CS-08201 Data Communication & Computer Networks

(Program: BSCS)
Assignment-1
Due Date: 12 th July, 2018 Section: A Total Marks: 10
Note: Assignment must hand written, typed will not be accepted.
Q 1: Explain the following Network Devices in detail:
I. Repeaters
II. Hub
III. Switch
IV. Bridge
V. Router
VI. Gateway
VII FireWall
VIII IDS
Q 2: Explain the concept of Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
I. What are the advantages and disadvantages of circuit switching? How does it compare with packet
switching?
II. Which switching techniques are used in telephone networks? Why?
III. Distinguish between datagram approach and virtual circuit approach of packet switched
networks.
Q3: Explore the guided and unguided media and answer the following questions:
I. How do guided media differ from unguided media?
II. What are three major classes of guided media?
III. What is the function of the twisting in twisted-pair cable?
IV. What is difference between Unshielded and Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable?
V. What are the categories of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable and what are their data rates and
use?
VI. What is difference between RJ 45 (the most common UTP connector) , RJ 11 and BNC
connector?
VII. Define crossover and straight through cables.
VIII. Name the advantages of optical fiber over twisted-pair and coaxial cable.
IX. What is the difference between omnidirectional waves and unidirectional waves?
Helping Link:
Q1. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Network_Plus_Certification/Devices/Common_Devices
http://www.pearsonitcertification.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2434666
Q2. http://www.rfwireless-world.com/Terminology/circuit-switching-vs-packet-switching.html
Q3. http://www.bscshortnote.com/transmission-media-and-their-types/
https://turbofuture.com/misc/Data-Communication
http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=683070
Please find the others links yourself…………………………….
Note: This is an individual assignment.
QUESTION 01#
HUB
Hubs connect computers together in a star topology network. Due to their design, they increase the
chances for collisions. Hubs operate in the physical layer of the OSI model and have no intelligence.
Hubs flood incoming packets to all ports all the time. For this reason, if a network is connected using
hubs, the chances of a collision increases linearly with the number of computers (assuming equal
bandwidth use). Hubs pose a security risk since all packets are flooded to all ports all the time. If a
user has packet sniffing software, they can extract data from the network and potentially decode it
and use it. Hubs make it easy to "spy" on users on the same LAN as you.

REPEATER
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or
higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances
without degradation. Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to
interpret the data being transmitted, they operate on the physical layer, the first layer of the OSI
model. Repeaters are majorly employed in long distance transmission to reduce the effect of
attenuation. It is important to note that repeaters do not amplify the original signal but simply
regenerate it.

SWITCH
Switches are often confused with bridges because they also operate at the data link layer of the OSI
model. Similar to a hub, switches provide a central connection between two or more computers on a
network, but with some intelligence. They provide traffic control for packets; rather than forwarding
data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only to the port on which the destination
system is connected. They use a database of MAC addresses to determine where computers are
located and very efficiently send packets only where they need to go. The database is created
dynamically as computers communicate on the network. The switch simply watches the incoming
packets and memorizes the MAC address and port a packet arrives on. If a packet arrives with a
destination computer that the switch does not have an address for in its MAC address table, it will
flood the packet out all connected ports. A switch creates separate collision domains for each
physical connection. A switch will only create separate broadcast domains if separate VLANs (Virtual
Local Area Networks) are assigned to different ports on the switch. Otherwise, a broadcast received
on one port will be flooded out all ports except the one it came in on.
BRIDGE
Bridges can be identified by the fact that they operate at the data link layer of the OSI model.
Bridges have intelligence and can "bridge" two of their ports together at very high speed. They use a
database of MAC addresses to determine where computers are located and very efficiently send
frames only where they need to go. The database is created dynamically as computers
communicate on the network. A bridge simply watches the incoming frame and memorizes the MAC
address and port a frame arrives on. It uses this information to locate a computer if a packet comes
in that must be forwarded to it. If a frame arrives at the bridge and the bridge does not know where
to send it, the bridge will flood the frame just like a hub does. Bridging is often inaccurately called
switching.
ROUTER
Routers operate at the network layer of the OSI model and efficiently route information
between Local Area Networks. Since routers operate in the third layer, the network layer, they must
understand layer 3 addressing... such as TCP/IP. A router will divide a broadcast domain by not
forwarding broadcasts on one connected network to another connected network. Routers operate in
two different planes: the control plane, in which the router learns the outgoing interface that is most
appropriate for forwarding specific packets to specific destinations, and the forwarding plane, which
is responsible for the actual process of sending a packet received on a logical interface to an
outbound logical interface.
FIREWALL

