate based, Potassium Carbonate base or
Potassium Citrate base with water. This extinguisher extinguishes the fires by removing the heat of the
fire triangle and prevents re-ignition by creating a barrier between the oxygen and fuel elements.
Wet chemical or “Class K” extinguisher developed for modern, high efficiency deep fat fryers in
commercial cooking operations may also be used on “Class A” fires (involving wood, paper, cloth, trash
etc.) in commercial kitchen. This extinguisher can be obtained under different brand names.
Metal / Sand Extinguishers
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These extinguishers are for flammable metals (class D fires) and work by simply smothering the fire with
powered copper metal or sodium chloride (NaCl).
 The copper extinguishing agent is preferred for fires involving lithium and lithium alloys. It is the
only known lithium firefighting agent which will cling to a vertical surface thus making it the
preferred agent on three dimensional and flowing fires.
 Sodium Chloride works well for metal fires involving magnesium, sodium (spills and in depth)
potassium alloys, uranium and powered aluminum. Heat from the fires causes the agent to cake
and form a crust that excludes air and dissipates heat.
Halotron 1 Extinguishes
Like carbon dioxide units, these are used on Class B and US Class C fires. Halogen 1 is an ozone-friendly
replacement for Halogens (which is banned by international agreements starting in 1994). This “clean
agent” discharge a liquid, has high visibility during discharge, does not cause static shock, leaves no
residue and is a non-conductor of electricity. These properties make it ideal for computer rooms,
telecommunication equipment and electronics. The superior properties of Halotron come at a high cost to
carbon dioxide.
Water Mist Extinguishers
These extinguishers are ideal for Class A fires. Unlike an ordinary water extinguisher, the misting nozzle
provides safety from electrical shock and reduces scattering of burning materials. This is ideal for
protection of hospital environments, books, documents and clean room facilities.
Method Of Operation
A typical gas cartridge extinguisher operates by:
 Removing a safety pin plug

 Applying pressure to the operating lever this cause a pressure disc on the cartridge to be pierced
and at the same time opens a control valve.
 The release of gas exerts pressure (10 bar) on the surface of the extinguishing medium (foam,
water, chemical powder), forcing it up t he discharge tube and out through the hose and nozzle.
 Controlling the discharge via the operating.
The difference with the stored pressure extinguisher is that the whole container is pressurized. Air of
nitrogen is pumped into it through a special adapter in the operating head until the pressure reaches. about
ten (10) bars. Removing the safety pin or plug and squeezing the lever, operates the extinguisher. This
opens the control valve and allows the pressurized air to expel the contents.
Again, the discharge can be controlled by lever.
METHODS OF OPERATION OF A TYPICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHER
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Pull-Aim-Squeeze-Sweep (PASS)
A typical fire extinguisher is operated by:
 Pull Pull the safety pin. Some units require the releasing of a lock latch, pressing a
puncture lever inversion or the other motion.
 Aim Aim the extinguisher nozzle (hose or horn) at the base of the fire.
 Squeeze Squeeze or press the operating lever
 Sweep Sweep from side to side at the base of the fire. Watch for re-flash. Discharge the
contents of the extinguisher.
Care And Maintenance Of Extinguishers
It is recommended that extinguishers be checked periodically to ensure that:
 The extinguisher is not blocked by equipment, coats or other objects that could interfere with access
in an emergency.
 The pressure is at the recommended level for stored pressure extinguishers equipped with a gauge.
 The nozzle or other parts are not obstructed.
 The safety pin, latch or lock are intact.
 There are not dents, leaks, rust, chemical deposits or other signs of abuse or wear. Wipe off any
corrosive chemicals, oil gunk etc. that may have landed on the extinguisher.
 The dry chemical extinguisher does not cake or settle. Some manufactures recommended these be
shaken periodically.
 The cartridges the gas cartridge extinguisher be punctured.
 Fire extinguishers should be pressure tested (a process called hydro testing) after a number of years to
ensure that the container is safe to use.
If an extinguisher is damaged or needs recharging, it is to be noted, promptly reported and replaced. It is

advisable to recharge all extinguishers immediately after use regardless of how much was used.
FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
Fire Investigation
The totality of the process involving the determination of whether or not a fire occurrence is
accidental, incendiary or caused by natural causes.
In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is the main government agency responsible for the
prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on buildings, houses and other structures, forest, land
transportation vehicles and equipments, ships or vessels docked at piers or major seaports, petroleum
industry installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire Code
and other related laws. It has the major power to investigate all causes of fires and necessary, file the
proper complaints with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over the case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54).
LEGAL MANDATE
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Bureau of Fire Protection was created by virtue of RA 6975 primarily to perform the following functions:
1. Be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on:
 Buildings, houses and other structures;

 Forest;
 Land transportation vehicles and equipment;
 Ships or vessels docked at piers or wharves anchored in major sea ports
 Petroleum industry installations;
 Land transportation vehicles and equipment;
 Plane crashes; and
 Other similar incidents
2. Be responsible for the enforcement of the Fire Code of the Philippines (P.D. 1185 / RA 9514) and
other related laws
3. Shall have the power to investigate all causes of fires and if necessary, file the proper complaint
with the city or provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case
4. In time of national emergency, all elements of the BFP shall upon direction of the President,
assist the AFP in meeting the national emergency; and
5. Shall establish at least one (1) fire station with adequate personnel, fire fighting facilities and
equipment in every provincial capital, city and municipality subject to standard rules and
regulations as may be promulgated by the DILG.
VISION:
A world-class fire protection agency working towards a public safety conscious society.
MISSION:
To prevent and suppress destructive fires; enforce fire-related laws; and provide emergency medical and
rescue services.
BFP PROGRAMS AND SERVICES
1. Fire Prevention
a. Fire Safety Information Campaign

b. Fire Safety Inspection
2. Fire Suppression
a. Fire Fighting and Control
b. Fire Investigation
3. Emergency Medical and Rescue Services
a. Medical and Dental Services

b. Search and Rescue Services
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4. Special Programs / Projects
a. Fire Safety Education Drive

b. Kiddie / Junior Fire Marshal
c. Other Operations
Overview of the Law on Arson
Previously, arson was defined and penalized under nine different articles of the Revised Penal Code:
Article 320 (destructive arson)

Article 321 (other forms of arson)
Article 322 (cases of arson not included in the preceding articles)
Article 323 (arson of property of small value)
Article 324 (crimes involving destruction)
Article 325 (burning one’s own property to commit arson)
Article 326 (setting fire to property exclusively owned by the offender
Article 326-a (in cases where death resulted as a consequence of arson)
Article 326-b (prima facie evidence of arson).
On March 7, 1979, citing certain inadequacies that impede the successful enforcement and prosecution of
arsonists, then President Ferdinand E. Marcos issued Presidential Decree (P.D) No. 1613.
(P.D. 1613 supplanted the penal code provisions on arson)
On November 11, 1980, the law on arson was again revisited via P.D. No. 1744. The new law expanded
the definition of destructive arson by way of reinstating Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code. The
amendatory legislation also paved the way for the reimposition of the capital punishment on destructive
arsonists.
When Republic Act (R.A.) No. 7659 (An Act to Impose the Death Penalty on Certain Heinous Crimes)
was passed on December 13, 1993, Article 320 again underwent a revision.
With the repeal of the Death Penalty Law on June 24, 2006 through R.A. No. 9346, arson is no longer a
capital offense.
What is Republic Act 9514?

It is known as the Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008 Repealing PD 1185 Approved Dec. 19,
2008
RA 9514 is more or less copied from the original law except in some terms and others provision
particularly the following:
1. The share of the bureau in the Fire Code Fee Collections and the creation of Fire Protection Trust Fund
to support the modernization of the BFP;
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2. There is a provision giving police power to the BFP in issuing closure order for building or structure
declared as fire hazards;
3. Another significant provision of the law is the increase in administrative fines from the old rate of
P12,000 to P50,000 for violating the provisions of RA 9514 and increase of penalty from P20,000 to
P100,000 fines for failure to correct the deficiency or abate the hazard with punishment of imprisonment
of 1 year to 6 years aside from paying damages to victims if the violation leads to loss of life and damage
to property;
4. The law also imposes accountability on public official or employees for negligence, malfeasance or
misfeasance in the performance of their sworn duties;
5. Also the law provides that in times of fire operations, fire volunteers shall be under the direct operational
control of BFP fire ground commanders.
Persons responsible to Conduct Fire and Arson Investigation Philippine Setting: SOP No.
2001 - 01
1. Regional Fire Marshal

2. Provincial Fire Marshal
3. District Fire Marshal
4. City Fire Marshal
5. Municipal Marshal
6. Fire/Arson Investigator
The art of probing and analyzing an incendiary/intentional fire which is intended to identify, locate,
and ultimately prosecute the perpetrator.
ARSON
 Is a crime against property.

