FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR CURVED

EMBEDDED REINFORCEMENT
By Alaa E. Elwi 1 and Terry M. Hrudey, 2 Members, ASCE

ABSTRACT: The geometric relations required for an embedded finite element rep-
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resentation of generally curved reinforcing bars or prestressing tendons are devel-

oped. For practical reasons, the reinforcing layers are described in global coor-
dinates, independently of the finite element mesh. An inverse mapping procedure
is developed to transform global coordinates of points on the reinforcement layer
into local natural coordinates in the parent element. The strain field in the layer
is discussed, including a bond slip model. The principle of virtual work is used
to derive the various element matrices. The procedure is successfully tested, using
both regular and irregular meshes, on three test problems: a uniform strain field,
and two versions of a quarter ring under external pressure.

INTRODUCTION

Finite element analysis methods for reinforced concrete structures have

developed to a relatively advanced level with regard to constitutive model-
ing, representation of bond behavior, and various other important aspects.
However, the problem remains that in certain instances, e.g., smeared rep-
resentations of cracks, the results of a finite element analysis, and even the
constitutive model itself, may be strongly mesh-dependent. This must be
recognized when choosing a mesh, and in fact, it should be the primary
consideration. For this and other reasons, meshes with a high degree of regu-
larity are favored. Countering this are constraints on the choice of mesh that
arise from the modeling of reinforcement. In order to achieve the advantages
of a regular mesh, and at the same time model complicated reinforcing de-
tails, an embedded representation of reinforcement appears to be the desir-
able approach. Even so, present embedded reinforcement models, when ap-
plied to problems with curved or draped reinforcement and prestressing cables,
impose significant constraints on the selection of the overall mesh. A need
exists, therefore, for a curved embedded representation of reinforcement that
allows the choice of mesh to be somewhat independent of the reinforcement
geometry and location.
Over the past decade, a number of embedded representations for rein-
forcement have been published. Phillips and Zienkiewicz (1975) and Elwi
and Murray (1980) separately developed embedded representations in which
the virtual work integration is performed along the reinforcing layer and the
reinforcement is aligned with one of the local isoparametric element coor-
dinate axes (Fig. 1). In these representations, the mesh need not be recti-
linear. This is useful when analyzing structures with curved walls of constant
thickness and regular reinforcement.
'Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Can-
ada,
2
T6G 2G7.
Prof., Dept. of Civ. Ehgrg., Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G
2G7.
Note. Discussion open until September 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The
manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on Jan-
uary 19, 1988. This paper is part of the Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol.
115, No. 4, April, 1989. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9399/89/0004-0740/$1.00 + $.15
per page. Paper No. 23331.
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 Parent element
(x,y)
v
- f(l,D
- i &*£
-V- Const.
(-1,-1)4-•
- £ = Const.
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FIG. 1. Embedded Reinforcement along Local Coordinate Lines

Embedded representations that allow for a layer placed at an angle to the

local isoparametric element axes have been restricted to problems having
straight reinforcing layers and rectilinear meshes. Examples include the model
incorporated in the program ABAQUS (1983) and that recently published
by Chang et al. (1987).
Pinto (1982) reported a limited formulation of a generally oriented and
curved embedded reinforcement element. However, the description of the
reinforcing layer is assumed known in the local isoparametric space. In gen-
eral, this is not the case. For example, if the reinforcing layer follows an
element boundary, then its locus in local isoparametric space is known. If,
however, the layer follows some arbitrary curve across the element, the locus
in the unmapped element is not readily available.
In this paper, a formulation is presented for a fully general reinforcing or
prestressing layer embedded in a high-order, two-dimensional element. The
layer is described in global coordinates, independently of the mesh. During
the virtual work integration, the locus of the reinforcing layer in the un-
mapped element is required, and two algorithms are described for this pur-
pose. The effects of bond slip are included by introducing bond slip degrees
of freedom.