A firewall is a part of a computer system or network that is designed to block unauthorized access
while permitting outward communication. It is also a device or set of devices configured to permit,
deny, encrypt, decrypt, or proxy all computer traffic between different security domains based upon a
set of rules and other criteria.
Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are
frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected
to the Internet. All messages entering or leaving the Local Area Network pass through the firewall,
which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
Without proper configuration, a firewall can often become worthless. Standard security practices
dictate a "default-deny" firewall ruleset, in which the only network connections which are allowed are
the ones that have been explicitly allowed.
GATEWAY
A device used to connect networks using different protocols so that information can be passed from
one system to another. Gateways are used to connect LANs through to WANS like the Internet; in
order to do this, they must translate the LANs frame into equivalent WAN frame and vice versa, this
is because LANs use a protocol that is different from the protocols used on WANs like the Internet.
Define these and consider where and why they are used. In particular, consider how routing is
achieved across the Internet and how local area networks are connected to the Internet via
gateways.
IDS
An intrusion detection system (IDS) is a device or software application that monitors a network or
systems for malicious activity or policy violations. Any malicious activity or violation is typically
reported either to an administrator or collected centrally using a security information and event
management (SIEM) system. A SIEM system combines outputs from multiple sources, and
uses alarm filtering techniques to distinguish malicious activity from false alarms.

QUESTION 02#
Explain the concept of Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
In circuit switching network dedicated channel has to be established before the call is made between
users. The channel is reserved between the users till the connection is active. For half duplex
communication, one channel is allocated and for full duplex communication, two channels are allocated.
It is mainly used for voice communication requiring real time services without any much delay.
As shown in the figure 1, if user-A wants to use the network; it need to first ask for the request to obtain
the one and then user-A can communicate with user-C. During the connection phase if user-B tries to
call/communicate with user-D or any other user it will get busy signal from the network.

Packet Switching

In packet switching network unlike CS network, it is not required to establish the

connection initially. The connection/channel is available to use by many users.
But when capacity or number of users increases then it will lead to congestion in
the network. Packet switched networks are mainly used for data and voice
applications requiring non-real time scenarios.

As shown in the figure 2, if user-A wants to send data/information to user-C and if

user-B wants to send data to user-D, it is simultaneously possible. Here
information is padded with header which contains addresses of source and
destination. This header is sniffed by intermediate switching nodes to determine
their route and destination.
In packet switching, station breaks long message into packets. Packets are sent
one at a time to the network. Packets are handled in two ways, viz. datagram and
virtual circuit.
In datagram, each packet is treated independently. Packets can take up any
practical route. Packets may arrive out of order and may go missing.

In virtual circuit, preplanned route is established before any packets are

transmitted. The handshake is established using call request and call accept
messages. Here each packet contains virtual circuit identifier(VCI) instead of the
destination address. In this type, routing decisions for each packet are not
needed.

1.advantages and disadvantages of circuit switching? How does it compare with packet switching?

Benefits or advantages of circuit switching

Following are the benefits or advantages of circuit switching type:
➨As there is very less delay for the call to be established and also during the
conversation, the circuit switching network is widely used for realtime voice
services throughtout the world since years. There is almost no waiting time at
voice switches used for the call.
➨It will have realistic voice communication and consecutively speaking persons
are easily identified due to higher sampling rates used.
➨Once the connection is established between two parties, it will be available till
end of the conversation. This guarantees reliable connection in terms of constant
data rate and availability of resources (Bandwidth, channels etc.). Hence it is
used for long distance and long duration calls without any sort of tiredness.
➨No loss of packets or out of order packets here as this is connection oriented
network unlike packet switched network.
➨The forwarding of information is based on time or frequency slot assignments
and hence there is no need to examine the header as in the case of packet
switching network. As there is no header requirement, there is low overhead in
circuit switching network.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of circuit
switching
Following are the disadvantages of circuit switching type:
➨As is it designed for voice traffic, it is not suitable for data transmission.
➨The channels and bandwidth used in the connection are not available till the
convesation or call is broken. Due to this, even if they are not utilized, they can
not be used for any other purpose (e.g. connections). Hence circuit switching is
inefficient in terms of resource utilization (i.e. channels, bandwidth etc.).
Moreover due to this, if there are many users than the available channels, it
leads to dropped calls or calls not being established.
➨The connection requires call setup delay and it is not instantaneous. This
means there is no communication until connection is established and resources
are available.
➨It is more expensive compare to other techniques due to dedicated path
requirement. Consecutively, the call rates are also higher.