 The willful and malicious burning of another’s property or the burning of one’ own property with
intent to injure or defraud the insurer of that property.
 The burning of all kinds of buildings, structures, aircraft, watercraft, crops, forest land and personal
property.
1. That the fire was ignited willfully and maliciously to destroy buildings or property (of human
origin, by incendiary means, not natural or accidental).
2. The burning actually occurred (property need not be destroyed, scorching is sufficient).
3. That the property is of another, or in the case of one’s own property the intent was to injure or
defraud the insurer.
4. That any person, who caused the fire to be set, is aided, counseled or procured the burning is
equally responsible as the actual fire setter.
What Constitute Arson?
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1. Burning - there must be burning or scorching/charring, i.e., the fiber of the wood must be
destroyed or decomposed, its identity or physical state changed.
2. Willfulness - the act was done purposely and with intention.
3. Motive - the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.
4. Malice - it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
5. Intent - the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will to do the act
MOTIVES FOR ARSON
Although the motive for arson is not one of the elements of the crime (corpus delicti) it is important to
determine the motive, if at all possible. Development of motive will often determine the direction the
investigation will take, and it can assist the prosecutor presenting the case in court by showing why the
defendant was involved in the arson.
The common motives in arson are:
 Concealment of Other Crimes

 Defrauding the Insurance Company
Types of Insurance fraud arsons:
1. Quick profit
2. Revenge, Spite or Anger
3. Mental Illness
4. Vandalism
Initial Actions during Fire Alarms:
A. Immediate response of the nearest Fire Station/Sub-Station crew upon receiving the alarm together with
the designated investigator is required and mandatory.
B. Coordination with local police authorities and Barangay officials concerned must be done to ensure
smooth flow of traffic, crowd control and security of the area from looters and the transfer of fire
victims to a safer place.
C. Fire investigator/s on case shall cordon the place and secure the area by posting guards to prevent
unauthorized person/s until all essential evidences have been collected for examination by the
assigned/duly authorized evidence collector.
D. Point of origin must be established, cordoned and properly secured until the investigation has been
completed. Clearance from the City/Municipal Fire Marshal/concerned officers must be obtained prior
to the clearing of the area.
E. BFP Intelligence Branch/Unit must extend assistance if necessary for collation of information relative
to fire incident.
F. Information gathered must be evaluated to determine the reliability and value in relation to the incident.
Conduct Formal Investigation to Determine the Following Factors
A. Legal owner of the burned property and estimated damages

B. Nature of business if commercial and its present financial ventures to include insurance coverage
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C. Legitimacy of Operation
D. Motives
E. Identity of the perpetrator/s
› Consult respective RFM/DFM/PFM/C/MFM for proper guidance

› Inform owners/occupants to secure necessary clearance before clearing the fire scene.
› Submit necessary reports within the prescriptive period.
The Fire Investigation Report (Fir)
A. Fire investigators assigned must sign the FIR in five (5) copies to be submitted to the Fire Chief,
Regional, Provincial, District, City/Municipal Fire Marshals.
B. The findings in the FIR that will be submitted to the Fire Chief, RFM, PFM’s/DFM’s and
City/Municipal Fire Marshals as the case maybe shall either be ACCIDENTAL or
INTENTIONAL. In both cases, persons responsible for the fire incident either by neglect or
intentional shall be pinpointed by pieces of evidence and proceeded by court action.
UNDETERMINED causes of fire shall be considered as pending investigation matters and should
not be reflected in FIR’s.
C. Fire investigating units are prohibited from furnishing copies of their FIR to any party unless
ordered by competent courts. All requests for Fire Certificates by the fire victims or other
interested parties concerning a fire case shall be directly addressed to the concerned Fire Marshals
who may issue a certificate as authorized.
Authority on the Issuance of the Fire Certificates
A. For NCR
Authority Aggregate Damage
1. Municipal Fire Marshal - - - - - - - - - - --- Not exceeding P 10 M

2. City Fire Marshal ---------- Not exceeding P 20 M
3. District Fire Marshal ---------- Not exceeding P 30 m
4. Regional Fire Marshal -------------------- Above P 30 M but not exceeding 50m
5. Fire Chief ---------- Above P 50 M
B. For Other Regions (other than NCR)
Authority Aggregate Damage
1. Municipal Fire Marshal - - - - - - - - - - - Not exceeding P 10 M

2. City Fire Marshal - - - - - - - - - - - Not exceeding P 20 M
3. Provincial Fire Marshal - - - - - - - - - - - Not exceeding P 30 M
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4. Regional Fire Marshal - - - - - - - - - - - Above P30 M but not exceeding P 50 M

5. Fire Chief - - - - - - - - - - - P 50 M and above
Aggregate Damage -refers to the total damage of the whole area burned.
The Fire Chief through the recommendation of the CIID shall issue Fire Certificate to an aggregate damage
of P 50M and above or under any circumstances that there are casualties (killed) in a particular fire
incident.
However the following Exemptions in the Delegation of Authority are as Follows:
a. For individual occupancy having a fire loss within the same level issuing authority in the aggregate
damages, the concerned RFM, PFM/DFM, CFM/MFM may issue said certificate provided however, that
the building/structure and its contents has no insurance claims involved.
b. In determining the amount of aggregate damages for the issuance of fire certification, the total notarized
amount of fire damages submitted by the fire victim/s shall prevail, henceforth, the fire damage estimate
made by the investigating team shall not be the basis for issuing a fire certification.
c. Investigation of all fire incidents shall be monitored and evaluated by the City/Municipal Fire Marshal.
And if there is controversy involved and/or probable arson on the subject fire incident the same must be
turned-over to IID-BFP National Office or to the Inter-Agency Anti-Arson Task Force (IATF) for
appropriate disposition of said case. However, if the case can be resolved at the lowest level, it must be
filed immediately by the investigator on case to the proper court, which has jurisdiction over the case.
Types of Report and Reporting System Philippine Setting:
 1. Spot/Initial Report
 2. Progress Report
 3. Final Investigation Report
The following shall be the uniform procedures and duration in the submission of Reports:
For NCR:
1. Spot/Initial Report shall be submitted immediately while the fire is still on going and already under
control.
2. Progress Report shall be submitted within three(3) to six (6) hrs after the declaration of fire out.
3. Final Investigation Report shall be submitted within one (1) week but not to exceed three (3) months
after the fire incident as the case warrants.
For Other Regions:
1. Spot/Initial Report shall be submitted immediately after declaration of fire out.

2. Progress Report shall be submitted within twenty four (24) hrs after declaration of fire out.
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3. Final Investigation Report - within one (1) week but not to exceed three (3) months after the fire
incident as the case warrants.
Areas to Conduct Fire Investigation
1. Exterior – Determine where the fire started first by comparing burn char, smoke, and heat patterns
around windows, doors and roof.
* Exterior points of origin;

* Unusual burn patterns of flammable liquid
* Tools and flammable liquid containers;
* Footprints and scuff marks at suspected points of entry.
2. Interior (extent of damage) – Conduct general survey of the entire interior structure for the extent of
fire damage. Establish the class of fire duration (brief or long), and the approximate burn time by
checking the following:
* Window glass condition;
* Depth of wood char, at or in close proximity to the point of origin;
* Penetration of fire restrictive wall coverings by fire;
* Electric clock that has been stopped by fire damage;
Note the time stopped and compare with alarm time. The time factors should be estimated and
considered as proximation only.
COLOR OF SMOKE - The firefighter’s first clue to the combustibles of the fire:
Combustibles Color of Smoke
Hay/vegetable compounds, phosporous White

Benzine White to Gray
Nitro-cellulose, sulphur Yellow to brownish-yellow
Gunpowder Yellow to brownish-yellow
Chlorine gas Greenish-yellow
Wood, paper, wood Gray to brown
Iodine Violet
Cooking oil Brown
Naptha, Lacquer thinner Brownish black
Turpentine Black to brown
Acetone, Kerosene, Gasoline, Tar, Black
Lubricating oil, Rubber, Coal, Plastics Black
Fire Fighting Operation: Be aware on the following:
1. Separate and seemingly unconnected fires.

2. Unusual odors
Item/Substance Odor
Nitro-cellulose Pungent, similar to camphor
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Phosphorous Wet match heads

Carbo0n disulfide Rotten Cabbage
Gunpowder Burned firecrackers
Sulphur candles Chocking odor
Ammonia Pungent
Insect sprays Sweet or perfumed
Cyanide or hydrochloric acid gas Peach pit
Laws on Arson (Legal Aspects of Fire)
PD No. 1613 – Amending the Laws on Arson:
Section 1. Arson –Any person who burns or sets fire to property of another shall be punished by Prision
Mayor (Reyes, 1999).
Section 2. Destructive Arson – The penalty of Reclusion Temporal in its maximum period to Reclusion
Perpetua shall be imposed if properties burned are the ff:
1. Any ammunition factory & other establishment where explosives, inflammable or combustible
materials are stored;
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture, education or social
services;
3. Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble;
4. Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or watercraft, or conveyance for transportation of persons or
property;
5. Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or other official
proceeding;
6. Any hospital, hotel dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public or private
market, theatre or movie houses or any similar place or building;
Any building, whether used as dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested area.
Sec. 3 other cases of arson
The penalty of Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is
any of the following:
1. Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies;

2. Any inhabited house or dwelling;
3. Any industrial establishment, oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel;
4. Any plantation, farm, pasture land, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest;
5. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill or mill central; and
6. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse
Sec 4 Special Aggravating Circumstances
1. If committed with intent to gain;