GEOMETRIC FORMULATION

The parent element, shown in Fig. 2, is described using global coordinates

(x,y). The local natural coordinates of the element are (£,T|). Following the
usual procedure for isoparametric mapping, the global coordinates of any
point in the element are expressed in terms of the vector of displacement
interpolation functions {()>} as
x = <*>{*} : (1)

V JI

Layer node G*,V*)

Layer node

FIG. 2. Arbitrary Curved Embedded Reinforcement

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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 yn
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- •

FIG. 3. Coordinates along Reinforcing Layer

y = <A>M (2)

and the corresponding differentials are

dx] rJd(\
(3)
= [J]
dy dr\
where

<X)\
[J] = (4)
(y)\ 3 | a-n.
An important advantage of the present formulation is that the global mesh
may be established without giving particular consideration to the location
and geometry of the reinforcing layer. Thus, the benefits arising from a regu-
lar mesh are not compromised by the presence of the reinforcing layer. Once
the parent element mesh has been created, the reinforcing layer may be spec-
ified by locating a set of layer nodes. To ensure appropriate interelement
continuity, layer nodes are required at points where the reinforcement crosses
parent element boundaries. The coordinates of points on the reinforcing layer,
but between layer nodes, are obtained by interpolation. Thus, if the layer is
curved, additional layer nodes are required within the parent element. Let-
ting {x*} and {y*} be vectors containing the global coordinates of all the
layer nodes associated with a single parent element, the coordinates of any
other point on the layer are then given by

<«»| > 0 {x*}

(5)
0 M b*}
The one-dimensional interpolation functions (i|») are expressed in terms of an
independent normalized coordinate £. The degree of these functions, and
thus the number of layer nodes, will, in practice, depend on the complexity
of the layer geometry and the accuracy with which one wishes to represent
it.
The various stiffness terms associated with the reinforcing layer and bond
slip require that integrations be performed along the layer. A differential
element of length ds, along the layer, is needed, and it may be obtained
from Eq. 5. Referring to Fig. 3, the orientation of the tangent to the layer
is given by the angle p , for which

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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 dx dy\
(cos P, sin p) (6)
ds ds/
Since cos2p + sin2|3 = 1, it follows that
ds
(7)
di V \dU \di
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in which
(dx/dti {x*}
: (8)
[dy/dij o <#M> {y*}
Thus the direction cosines of the tangent at any point along the layer, as
well as the mapping factor ds/d\, may be easily evaluated using Eqs. 5-8.
A differential element of volume dVs and a differential element of surface
area dSs of the reinforcing layer can be expressed in terms of ds, the element
width t, the cross-section area of the layer per unit thickness As, and the
perimeter of the layer per unit thickness Os. This gives
dVs = tAsds • (9)

dSs = tOsds (10)

Making use of the mapping factor described by Eq. 7, integrations involving
elements of volume and surface area along the layer can be written in terms
of the natural coordinate £ as
ds\
CdV, = (11)

ds\
DdS, = DtA,OA-jdi (12)

in which C and D = some functions of position along the layer.

INVERSE MAPPING FOR LOCAL LAYER COORDINATES

In the present formulation for a general reinforcing layer, the layer ge-
ometry is defined by the location of the layer nodes. To perform the inte-
gration for the incremental internal virtual work in the reinforcing layer, it
is necessary to determine the strain in the parent element for points on the
reinforcing layer. Thus, for a point on the layer with global coordinates (x,y),
one must be able to determine the associated local coordinates (%,i\) in the
parent element. The mapping between the local and global coordinates is
given in the usual form for isoparametric elements as
0
(13)
0

The explicit form of the inverse relationship is, in general, not easily found.
Instead, the inverse mapping must be done numerically. Two algorithms for
this purpose are presented.
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 T) P

n P i
(%pfVpi .
p»yp) -*•£
o
(x 0 »y 0 )
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FIG. 4. Integration Path