COMPARE WITH PAKET SWICHING

Packet Switching(Datagram
Circuit Switching type) Packet Switching(Virtual C

Dedicated path No Dedicated path No Dedicated path

Path is established for entire Route is established for each

conversation packet Route is established for entire c

call setup delay as well as pack

Call setup delay packet transmission delay delay
 Overload increases packet Overload may block call setup
Overload may block call setup delay packet delay

Fixed bandwidth Dynamic bandwidth Dynamic bandwidth

No overhead bits after call setup overhead bits in each packet overhead bits in each packet

2. Which switching techniques are used in telephone networks? Why?

Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunications network in which two network
nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit) through the network before the nodes
may communicate. The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel and remains connected
for the duration of the communication session. The circuit functions as if the nodes were physically
connected as with an electrical circuit.
The defining example of a circuit-switched network is the early analog telephone network. When
a call is made from one telephone to another, switches within the telephone exchanges create a
continuous wire circuit between the two telephones, for as long as the call lasts.
Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching, which divides the data to be transmitted
into packets transmitted through the network independently. In packet switching, instead of being
dedicated to one communication session at a time, network links are shared by packets from
multiple competing communication sessions, resulting in the loss of the quality of service guarantees
that are provided by circuit switching.
In circuit switching, the bit delay is constant during a connection, as opposed to packet switching,
where packet queues may cause varying and potentially indefinitely long packet transfer delays. No
circuit can be degraded by competing users because it is protected from use by other callers until
the circuit is released and a new connection is set up. Even if no actual communication is taking
place, the channel remains reserved and protected from competing users.
Virtual circuit switching is a packet switching technology that emulates circuit switching, in the sense
that the connection is established before any packets are transferred, and packets are delivered in
order.
While circuit switching is commonly used for connecting voice circuits, the concept of a dedicated
path persisting between two communicating parties or nodes can be extended to signal content
other than voice. The advantage of using circuit switching is that it provides for continuous transfer
without the overhead associated with packets, making maximal use of available bandwidth for that
communication. One disadvantage is that it can be relatively inefficient, because unused capacity
guaranteed to a connection cannot be used by other connections on the same network.
3. Distinguish between datagram approach and virtual circuit approach of packet switched networks.

Packet switching introduces the idea of cutting data on a flow into packets which are
transmitted over a network without any resource being allocated. If no data is available at
the sender at some point during a communication, then no packet is transmitted over the
network and no resources are wasted.
 Figure : Datagram Packet Switching. Packets from a given
flow are independent and a router can forward two packets
from the same flow on two different links.

Since each packet is processed individually by a router, all packets sent by a host to
another host are not guaranteed to use the same physical links. If the routing algorithm
decides to change the routing tables of the network between the instants two packets are
sent, then these packets will take different paths and can even arrive out of order.
In this Figure for instance, packets use two different paths to go from User 1 to User 5.
Second, on a network topology change such as a link failure, the routing protocol will
automatically recompute routing tables so as to take the new topology into account and
avoid the failed link. As opposed to circuit switching, no additional traffic engineering
algorithm is required to reroute traffic.
Virtual circuit packet switching

Figure: Virtual circuit packet switching. All packets from the same flow use the same
virtual circuit.

Virtual circuit packet switching(VC-switching) is a packet switching technique which