2. If committed for the benefit of another;
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3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property burned;
4. If committed by syndicate.
ARSON INVESTIGATION
Steps to the most scientific and pragmatic approach are to be found in DeHaan (2002), and to a more
technical extent, in NFPA 921 (Guide to Arson and Explosion Investigation). In both places, the step-by-
step procedures involve analyzing and probing material with technical instruments. There is a process of
hypothesis formulation and testing similar to the scientific method which leads to the acceptance or
rejection of alternative hypotheses. Care is taken not to spoil any evidence at the crime scene. Patterns
of any particular fire are compared to patterns from other fires to generate further leads and hypotheses.
In the common law tradition, arson law requires that a fire reach a structure and a burn
result. Explosions are treated as burnings for the purposes of arson law. It doesn't matter how much
burning takes place. The common law rule is that however slight the burning, the arson is complete. A
few states distinguish between "sooting" (smoke damage), "scorching" (blistering), "charring" (external
surfaces destroyed), and so forth, but the main point is that a structure does not have to burn to the ground.
The kind of structure and amount of damage are circumstances to be considered. An arson can occur inside
a house if the item damaged qualifies as a permanent fixture. Sinks, lighting, and appliances qualify;
personal property such as furniture, clothing, or documents usually do not.
At law, there's a difference between "setting a fire" and "burning" in that it is possible to set fire to
something, but it gets extinguished before any burning occurs. For this reason, it's important that one read
the precise wording of a state statute. If the statutory language contains the word "OR" sandwiched in
between "setting a fire" and "burns," then that particular state considers the act of setting a fire an arson
even if no burning occurs. Arson is a crime of general, rather than specific intent. At common law, the
mens rea of arson is "willfully and maliciously," but as a crime of general intent, malice can be inferred
from the act itself.
All that's necessary is proof that the person (at any MPC level of intent, even recklessly, although that's
called RECKLESS BURNING in some states) started the fire. Criminal intent with arson, however, is
sometimes a separate thing. The fire department, not the police, get to determine this, which is sometimes
called a fire of INCENDIARY ORIGIN (as opposed to one of unknown origin). A fire inspector must
then testify in court that he/she also suspected arson, and then an expert witness must be called to
corroborate the fire inspector's opinion.
Arson is typically graded into 1st degree (homes, schools, churches), 2nd degree (unoccupied structures,
vehicles), and 3rd degree (personal property). Arson is a crime against possession, not ownership, so it's
possible for a person to be charged with burning their own house, or committing an arson against
themselves. State statutes usually do not grade arsons in terms of motive, although they ought to. There
are clear differences between arson-for-profit, revenge arson, and pyromania. Some states reserve their
harshest punishments for ARSON WITH INTENT TO DEFRAUD (arson for profit or arson for hire).
Some states have the offense of AGGRAVATED ARSON which is kind of like felony murder, but carries
additional penalties if a firefighter gets injured while trying to put out the fire. A person who's party to the
crime is typically charged with arson rather than being an accomplice to the crime. Actions preliminary
to arson, like pouring accelerant on the floor of a building or possessing firebombs, may be offenses related
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to arson under some state statutes. Making a false bomb threat or false fire alarm is also a separate, but
related offense in most states. Arson involving damage to federal property is almost always prosecuted in
federal court, as is anything (warehouses, truck facilities) involving interstate or foreign transport.
The Emerging Forensic Science of Arsonist Profiling
Numerous motives compel arson: financial reward, politics, concealment of another crime, attention
seeking, revenge, and anger. A fundamental tenet of behavioral profiling is that if you know the what and
why, the who will follow. Therefore, sometimes behavioral profilers are called in to testify during an arson
trial. They usually present research findings which suggest a profile of the typical arsonist as someone who
may be seriously mentally ill and/or intoxicated at the time of the offense, which can be argued as mitigating
responsibility. A full-blown pyromania defense usually doesn't work, as in the forensic setting, pyromania
is actually quite rare. Below is a summary of some well-known personality characteristics for arsonists:
AGE: 10-14 (26%), majority under 18 (51%) if adult, late 20s, never over 35 if adult, revenge or profit
motive
SEX: 9 out of 10 times (90%) a male; if female, revenge type
RACE: 3 out of 4 times (75%) a white; black (20%) of time if first-timer; Native Americans 3rd largest
group
CLASS: majority from lower to working class; middle class if vandalism or excitement
IQ: vast majority subnormal (70-90) with 22% in retarded range (below 70), rare genius
FAMILY: absent or abusive father, history of emotional problems with family/mother
SCHOOL: learning problems and usually held back a grade in school, normally in 10th grade; younger
(grades 6-8) if vandalism
PEERS: social misfit, interpersonal problems with opposite sex, appears physically and emotionally weak
compared to peers
WORK: usually chooses subservient position and then resents it (both ambivalent and resentful toward
authority-repressed); unemployed if vandal, excite, or profit
CRIMINAL HISTORY: numerous status offenses as juvenile, property crimes, almost all have arrest
records
DRUG/ALCOHOL: no problem
MENTAL: lack of remorse may appear as psychopathy, but more typically result of obsessive-compulsive
disassociative trance-like state during firesetting
ARREST: majority remain at crime scene except revenge, conceal, profit types; some attempt suicide in
lockup; most easily confess thru cooperation
TYPES other than concealers or for profit (who constitute 22% of total):
ARSON FOR REVENGE (41%) - precipitating factor is a real or imagined affront that occured months or
years ago; attack is focused on individual rivals, a business chain, schools, or some facilities connected
with offender
ARSON FOR EXCITEMENT (30%) - precipitating factor is boredom, (sexual) thrill cycle, or need for
attention; attack is focused on large or outdoor targets, like parks, construction sites, arenas, as well as
residential areas
ARSON FOR VANDALISM (7%) - precipitating factor is family disturbance or peer pressure; attack if
usually focused on educational facility as well as residences and outdoors
ARSON FOR PROFIT (5%) & ARSON FOR CRIME CONCEALMENT (17%)
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FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION
Due to the destructive powers of fire, investigators must be aware of their surroundings. Fire scenes, as
can be expected, are dangerous places. Fire investigators have a duty and a responsibility to themselves
and to others to conduct a safe fire scene investigation. This includes working in pairs, wearing proper
safety clothing, using proper respiratory protection, and remaining alert to fire scene hazards.
Only with proper safety precautions instituted can the investigator commence the scene investigation. The
investigator must know what information is to be collected during the examination of the incident scene.
He/She also must understand the necessity for proper security to protect the incident scene during fire
suppression and continuing through the scene investigation. How exterior structural conditions of the
burned structure may affect the examination of the incident must be understood. Finally, the investigator
must understand the relationship between the physical condition of the structure and the identification of
motives.
Fire Investigator Safety
Fire investigation can be more complex than fire suppression. Investigators find themselves examining
more areas than those actually involved in the fire, spending more time processing the fire scene,
conducting detailed scene examination, and sifting through the debris. Thus, they are exposed to a variety
of hazards and usually are subject to continuous physical exertion.
Fire investigators have a tendency to ignore personal safety in their effort to determine the origin and
cause of the fire. However, personal safety should be a top priority. Analysis of the exterior of the building
must be done continuously while conducting exterior scene investigation. Similarly, prior to the interior
examination, the occupancy must be determined safe to work in by conferring with the Incident
Commander (IC) or requesting an inspector from building and safety. Prior to going inside, ensure that
the atmosphere has been analyzed and is safe. Confirm that utilities are off prior to examining any
electrical circuit, appliance, or wiring.
Avoid working alone. If an accident occurs, no one may be present to help. Also, if you encounter a hostile
witness or a suspect, backup may be required.
Use proper personal protective equipment at all times, including approved boots with steel toe and
midsole, gloves, helmet or hardhat, respiratory protection (Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
or particle respirators), eye protection, and a work uniform. Finally, do not eat or drink at the fire scene.
FIRE SCENE HAZARDS
Respiratory Hazards
Generally, heated air and gases rise during the fire. As .the area cools, gases drop to lower levels. The
atmosphere must cool before investigators spend extended periods processing the fire scene. If it is not
possible to allow for cooling and to provide adequate ventilation, then respiratory protection should be
used.
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Common combustible materials will give off toxic gases when exposed or involved in fire. Some common
products and the gases they produce are listed in the chart below.
Structural Hazards
Investigators also must be concerned with structural hazards; Hoe stability of the structure is of paramount
concern. Did the fire weaken the floors, ceiling, and/or roof? Are there glasses and nail hazards present?
Is there a possibility of structural collapse?
Fire suppression activities can result in structural damage such as hanging beams and rafters; holes broken
through floors, roof, and walls; or the possibility of the floor weakened from water loading.
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Utility hazards also are possible. The electrical power still may be in service, even though the fire may
have damaged wires and energized equipment. Natural or Liquefied Petroleum (LP) gas leaks or pockets
of escaped gas may be present. Electrical hazards still exist even with the meter pulled. Recent studies
have shown that the neutral wire may still be energized.
Unprotected openings such as sump pump holes, old cisterns, pools, and shafts may be full of water and
unnoticeable after extinguishment. Remember that ashes may be covering up holes and that the ashes on
top may be cold while the ashes inside are still hot. This situation is referred to as a "black hole."
Hazardous Substances
Materials containing asbestos often are found in structures. Typical exterior locations include siding, roof
felt, shingles, window putty, and undersheeting. Typical interior locations include insulation, flooring, air
duct lining, electrical equipment, acoustical ceilings and tile, heat reflectors, appliances, and artificial
fireplace logs.
Materials which contain asbestos deteriorate during fire, releasing asbestos fibers into the air. The primary
hazard to the investigator is inhalation. Asbestos fibers can be reduced by wetting down the area.
Investigators also should observe safety precautions such as wearing a respirator mask with a particle
filter, and bagging uniforms and washing them separately. If breathing apparatus (SCBA) is available, use
it.
PCB's (Polychlorinated biphenyl(s)) are found in electrical equipment, coolants, roofing materials, and
storage areas. The main hazards are skin exposure and ingestion. PCB's can be spread by fire. If involved
in fire, dioxin is created in the smoke. PCB's are nonvolatile. Safety precautions include chemical-resistant
gloves and shoe covers, and the use of a respirator mask.
Chemical fires present a variety of hazards, such as instability, combustibility, explosive tendencies,
oxidation, corrosiveness, and water or air reactivity. Stable chemicals involved in fire may become
unstable. Identification of fire-damaged chemicals often proves difficult; in addition, chemicals or
explosives may have been used to start the fire. Unburned chemicals often remain after the fire, and
explosives may not have detonated completely and can be unstable. Safety precautions include identifying
the chemicals involved, securing the area, getting technical assistance, and using special protective gear
and breathing apparatus.
Always seek assistance from the proper authorities when dealing with chemicals, asbestos, and PCB's.
This includes hazardous materials units, or the bomb squad if you need to X-ray articles.
Insecticides and pesticides also pose respiratory, ingestion, and skin hazards. Be aware of smoke and
gases present during incidents that involve them; take the required safety measures, such as using
respirators, breathing apparatus, and chemical-resistive clothing. Decontaroination steps will be necessary
if you are exposed.
Toxic gases and smoke are present in treated lumber, in the form of chromium copper arsenate (CCA).
Even though the fire scene is cold, with no smoke or gases, CCA still is present in the ashes. Investigators
should follow previously mentioned safety precautions to minimize ingestion and respiratory hazards.
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Nuclear hazards including radioactive materials, may be present in a variety of occupancies. Microwaves
are common in homes, schools, and businesses. X-ray machines and radioactive waste are common in
laboratories and hospitals.
When dealing with any of the aforementioned materials, be sure to notify appropriate agencies such as the
U.S. Coast Guard, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Health Department, and
EPA.
INVESTIGATOR PRIORITIES UPON ARRIVAL AT THE SCENE
Confer With Incident Commander (IC)
Always inform the IC of your arrival. This is not only a courtesy, but he/she usually will have pertinent
information to pass along, such as the safety of the involved structure and the progress of suppression
efforts.
Never assume the request for an investigator is based on the IC's belief that the fire is incendiary. The
incident commander should be questioned about his/her reason for requesting a fire investigator, unless
he/she is following standard operating procedures.
The IC may request an investigation for any of the following reasons:
• Possible evidence of incendiarism;