Integration Method
The first procedure involves a line integration in the (£,T]) space. The
integration starts at any point O for which the local coordinates (x0,y0) are
known, and ends at the point P for which the global coordinates (xp,yp) are
known, and the local coordinates (^,T|P) are to be found. For convenience,
point O is taken to be the point mapped from the origin of the local natural
coordinate system (Fig. 4). Assuming that the mapping from (xp,xp) to (£,,,%)
exists and is unique, the choice of the integration path from O to P is ar-
bitrary. A convenient choice is a straight line joining O and P. Letting S be
a normalized distance along this line, with S = 0 at O and S = 1 at P, the
path C can be expressed in parametric form as
(I4)
teR:K:=;:}
Thus, along the curve C
15
ft} =
However, since
fe:;:}- <>
(16
£} - "^'"l*} »
it follows that on curve C
0 <17)
ftJ-^'-fc:*} --
or equivalently

{SH«>-'{r:} • <'*>
Eq. 18 is a system of two first-order ordinary differential equations. Treating
this system as an initial value problem with the initial condition

, °] 09)
and integrating from S = 0 to S = 1 allows the coordinates (%p,r\p) to be
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 found. Any of the standard algorithms for integration of initial value prob-
lems, e.g., the Runge-Kutta schemes, may be used.

Iterative Method
An alternative approach for determining the coordinates (%,,f\p) is based
on the fact that they are the roots of the vector function
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{/(^)} = r p o <<!>>_ 8 «*>

The roots may be found using a Newton-Raphson iterative scheme from
which the solution, after n + 1 iterations, is given by
e
I^J P ,fW?
I^J
D t )iLAif ™
where
n+l
[j,r
tv =- <4>">
o
o
(V) S' ™
with [J"] = [J(f ,T|")]; and (cf)") = <cj>(f ,T)")>- NO difficulty has been en-
countered with regard to convergence. It is expected that as long as one
follows accepted guidelines regarding distortion of the parent element, the
Jacobian matrix will be well conditioned, and there should be no problem
with convergence. In this study, the iterative scheme was adopted since it
is the simpler and more straightforward of the two approaches.

STRAIN FIELD

The strain field within a reinforced element has been defined differently
by various investigators. In compatible formulations (Elwi and Murray 1980;
Philips and Zienkiewicz 1975), the strain along the layer is taken to be equal
to the normal strain in the parent element in the direction tangent to the layer.
Thus
6j = e* cos2p + ty sin2p + 7^ sin p cos @ (23)
In formulations that include bond slip, two approaches have been followed.
Balakrishnan and Murray (1986) assumed the displacement in the direction
tangent to the layer to have the form
w, = wc + wb . . • (24)
where wc is derived from the parent element displacement field, and wb =
the relative displacement or slip. Differentiating with respect to the distance
s along the layer gives the strain as
du dv dwb
e.s = — cos p + — sin (3 + (25)
ds ds ds
This expression is restricted to straight layers, since the curvature terms that
arise when p is a function of s are not present:
Chang et al. (1987) start from Eq. 23, which is more general than Eq.
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 25, and include the bond slip effect in the form of a characteristic length
and effective area (Bazant 1985). However, their formulation is restricted to
straight layers and rectangular elements. With these restrictions, the path of
the layer in the (£,in) space is also a straight line, and the inverse mapping
operation can be done explicitly. If the procedures described in the previous
section are adopted, these restrictions may be removed.
In the only other curved formulation known to the writers (Pinto 1982),
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the parent element displacement field is interpolated to obtain the displace-

ments at the layer nodes. The displacement gradients are then used to obtain
the layer strains according to Eq. 25, neglecting the slip term. This last step
requires interpolation of a gradient field along the layer. If the layer is curved,
this approach gives a strain distribution in the layer that is incompatible with
the strains in the parent element. It may further place restrictions on the
degree of interpolation of the layer.
In the present study, a quite general strain expression is proposed in an
incremental form as
dkwb .
Aes = h Aer cos (3 + Ae„ sin p + A7™ sin p cos p (26)
ds
The strain increments Aex, Aey, and A-y^ are obtained directly from the parent
element displacement increment field. The first term in Eq. 26 represents
the contribution of bond slip. The slip increment along the layer is inter-
polated as
Aw,(0 = MDXAw?} (27)
It follows from Eq. 26 that the incremental strain in the reinforcement can
be expressed as