merges datagram packet switching and circuit switching to extract both of their
advantages. VC switching is a variation of datagram packet switching where packets flow
on so-called logical circuits for which no physical resources like frequencies or time slots
are allocated (see Figure).
Each packet carries a circuit identifier, which is local to a link and updated by each switch
on the path of the packet from its source to its destination. A virtual circuit is defined by
the sequence of the mappings between a link taken by packets and the circuit identifier
packets carry on this link. In VC-switching, routing is performed at circuit establishment
time to keep packet forwarding fast.
Other advantages of VC-switching include the traffic engineering capability of circuit
switching, and the resources usage efficiency of datagram packet switching.
Nevertheless, a main issue of VC-Switched networks is the behavior on a topology
change.
As opposed to Datagram Packet Switched networks which automatically recompute
routing tables on a topology change like a link failure, in VC-switching all virtual circuits
that pass through a failed link are interrupted. Hence, rerouting in VC-switching relies on
traffic engineering techniques.
There are a number of important differences between virtual circuit and datagram
networks. The choice strongly impacts complexity of the different types of node. Use of
datagrams between intermediate nodes allows relatively simple protocols at this level, but
at the expense of making the end (user) nodes more complex when end-to-end virtual
circuit service is desired.
The Internet transmits datagrams between intermediate nodes using IP. Most Internet
users need additional functions such as end-to-end error and sequence control to give a
reliable service (equivalent to that provided by virtual circuits). This reliability may be
provided by the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is used end-to-end across
the Internet, or by applications such as the trivial file transfer protocol (TFTP) running on
top of the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Q 03#: Explore the guided and unguided media and answer the following questions:
I. How do guided media differ from unguided media?
The basic difference between guided and unguided media is that in
the guided media, the signal travels through a physical medium whereas,
in unguided media, the signal travel through the air. There are some more
differences between guided and unguided media which I have discussed with
the help of comparison chart shown below.
Comparison Chart
 BASIS FOR
GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
COMPARISON

Basic The signal requires a The signal is broadcasted

physical path for through air or sometimes

transmission. water.

Alternative name It is called wired It is called wireless

communication or bounded communication or

transmission media. unbounded transmission

media.

Direction It provides direction to It does not provide any

signal for travelling. direction.

Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial Radio wave, microwave and

cable and fibre optic cable. infrared.

II. What are three major classes of guided media?

The guided media is categorized further into three categories that
are twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable. The twisted
pair cable has two conductors wires wounded around each other and each
surrounded by an insulating material. The twisted pair cable is flexible and
easy to install. But it has low bandwidth and provide less
protection from interference. Twisted pair cable are also of two
types shielded and unshielded twisted pair cable.
The coaxial cable has a central core conductor (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath, which is further encased in an outer metallic braid, it serves
as both protection against noise and as a second conductor which completes the
circuit. Now, the outer metallic covering is also covered by an insulating sheath.
The coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency than the twisted pair cable.

The third category is the optical fibre which is made of glass or plastic, and it
transmits signals in the form of light. The optical fibre is noise resistance, has
less signal attenuation and has a higher bandwidth in comparison to twisted pair
cable and coaxial cable. But it also has some drawbacks like; it is very
expensive, it requires a lot of installation and maintenance charge as any defect
in the cable can diffuse light and alter the signals. As the optical fibre is made of
glass, it is very fragile.

III. What is the function of the twisting in twisted-pair cable?

The number of twists within a specific length is to ensure consistency and more easily control
and filter out noise. Electrical currents induced or picked-up by the wires are positive in 1 wire
and negative in the other cable. Then at each end they are combined together and the same
positive and negative spikes cancel eachother out and you are left with a clear signal, By
ensuring the consistency of the wires in general, they provide for a better signal that can cover a
much longer than normal distance if untwisted, and because they’re paired, they’re easily
identifiable when peeling back the outside insulation.

IV. What is difference between Unshielded and Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable?

UTP (Unshielded twisted pair) and STP (Shielded twisted pair) are the
types of twisted pair cables which act as a transmission medium and
imparts reliable connectivity of electronic equipment. Although the design
and manufacture are different but both serve the same purpose.

The basic difference between UTP and STP is UTP (Unshielded twisted
pair) is a cable with wires that are twisted together to reduce noise and
crosstalk. On the contrary, STP (Shielded twisted pair) is a twisted
pair cable confined in foil or mesh shield that guards the cable against
electromagnetic interference.

Comparison Chart
 BASIS FOR
UTP STP
COMPARISON

Basic UTP (Unshielded twisted STP (Shielded twisted pair)

pair) is a cable with wires is a twisted pair cable

that are twisted together. enclosed in foil or mesh

shield.

Noise and High comparatively. Less susceptible to noise and

crosstalk crosstalk.

generation

Grounding cable Not required Necessarily required

Ease of handling Easily installed as cables Installation of cables is

are smaller, lighter, and difficult comparatively.

flexible.

Cost Cheaper and does not Moderately expensive.

require much maintenance.

Data Rates Slow comparatively. Provides high data rates

V. What are the categories of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable and what are their
data rates and use?