• Deaths or injuries;
• Inability of fire suppression personnel to determine cause;
• Extent of damage;
• Dollar Joss;
• Number of fire companies on scene;
• Type of occupancy;
• Prior incidents;
• Information gained at the scene;
• Actions or statements by owners/occupants;
• Presence of spectators;
• City liability; and
• Celebrity involved.
The IC should be informed of special needs, such as a delay in overhaul, additional equipment (such as
tractors, lighting, or analysis equipment), special staffing needs (such as the coroner, an anthropologist,
the medical examiner, graphic artists, forensic photographers, etc.), canines, or scene security. Often it is
easier to obtain manpower and equipment prior to the departure of fire suppression companies than it is
to request companies to return to the scene.
Other agencies/personnel may need to be notified. Such agencies/personnel include police, the building
department, the District Attorney, utility and gas companies, surveyors, the media, the bomb squad, the
health department, the coroner, anthropologists, the Coast Guard, Fish and Game, and animal control. It
may be necessary to remind these agencies of possible legal problems regarding their presence or
activities. Authority over the incident must be established as soon as possible. Any need to delay or
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eliminate normal operations by other agencies should be explained and arranged by the investigator.
Examples of activities or procedures which may be delayed during the scene investigation include salvage
operations, occupants' return, property survey, repair crew inspections, and news media survey.
The investigator should solicit specific information from the IC regarding fire suppression activities such
as placement of companies, assignments given to companies, identification of companies on scene,
strategy/tactics employed, unusual odors noted, reaction observed at application of water, location of the
fire upon arrival, ventilation methods, hoseline placement, etc. Obtaining information about firefighting
operations during the incident may be invaluable. The actual court date may be months or even years after
the fire; attempting to secure such information at that late date may prove to be impossible.
Find out if any overhaul operations were conducted prior to your arrival. Did fire suppression companies
use wet water (chemical additive) or foam to suppress the fire? If objects were removed, what was
removed, from where, and by whom? Firefighters should be made aware of their responsibility to provide
the investigator with accurate, complete, and timely information about the incident.
Time and method of alarms are critical information also. Times play an important part in the
investigation, because the investigator may be able to show an abnormality between the time the fire was
reported and the amount of fire at the time of the first arrival of fire suppression companies. The
investigator should interview the person(s) reporting the fire. Also, it is important to note the time the first
fire suppression company arrived.
The investigator must observe condition of the scene at his/her time of arrival. Note the amount of damage
as viewed from the exterior, as well as extension of the fire to the interior portions of the occupancy. Note
the progress of fire suppression efforts at this time as well. Observe how the fire vented itself: natural
ventilation versus fire suppression ventilation techniques. Note any removal of debris, furnishings, stock,
supplies, etc. Ensure security procedures are established.
The structure may suffer extensive damage after the arrival of the investigator. Such information helps
eliminate wasted time and effort in determining the origin of the fire. Remember that areas of extensive
damage may not indicate the area of origin; this may have been caused by fire suppression efforts. In
addition, a fire still can result in a total loss even after the fire is thought to be under control.
Other areas of burning may have required more immediate attention by fire suppression personnel because
of protection of life, dangerous materials, high value areas, or preventing extension of the fire. Note areas
of open burning (visible flames) which may indicate the types of fuel being consumed.
Ascertain whether there was complete or partial collapse of the structure. Was there ignition or exposure
of flammable or hazardous materials? Were there reports of an explosion? Were firefighters forced to back
out due to fast fire spread?
Weather conditions should be noted and recorded. Note wind direction and speed, and compare it with
the direction of fire travel. Wind may account for the intensity and/or spread of the fire. Make note of
clear weather conditions versus rain, snow, ice, etc. If the fire was incendiary, it may have been the
arsonist's intention to set the fire in bad weather in order to delay the fire department's response.
Temperature and humidity also should be recorded. Low temperatures may cause fire hydrants to
freeze, or pose other hazards that can delay fire suppression efforts. Climatic conditions and statistics can
81
be obtained from the local office of the National Weather Service. If weather conditions were changing
throughout the suppression and investigation stages, note all specific changes and times. Occupancy
records. If fire prevention records are available, look for any prior history of fires or problems.
Note fire protection systems such as alarms, sprinklers, standpipes, or smoke detectors. Ensure that
someone will determine their status and effectiveness at the time of the fire. If the occupancy has a
security/fire alarm, check to see the time the alarm went off; if the system is monitored, are there any
printouts, tapes, or videos available? Note the fire load of the occupancy as it relates to furnishings and
appliances. Note the conditions of the utilities to the occupancy, and ascertain which companies and
persons were responsible for shutting them off.
The type, size, use, and condition of the structure must be noted and recorded by the investigator. Detailed
information about the structure is vital to the investigation report.
Most other crimes produce evidence which can be presented in court to help prove criminal intent. In the
case of an incendiary fire, frequently the evidence is destroyed in the fire. The investigator often is asked
to "paint a picture" of the burned structure, and these details often are necessary to identify motives
and suspects. Include in the report relevant details about the neighborhood:
• Is it declining or changing?
• Have other fires occurred?
• Are there a lot of vacant buildings, numerous for sale signs, or other problems?
Color of Flames and Smoke
Color of smoke may indicate the type of material being burned. Complete combustion often produces little
or no smoke, while dense smoke often indicates incomplete combustion. Flame color may indicate the
type of materials being burned. As the amount of hydrocarbons increase, the flames will become darker
or more orange in color. A lack of sufficient oxygen usually causes flames to be darker than when the
same fuel is burned in a well-ventilated area.
Extreme caution is required when using color of smoke and flames as an indicator. Remember, the
investigator often arrives on the fire scene during the latter stages of the fire, and may observe smoke
colors that relate to materials burning in the latter stages, which will give false indications. Also, most
occupancies contain fuels with hydrocarbon bases which, when burning, may produce smoke and/or
flames which can mislead the investigator. Smoke and flame colors which indicate the type of material
being burned are listed in the chart below.
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SCENE SECURITY
Fire or police personnel should be posted at all the occupancy's points of entry, and they should be
instructed to deny entry to all unauthorized personnel, including spectators, occupants, owners, and news
media. Individuals claiming to have authority should be referred to the IC or the lead investigator. Scene
security personnel should be in work or dress uniform with proper identification.
Inform the officer in charge of the steps which have been taken to secure the incident scene. Scene security
is of the utmost importance both during and after firefighting operations have been completed. Ensure
that arrangements are made to delay overhaul operations, so that the investigation is not hampered.
Deny entry to all unauthorized persons. Owners and/or occupants usually will attempt to re-enter the area,
claiming the need to survey damage or salvage property. Spectators also like to enter these occupancies
to survey and/or steal valuables. The arsonist may attempt to re-enter the structure for the purpose of
destroying or recovering evidence of incendiary devices, covering up incendiarism, or attempting to
mislead investigators.
The investigator should anticipate problems of scene security. Locate and inform the owners/occupants
that their reentry into the structure will be delayed during the scene examination. The investigator can
arrange for temporary shelter for tenants displaced due to fire. This will help remove the occupants from
the immediate area and will provide for some comfort and protection during severe weather.
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DSWD and other concerned agencies provide this service for persons displaced as a result of a fire or
other disaster. If they are not available, see if the owners/occupants have relatives, friends, or neighbors
with whom they can stay temporarily. Another source of assistance can be the victim's insurance company.
Be sure to tell the owner how to get a copy of the fire investigation report, or you may want to re-contact
them yourself to inform them of the results of your investigation.
Scene security must be maintained without breaks in the chain of control over the occupancy. If the
investigator cannot be present on the scene during the suppression efforts, the fire department or police
department should be asked to provide scene security until his/her arrival. If a break in the chain of control
does occur, the investigator will need to gain permission from the owner/occupant to reenter the fire scene
to conduct the investigation. Follow legal precedents in scene investigation and the collection of evidence.
CHAPTER V
Physical Evidence Collection and Preservation