Ae, = ( W ^ M (28)
where

{Bb} = y {ft} (29)

ds
2
= J cos p{4>J- + cos p Msin fifoj
T wus
W }= I PW.« P " PiW I HO)
cos p sin P{cf>j;t} + sin2p{4>,j,}
and

<*>- ss <"'
VIRTUAL WORK FORMULATION

The formulation presented herein is based on the incremental form of the

principle of virtual work. The assumption is made, with regard to the rein-
forcing layer, that strain occurs only in the direction along the layer.
When the effect of bond slip is included, the incremental internal virtual
work may be written as
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 SAW = (or, + Acrs)SAestfV + (o-» + A<rb)SkwbdS (32)
Jv, Js,
in which cr, and ab = the normal stress in the layer and the bond stress,
respectively; and Vs and Ss = the volume and surface area of the layer. The
respective differentials of the volume and surface area are given by Eqs. 9
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and 10.
The incremental form of the constitutive relations for the layer may be
written as (Balakrishnan and Murray 1986)
ACT, = £sAes (33)
and
Ao-6 = EbAwb (34)
in which Es and Eb = the tangential moduli for the normal stress-strain re-
lation and the bond stress-slip relation, respectively. Using Eqs. 11, 12, 33,
and 34, Eq. 32 is written as

SAW = (SAe^AeA + hAwbOs)tds + (8AescrA + hAwbasOs)tds ... (35)

Substituting for Ae„ Aw6) 8Aes, and bkwb from Eqs. 27 and 28, the incre-
mental internal virtual work may be written in matrix form as

-=H[s
where
SW'H <*>
f ds
[Kbb] = (M£»<«|»>0, + {Bb}Es(Bb)As) -tdi (37)
h «t
f ds
[Kbs] = [Ksbf = {Bb}Es(ps)-Astdi (38)

[KJ = I {BS}ES{BS)^-AM (39)

( ds
{Q„} = ({Bb}<JsAs + {<\>}<rbOs) -tdi (40)
h «t
and
f ds
{&} = {Bs}vsAs -tdi (41)
Ji at
The submatrices [K„], [Kbs], and [Kss] represent stiffness contributions, and
the vectors {Qb} and {Qs} are internal forces associated with the stresses ab
and ov The ^-partitions are associated with the slip degrees of freedom, and
the ^-partitions are associated with the degrees of freedom of the parent ele-
ment. Combining the incremental internal virtual work of the reinforcing
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 layer, including the slip contribution, with that of the parent element gives
the following:
[Kbb] [Kbs] f{Aw*}l
5AWCIem = ((8Awfc*)(8A?»
[Ksb] [K\ 1 {A?} J

(42)
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{&} - {F} ~ {AF}

The vectors {F} and {AF} are body force contributions from the parent ele-
ment. Eqs. 37-41 are similar to those in the development of Balakrishnan
and Murray (1986).
The slip degrees of freedom {Aw*} may be treated as global degrees of
freedom in the sense that those associated with nodes on interelement bound-
aries are shared by more than one element. This approach maintains com-
patibility of slip between adjacent elements. However, these additional global
degrees of freedom have a detrimental effect on the form of the assembled
stiffness matrix in that the bandwidth is increased substantially.

APPLICATIONS

In order to test the validity of the inverse mapping of a layer, two simple
numerical tests were carried out on a patch of four elements and on a quarter

FIG. 5. Square Plate Problem with Straight Reinforcing Layers: (a) Regular Mesh;
(b) Irregular Mesh

Reinforcing layer Reinforcing layer

Pressure Pressure

(a) (b)

FIG. 6. Quarter Ring Problem with One Curved Reinforcing Layer: (a) Regular
Mesh; (b) Irregular Mesh

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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 Reinforcing layer Reinforcing layer

Pressure Pressure
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(a) (b)

FIG. 7. Quarter Ring Problem with Two Curved Reinforcing Layers: (a) Regular
Mesh; (b) Irregular Mesh

O Irregular Mesh, 2 Gauss Points

A Irregular Mesh, 3 Gauss Points
+ Regular Mesh, 2 Gauss Points
X Regular Mesh, 3 Gauss Points