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable is most certainly by far the most popular cable around the
world. UTP cable is used not only for networking but also for the traditional telephone (UTP-Cat
1). There are seven different types of UTP categories and, depending on what you want to
achieve, you would need the appropriate type of cable. UTP-CAT5e is the most popular UTP cable
which came to replace the old coaxial cable that was not able to keep up with the constant growing
need for faster and more reliable networks.

CHARACTERISTICS OF UTP

The characteristics of UTP are very good and make it easy to work with, install, expand
and troubleshoot and we are going to look at the different wiring schemes available for
UTP, how to create a straight through UTP cable, rules for safe operation and a lot of other
cool stuff !

So let's have a quick look at each of the UTP categories available today along with their
specifications:
 Figure 1. The Different UTP Categories and their specifications

Category 1/2/3/4/5/6/7 – a specification for the type of copper wire (most telephone and
network wire is copper) and jacks. The number (1, 3, 5, etc) refers to the revision of the
specification and in practical terms refers to the number of twists inside the wire (or the
quality of connection in a jack).

CAT1 is typically used for telephone wire. This type of wire is not capable of supporting computer network
traffic and is not twisted. CAT1is also used by telco companies providing ISDN and PSTN services. In such
cases the wiring between the customer's site and the telco’s network is performed using CAT 1 type cable.

CAT2, CAT3, CAT4, CAT5/5e,CAT6 & CAT 7 are network wire specifications. This type of
wire can support computer network and telephone traffic. CAT2 is used mostly for token
ring networks, supporting speeds up to 4 Mbps. For higher network speeds (100 Mbps or
higher) CAT5e must be used, but for the almost extinct 10 Mbps speed requirements,
CAT3 will suffice.

CAT3, CAT4 and CAT5 cables are actually 4 pairs of twisted copper wires and CAT5 has
more twists per inch than CAT3 therefore can run at higher speeds and greater lengths.
The "twist" effect of each pair in the cables ensures any interference presented/picked up
on one cable is cancelled out by the cable's partner which twists around the initial cable.
CAT3 and CAT4 are both used for Token Ring networks -- where CAT 3 can provide
support of a maximum 10Mbps, while CAT4 pushed the limit up to 16Mbps. Both categories
have a limit of 100 meters.

The more popular CAT5 wire was later on replaced by the CAT5e specification which
provides improved crosstalk specification, allowing it to support speeds of up to 1Gbps.
CAT5e is the most widely used cabling specification world-wide and unlike the category
cables that follow, is very forgiving when the cable termination and deployment guidelines
are not met.

CAT6 wire was originally designed to support gigabit Ethernet, although there are
standards that will allow gigabit transmission over CAT5e wire.. It is similar to CAT5e wire,
but contains a physical separator between the four pairs to further reduce electromagnetic
interference. CAT6 is able to support speeds of 1Gbps for lengths of up to 100 meters, and
10Gbps is also supported for lengths of up to 55 meters.

Today, most new cabling installations use CAT6 as a standard, however it is important to
note that all cabling components (jacks, patch panels, patch cords etc) must be CAT6
certified and extra caution must be given to the proper termination of the cable ends.

In 2009, CAT6A was introduced as a higher specification cable, offering better

immunization to crosstalk and electromagnetic interference.

Organizations performing installations using CAT6 cabling should request a thorough test
report using a certified cable analyzer, to ensure the installation has been performed
according to CAT6 guidelines & standards.

CAT7 is a newer copper cable specification designed to support speeds of 10Gbps at

lengths of up to 100 meters. To achieve this, the cable features four individually shielded
pairs plus an additional cable shield to protect the signals from crosstalk and
electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Due to the extremely high data rates, all components used throughout the installation of a
CAT7 cabling infrastructure must be CAT7 certified. This includes patch panels, patch
cords, jacks and RJ-45 connectors. Failing to use CAT7 certified components will result in
 the overall performance degradation and failure of any CAT7 certification tests (e.g using
a Cable Analyzer) since CAT7 performance standards are most likely not to be met. Today,
CAT7 is usually used in DataCenters for backbone connections between servers, network
switches and storage devices.

The next pages show you how UTP cable is wired and the different wiring schemes. It's
well worth visiting and reading about.

Reader interested can also visit our Network Cabling section to select amongst a number
of articles covering UTP, X-Over cables, Fiber Optic cables and much more.