First and foremost, it is critical that each department or investigative division establish a physical evidence
policy. This policy must cover all aspects of handling and storing evidence for each incident investigated.
It should also cover what type of evidence is to be collected by the first responder investigator and under
what circumstances the first responder should collect such evidence.
The policy is only as good as those who have input in its creation. In addition to the resources within the
department or division, collect input from the local laboratory that will be processing the evidence. Lab
personnel can specify the type of container, the documentation, and retention of the evidence to match
their own policy.
Everyone within the department must be trained on the policy to the level that they will be involved with
handling evidence. Everyone within an investigation unit must be thoroughly trained on all aspects of the
policy. The engine company officer should be trained on evidence recognition and how to protect evidence
from being damaged. As the first person to conduct an investigation, he or she needs to be well aware of
identifying evidence and under which circumstances to call for an assigned investigator. Engine company
officers should also know how to collect and hold the evidence under extreme circumstances. They must
be aware of contamination issues, especially because there are several firefighting tools that are fuel driven
and should not be taken onto a scene.
Authority to Collect Evidence
Who should or should not collect evidence varies. The first variable is the role of the investigator on the
scene. The fire officer, first responder investigator, doing the preliminary investigation should not take
any evidence except as a last resort to protect and preserve the evidence. The public assigned fire
investigator should collect any and all evidence that would be used as part of a hypothesis that may be
incendiary in nature. Neither the fire officer nor the assigned fire investigator should take evidence from
a fire scene that has been determined to be accidental in nature, except under extreme circumstances.
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If a fire is accidental in nature, there is no crime. If there is no crime, there is a question as to the legality
of the investigator taking, seizing, and evidence of any kind for any reason. The localities should research
with both local legal counsel for their jurisdiction and their local prosecuting attorney as to what they can
or cannot take from a fire scene that has clear indication of being accidental in nature. Once this
determination has been established, it should be documented and placed in the department’s physical
evidence policy. There is one given that is common across the land: Investigators can search a fi re scene
to make a determination of the fire cause based on it being good for the general public.
Contamination of Evidence
Evidence can be contaminated even before it is discovered and collected, either by fire personnel during
extinguishment and overhaul or by returning occupants wanting to view the damage and to salvage
belongings. Occupants who want to return to retrieve documents, medication, etc., should be accompanied
by fire department personnel.
Evidence also may be contaminated and/or lost by exposure to the atmosphere; thus, it must be sealed in
an airtight container. It also may be contaminated by an improper evidence container. Flammable vapors
may deteriorate portions of containers, at the seam of metal containers or the rubber seals of lids on glass
containers.
Cross-Contamination
Cross-contamination is the transfer of liquid or solid accelerant residue from one fire scene or location to
another evidence collection site. There are four potential sources of cross-contamination at a fire scene:
tools, turnout gear, evidence containers, and portable generators or power tools. Fire investigators
should carry out certain "housekeeping" procedures to preclude possible accelerant cross-contamination
from previous fire scenes.
Tools
All fire investigation units and, if possible, each fire investigator should have a special tool kit to process
fire scenes. These tools should be kept separate from other fire department equipment and must never be
coated with many rust preventive materials. After a fire scene examination is completed, tools should be
rinsed clean with a strong stream of flushing water. Before taking any excavation or cutting tools into a
fire scene, it is a good practice to cleanse each tool with isopropyl alcohol and clean paper wipes or cloth,
then flush with fresh water in the presence of a witness. Detergents such as dishwashing soaps are also
effective in dissolving residues that remain on tools. Note that accelerant liquids derived from crude oil
generally are not soluble in water alone. Check with the lab on recommended cleaning procedures.
Turnout Gear
It is important to clean boots prior to entering the area where samples are to be taken. Avoid walking
through accelerants en route to the collection site. Do not handle accelerant samples with fire gloves on.
Carry several pairs of latex gloves in your pocket or kit Two latex "surgical type" gloves will conveniently
85
fit into an empty 35mm film container with a snap top. Wear latex gloves to handle potential residue
evidence. Follow established local procedures for glove retention/disposal.
Evidence Containers
Fire investigators should carry a supply of various evidence containers, including both one-quart and one-
gallon clean, unused metal evidence cans, or the equivalent, in which to store residue samples. A good
practice is to seal a onequart evidence can and place it inside a one-gallon evidence can. Then, seal the
one-gallon can before placing the cans in your vehicle. This saves space and prevents contamination. Seal
the can using only hand pressure to eliminate contamination from outside vapors. Open the cans just prior
to physically collecting the sample at the collection site.
Portable Generators and Power Tools
Gasoline-powered equipment should be placed outside the scene in order to eliminate the possibility of
vapor contamination. Investigators should work closely with firefighters to limit potential contamination
when possible. Find out where such tools were used or fueled.
Chain of Custody
Chain of evidence problems are one of the prosecutor's greatest areas of concern in preparing and trying
a case. However, the prosecuting attorney usually is not involved in the investigative stages of the case
and the chain of custody either will have been preserved or violated by the time the filing is received, with
no chance to rehabilitate the integrity of the evidence so that it might become admissible.
Therefore, the fewer the people who have handled the evidence, the easier the proof of the chain of custody
will be. When evidence is expected to be subject to analysis, as in an arson investigation, it is necessary
to be able to establish that the item seized is the same item that was analyzed.
Whenever any piece of evidence must be passed from band to hand to set up the chain of evidence in a
case, it is essential that every person who has anything to do with the matter must be prepared to testily as
to:
1) When and how such piece of evidence came to him,

2) What be did with it while it was in his possession, and
3) When, why, bow and to whom he delivered it.
Frequently, important evidence is rejected because the prosecution is unable to prove continuity of
possession from collection to being offered in evidence. A police officer or investigator always should
take the precaution of initialing or otherwise physically marking every piece of physical evidence coming
into his/her hands in the course of a criminal investigation so that he/she can give persuasive evidence of
his/her one- time possession of the item by identifying his/her initials or other marks on it.
Types of Evidence
During the course of any fire scene investigation, the fire investigator is responsible for the proper
collection of scene debris or evidence suspected to contain accelerant residue. When fire scene evidence
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is collected, the fire investigator should collect two evidence samples: primary evidence samples and
comparison samples.
Primary Evidence
Primary evidence should be obtained in an area or areas suspected to have been exposed to some type of
liquid accelerant and should be analyzed to identify the accelerant. In cases where only a small quantity
of accelerant is used, the investigator should search the area of origin for an unusual pattern of localized
damage. Some reliable indicators would include an odor of accelerant; intermixed light, medium, and
heavy floor or other horizontal bum patterns; and wall char from the floor seam up.
Common Sampling Errors
When collecting evidence to be analyzed, collecting insufficient samples (too small) is one of the common
errors. Ineffective sample preservation techniques and obtaining no comparison samples are other errors.
Sampling from the wrong area(s) or the wrong materials can result in a negative analysis.
Evidence Collection Areas
The key evidence collection skill is knowing what to collect what not to collect Accelerant liquids bum
better than most surfaces and onto which they are poured. Expect to find better, stronger samples in
protected areas and inside absorbent materials.
The most desirable areas for collecting include the lowest areas and insulated areas within a burn pattern.
Porous plastic, synthetic fibers, cloth, paper, or cardboard in direct contact within the pattern will absorb
any possible liquid which might have been used to expedite the fire. Inside cracks, tears, seams, or floor
drains are other good collection areas for residue, since liquids will collect or pool in these areas. Liquids
also will collect around load-bearing support columns or along the base area of walls.
Areas of deeply charred wood, gray ash areas, or edges of holes burnt through floors are less desirable
due to the complete burn of material. The center of any burn pattern is not a desirable area due to intense
burn of fuel. In general, any area exposed to the greatest heat or hose streams is a less desirable collection
area.
Comparison Samples
Comparison samples are materials or objects that are believed to be nearly identical to similar accelerant
debris samples, with the exception that they are not believed to contain accelerant residues. The purpose
of such samples is to identify and minimize or eliminate sources of interference in the analysis of such
samples. Examples of comparison samples include the following:
• New, unused evidence containers. Most evidence containers yield no chromatographic

interference. However, some types of containers, like certain types of plastic bags and specially
coated containers, may give off background vapors that can obscure chromatographic analysis of
evidence. New types of containers and new lots of certain container types, like plastic bags, should
be submitted periodically to the laboratory for chromatographic analysis as comparison samples.
Likewise, collection materials sometimes may present a source of interference. For example, some
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absorbent materials for controlling petroleum spills are unsuitable for evidence collection because
they have been found to contain traces of contaminants.
• Comparable material samples. It is desirable to collect samples of materials identical to those