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

X/L

FIG. 8. Steel Stress, Square Plate Problem without Bond Slip

of a thick ring as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. Both tests were

carried out with the reinforcing layers described in natural coordinates and
in global coordinates. The objective was to determine the locations of the
integration points using the two different descriptions of the layer nodes.
The errors in the predicted coordinates were well within the tolerance of
input information in every case. Since the input data had five significant
digits, output error was always in the fifth digit of the Gauss point coor-
dinates. The process was repeated using two-, three-, and four-point Gauss
rules with no change in accuracy.
In order to test the accuracy of the strain field description, the problems
described previously were analyzed, along with a second quarter ring prob-
lem shown in Fig. 7. The latter problem was included since in its irregular
grid form, the trajectory of the reinforcement follows a path in local parent-
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 ^ © >0-3*gX0r> OX O X ) 0 ) 0 ( X O X @
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O Regular Mesh
X Irregular Mesh

30.0 45.0 60.0

ANGLE FROM VERTICAL

FIG. 9. Steel Stress, One-Layer Quarter Ring Problem without Bond Slip

30.0 45.0 60.0

ANGLE FROM VERTICAL

FIG. 10. Steel Stress, One-Layer Quarter Ring Problem with Bond Slip

element coordinates that is other than simply £ or r\ equal to a constant. In

each problem, both regular and irregular grids were used with the bond-slip
degrees of freedom suppressed. In all cases, four layer nodes were used
within each parent element, and the integration along each layer was done
using a four-point Gauss rule. Numerical values used for the various pa-
rameters are as follows: As/L = 0.025, E„/Ec = 8, and v = 0.25.
The errors in the stresses for the straight-line meshes were restricted to
the fifth digit for both regular and irregular meshes. The ring problem with
a regular mesh showed the same behavior. For the irregular mesh, however,
the errors in stress were in the third significant digit with a magnitude of
about 0.16% for most Gauss points. The maximum error observed was for
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

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<£ 0.2-
O ' Outer Layer, Regular Mesh
X Outer Layer, Irregular Mesh
A Inner Layer, Regular Mesh
•+- Inner Layer, Irregular Mesh

—r—'—• T I i— i
15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90.0

ANGLE FROM VERTICAL

FIG. 11. Steel Stress, Two-Layer Quarter Ring Problem without Bond Slip

-zinfe-

O Outer Layer, Regular Mesh

X Outer Layer, Irregular Mesh
A Inner Layer, Regular Mesh
-{- Inner Layer, Irregular Mesh

30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90.0

ANGLE FROM VERTICAL

FIG. 12. Steel Stress, Two-Layer Quarter Ring Problem with Bond Slip

the irregular mesh; it was 2.5%. The stress distribution along the steel layer
for both the regular and irregular meshes for the problems in Figs. 5,6, and
7 are shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 11, respectively. Fig. 8 includes results for
both reinforcing layers.
The two quarter-ring problems were also analyzed with the bond-slip de-
gree of freedom activated using EbL/Es = 0.2667 and Os = 0.45. Figs. 10
and 12 show the stresses in the curved steel layers. The predicted behavior
for both problems is as expected: the steel pushes out of the quarter ring,
and there is a reduction of the layer stress at the edges. Both the regular
and irregular meshes give nearly identical results.

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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 CONCLUSIONS

A formulation for a two-dimensional, generally curved reinforcing layer

embedded in a finite element mesh has been presented. This approach has
the important advantage that the geometry of the reinforcement has virtually
no impact on the choice of gridwork for the parent elements. The procedure
relies in part on an inverse mapping technique to obtain the locus of the
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reinforcing layer in terms of the local natural coordinates of the parent ele-
ment. The tests conducted with this formulation confirm that it is easily
implemented and yields consistent results. The method has practical appli-
cations for problems involving draped reinforcement or prestressing tendons.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported in part by Operating Grants A5877 and A4450
of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES

ABAQUS theory manual. (1983). Hibbett, Karlson, and Sorenson Inc.