VI. What is difference between RJ 45 (the most common UTP connector) , RJ 11 and
BNC connector?

Registered Jack is the meaning of the acronym RJ which is the acronym that
cable connectors usually start with. Two of the most common jacks are the
RJ45 and RJ11, each with their own specific purpose. The main difference
between these two is in where they are actually used. RJ45 jacks are used in
networking, where you connect computers or other network elements to each
other. RJ11 is the cable connector that is being used in telephone sets.

Aside from the application, there are also differences that an individual can
easily see and identify. The first of which is in the number of cables that are
accommodated in each connector. If you look closely at both connectors, you
would see that there are only four wires inside and RJ11 while there are eight
wires inside an RJ45. As a consequence of having to accommodate more wires,
RJ45 connectors are also a little bit bigger than RJ11s. It is then quite easy to
deduce that you cannot plug-in an RJ45 connector to a RJ11 slot but the
opposite is possible.

Although you can plug an RJ11 connector into an RJ45 slot, you should avoid
doing that because you might damage the device that has the RJ45 slot,
whether it is a switch or a network adapter. This is true when you use an RJ11
connector that is connected to your phone line. The reason behind this is the
power that is being delivered by the telephone company into your handset that
allows it to function even during a power outage. But with
proper knowledge and training, some people have been able to use RJ45s all
over their house instead of RJ11s.

A lot of people have begun to place RJ45 jacks on wall outlets inside their
houses in order to reduce the number of visible wiring when using VoIP
 handsets that are rapidly gaining popularity right now. These mobile phones
need to connect to your network instead of your telephone line. Usually VoIP
handsets are found beside routers or computers, but having an RJ45 outlet
gives VoIP phones the same amount of freedom as standard telephone sets
when it comes to positioning.

Summary:
1.RJ45 is used with ethernet cables in computer networking while
RJ11 is used in connecting telephone units
The BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connector is a miniature quick
connect/disconnect radio frequency connector used for coaxial cable. It features two
bayonet lugs on the female connector; mating is fully achieved with a quarter turn of
the coupling nut. BNC connectors are used with miniature-to-subminiature coaxial
cable in radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test
instruments, and video signals. The BNC was commonly used for early computer
networks, including ARCnet, the IBM PC Network, and the 10BASE2 variant
of Ethernet. BNC connectors are made to match the characteristic impedance of cable
at either 50 ohms or 75 ohms. They are usually applied for frequencies below
4 GHz[1] and voltages below 500 volts.[2]

VII. Define crossover and straight through cables.

Straight-through cable is a type of twisted pair copper wire cable for local area
network (LAN) use for which the RJ-45 connectors at each end have the
same pinout (i.e., arrangement of conductors).

It is identical to crossover cable, except that in the latter the wires on the cable
are crossed over so that the receive signal pins on the connector on one end are
connected to the transmit signal pins on the connector on the other end.

Straight-through cable is also commonly referred to as patch cable. However, this

might be confusing in some situations because patch cable also has a broader
definition that emphasizes the fact that there is a connector on each end rather than the
equality (or lack thereof) of the pinouts.

Straight-through cable is used to connect computers and other end-user devices (e.g.,
printers) to networking devices such as hubs and switches. It can also be used to
directly connect like devices (e.g., two hubs or two switches) if the cable is plugged
into an uplink port on one (but not both) of the devices. Crossover cable is used to
connect two like devices without the use of an uplink port.

VIII. Name the advantages of optical fiber over twisted-pair and coaxial cable.

In a communication system, a wire or cable is usually used to connect

transmitting and receiving devices. Currently in the market, there are
mainly three types of cables deployed in communication systems, which
are fiber optic cables, twisted pair cables, and coaxial cables. Each type
has been widely utilized and applied in different applications. Which one
to choose? This article will provide some detailed information about
these three kinds of cables, hoping that it can help you make a better
decision.

Fiber Optic Cables

Computing and data communications are fast-developing technologies.

To meet the transmission of ever-increasing data rates, there comes a
new generation of transmission medium, which is fiber optic cable.
Fiber optic cable transmits information using beams of light at light
speed rather than pulses of electricity. It refers to the complete assembly
of optical fiber. A fiber optic cable can contain one or more strands of
optical fiber to transmit data. Each strand of optical fiber is individually
coated by plastic layers and contained in a protective tube. Fiber optic
cable transmits data as pulses of light go through tiny tubes of glass, the
transmission capacity of which is 26,000 times higher than that of
twisted-pair cable. When comparing with coaxial cables, fiber optic
cables are lighter and more reliable for transmitting data.