found in the accelerant debris matrix, except that they contain no accelerant. These materials, such
as carpet or wood trim, often may give off pyrolysis products which partially obscure accelerant.
Patterns during analysis. A comparison sample should be collected for every questioned fire debris
sample. Absorbent materials for controlling petroleum spills are unsuitable for evidence collection
because they have been found to contain traces of contaminants.
• Comparable accelerant samples. Often investigators need to identify similarities between samples
of known flammable and combustible liquids collected at the scene, those found in containers or
obtained from other sources near the fire scene, and flammable and combustible liquid residues
found in fire debris. Flammable and combustible liquid residues in debris samples may come from
sources inherent to the scene, or may be brought to the scene from another source. For example,
insecticides often have a petroleum-based carrier. Comparing debris samples with samples of
liquids from these sources and with comparison samples of materials similar to those present in
the fire debris may be a valuable method of distinguishing between what was at the scene before
the fire and what was brought to the scene to start or spread the fire.
Comparisons often are requested by fire investigators when statements, evidence, or circumstances
indicate that an accelerant may have come from a specific source, like a suspect's automobile or a nearby
gas station. Occasionally forensic science analysts can discriminate between samples of similar materials
as having clearly different sources. However, if no differences are found, the strongest statement that can
be made is that the samples may have bad a common source.
This is due largely to the marketing practices of the petroleum industry and the near impossibility of
accounting for every possible source. Another possible conclusion is that the samples belong to the same
or different classes of petroleum products, identifiable using gas chromatographic pattern recognition.
Liquid-toliquid samples are the best for such comparisons. It is much more difficult to determine a
common source using liquid samples and debris samples.
Comparison samples can be very important in making a positive identification of a material. When there
is any doubt about whether a comparison sample is needed, one should be collected and submitted, or the
laboratory should be contacted.
Trace Evidence
The characterization and comparison of trace evidence can provide a compelling link of a suspect to an
arson scene, or of one scene or device to another. Glass fragments, torn matches, cigarette butts, cloth
wicks, tape segments, or other device components may be associated with items in a suspect's possession
through physical matching or torn or fractured edges, by analysis of the composition and construction
of the materials present, or by comparison of incidental trace evidence such as hairs, fibers, stains, or
soil.
Toolmarks present on locks, doors, windows, valves, or sprinkler or alarm system components at an arson
scene may be identified as having been produced by a specific tool recovered from a suspect. Shoe
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impressions left at a fire scene may provide investigative leads regarding the number of individuals
present or the type(s) of footwear represented, and may be compared with shoes recovered from a suspect.
Latent fingerprints also may survive on objects or surfaces at the scene.
Motivation of the Firesetter
Various types of arson fires can be identified more readily if the fire investigator is aware of possible
motives. Certain motives often relate to specific types of fires. The investigator must understand why
people turn to firesetting. Being able to identify a motive can assist in determining a suspect for the fire.
"There is a cause and effect for everything people do, or fail to do. Although the individual may be
otherwise normal, the act of destructive firesetting is not normal." (James Bromly,Cause and Origin
Determination, Office of Fire Prevention and Control, Department of State, State of New York, undated).
Motive Versus Intent
Investigators frequently confuse "motive" and "intent." A motive is the reason for setting the fire, while
intent is the deliberateness of the act. Motive is not necessary to prove the corpus delicti of the crime of
arson. However, identification of the motive will assist the investigator during interviews.
Frequently the prosecuting attorney may decline to file the case if the motive is not identified clearly. Or,
the jurors may fail to find the accused guilty of arson, unless they understand why the crime was
committed.
Common Arson Motives
Common basic motives frequently encountered by today's fire investigator include
• Spite/revenge;
• Pyromania;
• Crime concealment;
• Arson for profit;
• Civil disorder, revolutions, and political activities; and
• Vanity
The act of firesetting, whether committed by an individual, a gang, or even a cult, usually falls into one,
or several, of the above categories. While not a motive in the strictest sense of the word, many fires are
the result of the actions of juveniles. This unit, therefore, also will include a section on juvenile firesetting.
Spite/Revenge
At this time, spite or revenge is the most common motive encountered. It is found frequently in domestic
disputes where fire is the preferred weapon for someone who wants to be removed from the physical act
of violence. A spite fire is often the most deadly and can result in extensive loss of life. Almost every age
group can be involved in this type of fire. These fires are initiated because of hatred, jealousy, or other
uncontrollable emotions, and they may involve a lover's quarrel or a bar fight; there may be racial or
religious connotations.
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Spite fires often result from a problem in a personal relationship and usually occur at night. They may
involve the use of available combustibles, but often are set using flammable liquids as an accelerant. In
such cases, articles of clothing maynbe gathered in a pile to be burned.
A vindictive person may target a valued possession, such as an auto, vehicle, tools, jewelry, or clothes for
a spite fire. Statements made about neighborhood disputes can be a valuable tool in establishing spite as
a motive for a fire. Be alert to signs of various types of emotional conflict, such as hostile work
relationships, labor disputes, racial confrontations, or religious antagonisms.
Pyromania
Pyromania is defined as the uncontrollable impulse to start fires. This may or may not be connected with
sexual desires or gratification. The composite characteristics/traits of a male pyromaniac may include all,
some, or none of the following:
• He is a loner/loser.
• He may be extremely deceptive or cunning
• He may be suffering from some type of a setback
• He may get some type of sexual gratification from the fire.
• He usually uses available material for starting the fire.
• He may require a drink for courage to set the fire, but rarely is an alcoholic.
• He usually sets fires in areas with good access.
• His fires usually occur in buildings other than his own.
• He usually follows some type of activity pattern, i.e., setting numerous fires in the general area.
• He may not stay at the incident.
• He may travel aimlessly to avoid detection.
• He may even continue to set fires during incarceration.
Pyromania occurs in both sexes. Some of the characteristics/traits found in a female pyromaniac:
• She usually sets fires near her home.

• Her fires often are set in daylight hours.
• She usually sets small fires.
• She seldom uses an accelerant.
• She may not stay at the incident.
When apprehending and interviewing a pyromaniac, do not try to bluff the suspect. Avoid verbal abuse
and scare tactics. The suspect is seldom aggressive and often there is a need to confess. A religious or
moral interview approach may help. Help him/her realize the need for Professional help. Going back
several years when questioning may reveal other fires. Attempt to get admission on one fire, and then
work on others.
Crime Concealment
In this motive arson is used to conceal other crimes. In all circumstances where a fire may have been set
to cover a crime, efforts must be made to protect the scene.
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When books or records are destroyed, the arsonist usually wants to cover up shortages of stocks,
materials, cash, etc. Burglars may use arson to destroy evidence of forced entry, fingerprints and rifled
drawers. Also, an owner may stage a burglary; this situation is difficult to investigate and requires an
intensive follow-up investigation.
Sometimes fires are set some distance away from the scene of another criminal activity in order to draw
attention away from the crime.
Arson may be used to conceal murder or suicide, or as a means of escape for prisoners or patients under
confinement.
Recently, drug- and gang-related arsons have been increasing rapidly. Fires are set to conceal thefts of
drugs or as revenge for a drug deal gone bad.
Arson for Profit
Fraud is defined as a deception deliberately practiced in order to secure unfair or unlawful gain. There are
two types of arson-for-profit motive: direct and indirect. In direct-gain fires, the fire usually is started for
the collection of insurance moneys. Some of the more common reasons for direct fraud fires are:
• Economic conditions: unemployment causing the inability to meet mortgage and other payments;
embarrassment among family or friends; inability to sell the property; condemnation proceedings levied
against the building; estate or divorce/annulment settlement (disagreement over who gets what; money is
easier to divide than property).
• Business problems: business failure or recession; completion of a season or contract; canceled orders;
merchandise obsolete; a large inventory with no market; increasing business and the building is too small;
a desire to redecorate; a lack of stock; partners who disagree; outstanding accounts; dissatisfaction with
the location; changes in traffic patterns; desire to break a lease; a desire to retire; disappointing profits;
and loss of insurance coverage.
• Vehicle profit fires: usually associated with mechanical problems; the vehicle is a; lemon; trade-in value
below the amount owed; or insurance value above trade or sale value.
• Earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes: insurance premiums are expensive, with high deductibles; fire may
be the best alternative.
Arson for indirect profit includes those fires where the insured usually is innocent, while the firesetter
benefits either directly or indirectly. These reasons include:
• Contracts: contractor seeking to make repairs; public adjuster (an independent contractor hired by the
insured who works for a percentage of the claim) seeking contract; salvage dealer seeking a contract; or
mortgage holder needing cash.
• Business: individual seeking employment; business competition; tenant fires; or landlord fires.
Arson for profit fires that can be associated with both direct and indirect gain Include
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• Organized crime: the fire may be used for extortion, intimidation, elimination of competition, or
insurance fraud.
• Welfare fraud: individual desires new or different housing; victim moves to the top of waiting list or
receives assistance from various agencies: Red Cross, Salvation Army, etc. Occasionally an individual
receives additional money, food stamps, or clothing for the inconvenience of the fire.
• Insurance coverage: the amount of insurance is relative to the needs of the firesetter. Fraud can be used
in both increased and decreased insurance coverage. An increase usually is a direct gain, whereas a
decrease may remove suspicion.
Investigators must use caution when accepting property/content loss estimates from the fire department
incident reports.
Civil Disorder, Revolution, and Political Activities
There has been an increase in acts of disturbance and terrorism being committed by groups of people
seeking attention for their cause or beliefs. This type of arson/bombing has been found generally in urban
areas. In these cases, fire often is used as a weapon. It produces destruction of property and creates an
illusion that a large group of people is involved in the firesetting/bombing. These incidents are difficult to
pursue, since the individuals/groups may travel from town to town. State to State, in carrying out their
actions.
Fire/Bombing is often used as a show of power. These incidents may occur in labor disputes, political
terrorism, or as an act of intimidation of the public and/or opponents.
Often this motive can relate to other motives, such as spite/revenge, fraud, and crime concealment. The
"credit" for the fire/bombing may not be taken by the responsible party, but by others seeking attention.
Also, patterns can develop in these types of fires.
Vanity
There are basically two types of vanity fires. "Profit vanity" fires may be a form of indirect fraud. For
example, a security guard or watchman may set one or more fires to secure a raise in pay, or an "on-call"
firefighter may seek to secure his/her job position by setting and then extinguishing fires. Or, someone
may set a fire to convince the business to hire him/her.
"Hero vanity" fires are incidents which many believe to be closely related to some form of pyromania.
This would include a fire set by an individual who seeks attention by finding and extinguishing the fire.
Actions of Juveniles
Juveniles often are involved in many different types of fire setting. Between the ages of 4 and 12 both
boys and girls often are naturally curious about fire. This curiosity does not have any criminal intent. If
the child's intent was not to set fire to the building and/or if the act was intended as playing or
experimenting with fire, then the incident should be listed as an accidental fire, not incendiary
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As noted above, the most common motive associated with fires set by 4 to 12- year-old juveniles is
curiosity. However, some are motivated by revenge and others are attempts to cover up a crime. Crime
cover ups usually are attempted by juveniles who are over 8 years old, and may be related to vandalism
and influenced by television.
When fires are set by juveniles between the ages of 12 and 16 years, intent should be a primary
consideration. Common motives for this age group include revenge (predominant in this age group, since
fire may be the only weapon), profit (hired by landlords or property owners), pyromania (often confused
with vandalism) and crime concealment (possible gang affiliation; usually involves vandalism).
Juvenile firesetters between the ages of 16 and 18 are most commonly motivated by revenge (often
between rival gangs), profit (the "amateur torch"), pyromania, crime concealment (usually vandalism or
burglary), or vanity (seeking notoriety)
Investigating fires set by juveniles requires identifying the method(s) used to set the fire, evaluating the
availability of fuels and matches, and checking the youth's experience with fire. The time element may be
critical—juveniles' fires often are set after school hours, on holidays or weekends, or during vacations.
Typical locations include outbuildings, vacant occupancies, schools, under beds, closets, under porches,
or other hidden places. Remember that firefighting operations (noise, lights, sirens, etc.) often fascinate
children, especially young boys. Be aware of recurring problems in a certain geographic area.
Clues that may assist you in identifying a suspect are abnormal behavior, such as a child who shows little
or no interest in the fire. If a child appears scared or shy, this can be a fear of detection, not a fear of the
fire. A child who appears brave or fearless may be getting a kick out of the fire or may just be a loudmouth.
The investigator's responsibilities include following local policy regarding juveniles, proving intent
(remember lack of intent removes the act of arson), and obtaining professional assistance for the juvenile
and, possibly, the family.
Remember when dealing with juvenile firesetters that they have the same rights as adults. However, local
statutes may vary and it is imperative that you follow established legal policies and procedures regarding
juveniles.
When asking questions, use simple, understandable words. Remember that you are bigger than the child,
so remain seated. In order not to cause intimidation avoid any verbal abuse or scare tactics, and gain
assistance from parents if possible. It is always good to listen to the juvenile's story, then ask questions.
Don't underestimate their intelligence.
Criminal Liability Theories Related to Arson
Attempt: An attempt occurs when a "substantial step" is taken toward the completion of a specific crime.
A robbery is an attempt if there is no money in the cash drawer because there is no "taking" of property
by force or fear.
Conspiracy: A conspiracy to commit a crime occurs when two or more persons "agree" to commit a crime
and there is at least one "overt act in furtherance" of the planned crime. The existence of the conspiratorial
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agreement generally is established by circumstantial evidence. The overt act in furtherance of a conspiracy
may be entirely legal in itself. An example of this would be the buying of gasoline with the intent to use
it as an accelerant. Statements made by a coconspirator during the course of and in furtherance of the
conspiracy are admissible evidence as an exception to the hearsay rule of evidence.
Criminal Intent
Arson is a "general intent" crime. Proving any crime requires evidence of both a criminal intent and of
an act. The essence of the crime of arson is an incendiary and, therefore willful, burning of property. A
willful setting fire to or burning would be such an act consciously and intentionally, as distinguished from
accidentally, involuntarily, or negligently done, and implies that the act must be done knowingly and
according to a purpose.
Burdens of Proof
In a criminal case the government, at all times, bears the burden of proof and must prove every element
of each offense charged "beyond a reasonable doubt."
Search or Seizure
A search or seizure, which is made under the authority of a warrant, is presumed to be constitutional
during any court proceedings. A search or seizure, which is made other than by search warrant, i.e.,
under an "exception" to the warrant clause, is presumed to be unconstitutional.
Plain View Exception
One of the most important exceptions to the warrant clause is the exception recognized by the Court for
seizure of evidence in plain view. A constitutionally valid seizure of evidence can be made when an
officer is present lawfully, observes in plain view an obviously incriminating item, and the officer also
has a lawful right of access to that item.
Involuntary or Coerced Statements
"To assess whether a confession is the result of coercion, we consider the totality of the circumstances,
including whether the police administered the Miranda warnings, the place of interrogation, the duration
of questioning, whether the questioning was continuous, and the defendant's maturity, education, physical
condition, and mental health."
Deception
There is a possible trend in State courts to find that some police misrepresentations to suspects during
interrogation may constitute a form of coercion. Police deception, which proximately causes a confession,
may be unconstitutional on State grounds.
On-the-Scene Statement
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Statements made without "custody" are admissible without Miranda warnings. Information obtained in
general on-the-scene questioning is admissible only with a "voluntariness" showing.
Juvenile Interrogation
Courts consider juveniles incapable of giving a valid Miranda waiver without first consulting with a
lawyer or parent. The totality of the circumstances test generally is employed and takes into account
variables such as the suspect's age, prior contact with law enforcement, education, mental and physical
condition, and the circumstances of the interrogation.
Expert Testimony
An expert is someone who, by virtue of special training, skill, or experience, may be of help to the jury
in understanding the evidence presented.
The trial court makes the determination of whether sufficient training, experience, or skill has been
demonstrated by the witness to allow testimony as an expert and whether the evidence establishes a need
for expert testimony.
If the witness is allowed to testify as an expert, he or she can testify as to his/her opinion on technical
matters or interpretation of facts but is not allowed to offer an opinion on ultimate issues such as the
defendant's guilt.
Student Assignment
Download Republic 9514
An Act Establishing a Comprehensive Fire Code of The Philippines, Repealing PD No. 1185 and for other
purposes
STUDY QUIZ IN FIRE TECHNOLOGY and INVESTIGATION
Name:_______________________Schedule:_______________________Date:_____________
NOTE: This is a take out quiz to be answered in the library or any place where the student can answer the questions
correctly. This study quiz is designed to let the students study the subject in preparation for the major exam.
1. What is the upper section of an extension ladder?