Balakrishnan, S., and Murray, D. W. (1986). "Finite element prediction of rein-
forced concrete behaviour." Structural Engineering Report No. 138, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Bazant, Z. P. (1985). "Fracture in concrete and reinforced concrete." Mechanics of
geomaterials, Z. Bazant, ed. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
Chang, T. Y., Taniguchi, H., and Chen, W. F. (1987). "Nonlinear finite element
analysis of reinforced concrete panels." J. Struct. Engrg., 113(1), 122-140.
Elwi, A. E., and Murray, D. W. (1980). "Nonlinear analysis of axisymmetric rein-
forced concrete structures." Structural Engineering Report No. 87, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Phillips, D. V., and Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1976). "Finite element Non-linear anlaysis
of concrete structures." Proc. Instit. Civ. Engrs., Part 2, 61(3), 59-88.
Pinto, S. D. S. (1982). "Adaptacao Ao Programa Nonsap de um Elemento de Ar-
madura para Analise de Estruturas de Concreto Armado," thesis presented to the
Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio de Janeiro, at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (in Por-
tuguese).

APPENDIX II. NOTATION

The following symbols are used in this paper:

As = cross-section area of reinforcing layer per

unit thickness;
{Bb},{Bs} = vectors defined be Eqs. 30 and 3 1 ;
Eb = bond slip stiffness as defined by Eq. 34;
Es = Young's modulus of reinforcing layer;
{F} = load vector due to body forces;
[J] = Jacobian matrix defined by Eq. 4;
[Kbb\,[Ksb\,[Kbs], and [Kss] = partitions of incremental stiffness matrix
defined by Eqs. 37-40;
L = a length defined in Figs. 5 - 7 ;
{Qb},{Q} = vectors defined by Eqs. 41 and 42;

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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 5 = normalized distance parameter along rein-
forcing layer;
Ss — surface area of reinforcing layer;
Vs = volume of reinforcing layer;
W = internal virtual work;
(x,y) = global Cartesian coordinates;
=
fe}>{.y} vectors containing x and y nodal coordi-
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nates for parent element;

p = applied pressure load defined in Figs. 5-7;
{q} = vector of nodal degrees of freedom for par-
ent element;
s = distance along reinforcing layer;
t = parent element thickness;
u,v = displacements in x- and y-directions;
=
{"MY) vectors containing nodal displacements in
x- and y-directions for parent element;
wb = bond slip displacement defined by Eq. 25;
{w*} = vector containing bond slip degrees of
freedom at layer nodes;
wc = displacement in parent element at point ad-
jacent to reinforcing layer and in direction
tangent to layer;
ws = displacement in reinforcing layer in direc-
tion tangent to layer;
(3 = angle between x-axis and tangent to rein-
forcing layer;
7^ = engineering shear strain;
A = prefix denoting an increment due to load
increment;
8 = prefix denoting virtual quantity;
es = normal strain in reinforcing layer in direc-
tion of tangent to layer;
ex,e.y = normal strains in x- and y-directions;
£ = normalized coordinate along reinforcing
layer;
v = Poisson's ratio;
(£,Tl) = normalized local coordinates in parent ele-
ment;
{£*},{T1*} = vectors containing coordinates of reinforc-
ing layer nodes referred to local coordi-
nates of parent element;
0 = perimeter length of reinforcing layer, per
unit thickness;
CT6 = bond slip stress as defined by Eq. 35;
rjj = normal stress in reinforcing layer in direc-
tion of tangent to layer;
{())} = vector containing displacement interpola-
tion functions for parent element;
{41} = vector containing displacement interpola-
tion functions for reinforcing layer;
{ } = column vector;
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J. Eng. Mech., 1989, 115(4): 740-754

 ( ) = row vector;
[ ] = matrix; and
[ ]-1 = inverse of matrix.

Subscripts
b = bond slip quantity;
c = parent element quantity;
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s = reinforcing layer quantity; and

{_} = nodal values of field quantity associated with
parent element.

Superscripts
{ *} = nodal values of field quantity associated with
reinforcing layer.

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