A. top C. fly
B. butt D. extension
2. Which of the following is a strong oxidizing organic compound which releases oxygen readily?
A. organic peroxide C. corrosive liquid
B. blasting agent D. combustible fiber
3. What is the enclosed space of passage that extends from floor to floor as well as from the base to the top of the
building?
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A. vertical shaft C. standpipe

B. sprinkler system D. flash point
4. What is known as the Fire Code of the Philippines?
A. Presidential Decree No 448
B. Presidential Decree No 1184
C. Presidential decree No 421
D. Presidential Decree No 1185
5. A fire hydrant should be carefully opened when in use in order to:
A. reduce vibration of the hydrant
B. ensure that the drip valve is all the way closed
C. prevent water hammer
D. close the coupling
6. This phase of fire operations is equivalent to the “reconnaissance” phase of military operations.
A. salvage C. protection of exposure
B. overhaul D. size- up
7. What is a piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in an electrical system?
A. magnet C. brace
B. jumper D. wire
8. Conduction is heat transfer through:
A. solid materials C. electromagnetic waves
B. smoke D. air motion
9. The most common motive for arson is
A. jealousy C. profit
B. spite D. revenge
10. What would smoke emanating from a building indicate?
A. presence of humid substance
B. Flying ash
C. presence of phosphorus
D. presence of nitrates
11. Heat is transferred by light rays through the method of:
A. conduction C. oxidation
B. convection D. radiation
12. What is the process of raising the temperature to separate the nonvolatile from the less volatile parts and then
cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to produce a nearly purified substance?
A. combustion C. evaporation
B. distillation D. condensation
13. What is the minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in sufficient concentration to form an
ignitable mixture with air?
A. evaporating point C. boiling point
B. ignition point D. flash point
14. Which of the following is “prima facie” existence of arson?
A. inflammable substance found in the premises
B. simultaneous fire in more than one part of the building
C. building insurance
D. any of these
15. Fire can leapfrog across wide malls and shopping centers through electromagnetic waves. This heat transfer
is:
A. conduction C. combustion
B. radiation D. convection
16. What is the material which produces and liberates its own oxygen when heated?
A. radiation C. conductor
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B. oxidizing agent D. vapor

17. What is a vertical panel of noncombustible or fire resistant materials attached to and extending below the
bottom chord of roof trusses to divide the underside of the roof into separate compartments so that heat and smoke
will be directed upwards to a roof vent?
A. fire door C. fire trap
B. electric arc D. curtain board
18. What is referred to as partial distillation and electrolysis?
A. fulminating C. smelting
B. refining D. oxidizing
19. What kind of toxicological analysis are routinely carried out for fire deaths?
A. Drug test
B. Body organ fluids
C. Carbon monoxide and alcohol
D. Neuro- psychiatric exam
20. What is the instrument used to open and close a fire hydrant?
A. hydrant key C. key board
B. fire hose D. jumper
21. If fire occurs in a flow of liquefied petroleum gas storage tank and the flow cannot be checked, the safest
practice is to
A. use foam to put off the fire
B. permit the fire to burn itself
C. use fog to extinguish the fire
D. use sand to smother the flame
22. How many percent of air is needed to sustain combustion?
A. 20 C. 30
B. 10 D. 15
23. What equipment is made of trussed or solid beam where rungs are connected horizontally to the beam forming
ascent or descent?
A. rope C. hydrant
B. ladder D. nozzle
24. What are the cross numbers between the beam and used in climbing the ladder called?
A. hangar C. beams
B. rungs D. braces
25. What is the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure?
A. vapor density C. fire point
B. boiling point D. vapor pressure
26. What is an act which removes or neutralizes a fire hazard?
A. distillation C. allotment
B. abatement D. combustion
27. The ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.
A. vapor density C. specific gravity
B. molecular weight D. vapor pressure
28. During a conflagration, the smoke emitted is grayish, what does it indicate?
A. presence of nitrate
B. indicate humid substance
C. loosely packed substance such as straw and hay
D. presence of phosphorus
29. It is the heat transfer through solid materials such as steel beams, metal conduits and ducts.
A. conduction C. radiation
B. combustion D. convection
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30. The transfer of heat from one material to another by direct contact is called _______________.
A. oxidation C. convection
B. conduction D. radiation
31. Aware of the common modus operandi of arson cases in our midst, which of the following facilities should
you check?
A. Electric switch system B. Gift-wrapped packages
B. All of these D. Telephones
32. What should the firefighter do when ventilating a peaked roof?
A. Make openings at right angles to ridge pole
B. Make openings on ridge pole on windward side of the roof
C. Rip off roof covering on lee side and cut sheathing
D. Make opening on windward side of the roof peak
33. What is the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules?
A. Ignition point C. Temperature
B. Flash point D. Boiling point
34. To cut a hole in the concrete floor for a cellar type, the cutting operation should start ____________.
A. At the thickest point of the concrete flooring
B. In the center of the concrete flooring between the floor beams
C. Close to the floor beams
D. None of these
35. What is a material that easily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to stimulate or support combustion?
A. Smoke C. carbon
B. oxidizing material D. ember
36. The cause of the majority of fire deaths is ________.
A. Infection C. shock
B. burns D. asphyxiation
37. In a combustion process, which event comes first?
A. fire point C. none of these
B. ignition temperature D. flash point
38. What kind of gas exists solely in the gaseous state under pressure and at normal atmospheric temperature
inside its container?
A. cryogenic gas C. liquefied gas
B. compressed gas D. nuclear gas
39. What moves rapidly by convection and can spread laterally along the ceiling?
A. heat C. smoke
B. fire D. temperature
40. The lowest section of an extension ladder is known as:
A. heel C. butt
B. bed ladder D. fly ladder
41. Which of the following restrict the spread of fire to the point of origin or at least to the area involved?
A. extinguishments C. suppression
B. confinement D. control
42. The technique used in clearing a building of smoke and with the use of smoke ejector is called as what?
A. smoke ejector C. forced ventilation
B. horizontal ventilation D. vertical
43. The clearing of smoke and heated gases at the highest point of the roof is referred to as:
A. vertical ventilation C. cross ventilation
B. forced ventilation D. horizontal ventilation
44. Which of the following occur when a room is heated enough that flame sweep over the entire surface?
A. oxidation C. flash over
B. back draft D. combustion
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45. The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw or consumes electrical current beyond the
designed capacity of the existing electrical system.
A. self- closing door C. jumper
B. overloading D. oxidizing material
46. One of the following is exempted from paying 0.01% of the assessed value of a building.
A. single family dwellings C. department store
B. hospitals D. schools
47. An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor, as well as from the base to the top of
the building.
A. sprinkler system C. vertical shaft
B. flash point D. standpipe system
48. A wall designed to prevent the spread of fire, having a fire resistance rating of not less than four hours with
sufficient structural stability to remain standing even if construction on either side collapses under fire condition:
A. firewood C. post wall
B. fire wall D. fire trap
49. Passage way from one building to another or through or around a wall in appropriately the same floor level.
A. smelting C. fulminate
B. vestibule D. horizontal exit
50. If a high wind has an extinguishing effect on a fire, the most probable extinguishing method is:
A. smothering C. fuel removal
B. cooling D. dilution
51. In cutting a roof to ventilate, the fire fighter should avoid _______.
A. cutting a very large hole
B. cutting several small holes
C. cutting roof boards near the beam
D. making openings over the fire
52. Which of these statements is TRUE?
A. Radiation is heat transfer through combustion
B. Radiation is heat transfer through solid materials
C. Radiation is heat transfer through air motion
D. Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
53. Which causes the greatest number of fire?
A. spontaneous combustion C. electrical wiring
B. leaking gas pipes D. smoking and matches
54. When heat is transmitted in circulating medium, the method is called___________.

A. radiation C. oxidation
B. convection D. conduction
55. Which of the following doe NOT fall under class A fires?
A. none of these C. burning nipa hut
B. exploding gas depot D. forest fire
56. Which of the following best illustrate arson?
A. simultaneous fire C. faulty electric wiring
B. unexplained explosion D. thick reddish smoke
57. There is an increased quantity of carbon monoxide produced when fuel is burned in limited supply of oxygen
because ________.
A. carbon reacts with carbon monoxide
B. carbon reacts with carbon dioxide
C. carbon monoxide is an effective reducing agent
D. greater oxidation takes place
58. Why water is prohibited to quench Class D fires?
99
A. burning metals are too hot

B. water is not capable of extinguishing the fire
C. there is the danger of electrocution
D. explosion may occur
59. Mechanical device strategically located in an installation or street where fire hose is connected so that water
with pressure will be available to extinguish fire.
A. fire hose box C. fire truck
B. hose reel D. fire hydrant
60. Which of the following is considered as the most effective fixed installation for controlling fire which will
discharge water into incipient fire from heads located near the ceiling?
A. fire hydrant C. standpipe
B. automatic water sprinkler D. fire extinguisher
61. These are fires which are caused by flammable liquids like kerosene, gasoline, alcohol, etc.
A. Class D C. Class A
B. Class C D. Class B
62. When firemen are working at the nozzle of a hose they usually lean forward on the hose. What is the most
likely reason for taking this position?
A. The stream is projected farther
B. The surrounding air is cool making the firemen comfortable
C. A backward force is developed which must be counter acted
D. The firemen can see better where the stream strikes
63. What is the most common excuse by a fire prober when no evidence is found?
A. lack of witnesses C. electrical wiring
B. no evidence D. no determination
64. What is the most common motive in burning cars?
A. household grabbles C. financial difficulties
B. political ideology D. concealment of crime
65. The vehicle is the “extension” of the owner’s house. Is the intentional burning of a car by another constitute
arson?
A. no C. it depends
B. yes D. sometimes
66. If arson is only the means of killing the victim, the crime that you have to file is:
A. arson with murder C. murder
B. arson D. murder with arson
67. Is the existence of two fires involving the same building with insurance and with the same owner constitute
arson?
A. yes C. no
B. sometimes D. it depends
68. After the fire fighting operation and fire out has been declared, what is the first thing that a fire prober must
determine?
A. look for survivors C. established corpus delicti
B. locate the point of origin D. search for debris
69. What is the most effective cooling agent for fire fighting operation?
A. CO2 C. dry powder
B. H20 D. NaCl
70. What is the most important element of fire?
A. heat C. oxygen
B. fuel D. none of these
71. If the cause of fire is accidental in nature, does it constitute prima facie of arson?
A. no C. it depends
B. maybe D. sometimes
100
72. What is the process of thermal decomposition of solid materials through the action of heat?
A. sublimation C. flashover
B. pyrolosis D. kindling temperature
73. Why water should be avoided to quench Class C fires?
A. Water is not capable of extinguishing the fire
B. Water will spread the fire
C. Explosion may occur
D. Danger of electrocution
74. In structural fire fighting, what is the method used for clearing the building of smoke and gases to facilitate
the operation?
A. ventilation C. salvage
B. exposures D. overhaul
75. What do you call to the part of an extension ladder that touches the ground?
A. rung C. bed ladder
B. butt D. heel
76. What is a portable metal device used to put out fires of limited size?
A. fire hose C. fire extinguisher
B. fire hydrant D. fire truck
77. Unrelated fire in different places of the same structure is an indication of:
A. accidental fire C. arson
B. consummated fire D. explosion
78. What type of ladder is best suited for fire fighting operation involving high-rise building?
A. attic C. extension
B. aerial D. hook
79. In order for arson to be deemed committed by a syndicate, how many person must be involved?
A. 1 C. 2
B. 3 D. 4
80. Carbon dioxide is hazardous because it:
A. is poisonous
B. explodes when ignited by spark
C. does not support life
D. supports combustion
81. What is a normally open device installed inside an air duct system which automatically closes to restrict the
passage of smoke or fire?
A. fire exit C. fire trap
B. damper D. fire alarm
82. Before attacking a fire in a closed building, it is necessary to determine whether ventilating is necessary and if
so, the method to ventilate. Which is of LEAST value in making such decision?
A. Observing density of smoke through windows
B. Observing the points at which smoke may be oozing out from the building
C. Feeling walls and roofs for hot spots
D. Observing the color of the flame
References:
DeHaan, John D. Kirk's Fire Investigation, 3rd ed. New Jersey: Brady Publishing
Co., 1991.
Fiire, Frank. "Plastics and Fire Investigations." Fire Engineering, Jan. 1985.
101
Lentini, John J. "Baseline Characteristics of Residential Structures Which Have Burned to Completion:
The Oakland Experience." Fire Technology, Aug. 1992.
Munger, James G. "Spalling and Determination of Origin and Cause." Fire Engineering, Apr. 1991.
Baner,PaulB. Manual on Satanism. South Carolina Criminal Justice Academy, 1988.
Bates, Edward B. Elements of Fire and Arson Investigation. Santa Cruz: Davis Publishing Co., Inc.,
1975.
Carter, Robert E. Arson Investigation. Encino: Glencoe Publishing Co., 1978.
http://www.uh.edu/admin/srmd/fireclasses.html
http://www.howstuffworks.com/fire-extinguisher.htm
Megalinks in Criminal Justice O'Connor, T. (2012). "Arson and Explosions," MegaLinks in Criminal
Justice. Retrieved from http://www.drtomoconnor.com/3210/3210lect05.htm.
102

CDI 6 Course Outline Fire Technology Arson Investigation

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Compilations in Fire Technology and Arson Investigation 2017

The Technology of Fire

Chemistry and behavior of Fire

paper, the paper starts to turn brown, and vapors

Ignition Temperature and Ignition Energy

Heat transfer is a common topic in most fire

Heat can travel throughout a burning building

Heat may be conducted from one body to

Liquids and gases are poor conductors of

Convection is the transfer of heat by the

The warmth of the sun is felt soon after it

The following list of definitions might be helpful:

Molecules are closely packed

Molecules are loosely packed.

Molecules are free to move.

Liquids have two other

General Categories of Fuel

Common Solid Fuels

A. Bulky B. Finely Divided C. Dust

1. Coal 1. Plastic 1. Saw dust

Common Liquid Fuels

1. Gasoline 8. Lacquer 5. Cod liver oil

Common Gas Fuels

1. Natural gas 4. Hydrogen

Understanding the Factors Affecting Burning Process

The fire growth rate is controlled by:

(Equilibrium = fuel wetness vs. humidity)

 Dry fuels burn readily

 A fuel must be present in a suitable condition to be ignited.

Thermal properties of Fuels

Heat release rate

Item Approx. Power Usage/Peak Heat Release Rate

COMBUSTION PRODUCTS AND SOME OF THEIR EFFECTS

o Reddish – brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, hydrochloric acid, etc.

o Blue smoke- burning alcohol

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLAMES:

According to burning fuel and air mixture

Color of the Flame

When a fuel burns there are four products of combustion:

Incipient Phase (Growth Stage)

Free-Burning Phase (Fully Developed Stage)

The second phase of burning encompasses all of the free-burning

Smoldering Phase (Decay Stage)

Factors to determine the intensity of fire

B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture.

The most common type of free-radicals:

FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

Dangerous Behavior of Fire

Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:

Accidental Fire Causes

The Causes of Fire

Determining Origin and Cause

Classifications of Fire Cause

Physical Examination of the Fire Scene

a. Step #1 – recognizing the problem

1. Where any people or vehicles observed in the vicinity?

6. Were any unusual odors noticed?

1. Where is the greatest exterior damage?

1. Does the fire spread appear natural?

Lines or Area of Demarcation

1. Rate and duration of heating

2. Different expansion between reinforcing material and the surroundings concrete .