Two widely used types of fiber optic cables are single-mode fiber optic
cables and multimode fiber optic cables. A single-mode optical fiber has
a small core, and only allows one mode of light to propagate at a time. It
is generally adapted to high speed and long-distance applications. A
multimode optical fiber has a larger core diameter than a single-mode
optical fiber and it is designed to carry multiple light rays, or modes at
the same time. It is mostly used for communication over short distances
because of its high capacity and reliability, serving as a backbone
applications in buildings. And there are many connector types for fiber
optic cable, such as LC, SC, ST or FC connector. You can choose fiber
optic cables terminated at both ends with the same or different connector
types to connect different devices, like LC SC fiber patch cable, LC to
LC fiber patch cable. There are both single-mode and multimode, and
simplx and duplex fiber optic patch cables for your options, such as LC
to LC multimode duplex fiber optic patch cable, LC to SC duplex single-
mode fiber optic patch cable, or LC LC multimode fiber patch cord.
Twisted Pair Cables
Twisted pair cable consists of a pair of insulated wires twisted together,
which has been adapted in the field of telecommunication for a long
time. With the cable twisting together, it helps to reduce noise from
outside sources and crosstalk on multi-pair cables. Basically, twisted
pair cable can be divided into two types: unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
cable and shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable. UTP cable, such as data
communication cables and normal telephone cables, serves as the most
commonly used cable type with merely two insulated wires twisted
together. STP cable distinguishes itself from UTP cable in that it
includes a foil jacket which helps to prevent crosstalk and noise from
outside source. STP cable is typically used to eliminate inductive and
capacitive coupling, and it can be applied between equipment, racks and
buildings. The table below shows several different types of twisted pair
cables.

Coaxial cable is a type of high-frequency transmission cable which

contains a single solid-copper core. A coaxial cable has over 80 times
the transmission capability of the twisted-pair cable. Coaxial cables are
commonly used to deliver television signals and to connect computers in
a network as well. There are mainly two kinds of coaxial cables: 75
Ohm coaxial cable and 50 Ohm coaxial cable.

75 Ohm coaxial cable

The primary use of 75 Ohm coaxial cables is to transmit video signals.

One typical application of 75 Ohm coaxial cable is to transmit television
signals over cable, which is why sometimes it is called signal feed
cables. The most common connector type used in this application is a
Type F. Another application is video signals between components, such
as DVD players, VCRs or receivers commonly known as audio/video
(A/V) cables. In this case, BNC and RCA connectors are often found. In
both applications, RG59 with both solid center conductor (RG59B/U)
and stranded center conductor (RG59A/U) as well as RG6 are common
choices.
50 Ohm coaxial cable

The primary use of 50 Ohm coaxial cables is the transmission of data

signals in a two-way communication system. Several common
applications for 50 Ohm coaxial cables are computer ethernet
backbones, wireless antenna feed cables, GPS (Global Positioning
Satellite) antenna feed cables and cell phone systems.

As we know, the technology in the field of communication networks is

developing rapidly. Among all these three kinds of cables, fiber optic
cables seem to have been the trend to meet the increasing demand of
data rates in the market. However, whether to choose twisted pair cables,
coaxial cables or fiber optic cables still heavily depends on applications.
And other factors, such as the cost, transmission distance and
performance, also need to be taken into consideration when making a
choice.
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IX. What is the difference between omnidirectional waves and unidirectional waves?

Omni directional wave:

Omni directional in which wave travel in different direction. On the other hand, we can say
also that waves go in all directions like a circle.so omnidirectional devices broadcast and
receive their singles from all the direction.

unidirectional waves:

unidirectional in which wave travel in one direction. Unidirectional devices only work in one
direction, and work best in limited portion of the directions. This lets them direct signal more
efficiently, but only in the one direction so that has to be pointed.

Omnidirectional devices communicate or get their signs from all directions. Somebody who
records sound impacts and needs a general perusing of an encompassing domain (like timber
squeaking, rivulets prattling, and crickets tweeting in a backwoods, for instance) would
locate an omnidirectional microphone.

Cell phone antennas will (in principle, in any case — changing in unwavering quality relying
upon carrier and scope) get signals from wherever around the gadget.

Unidirectional devices, then again, are more centered around getting or transmitting their
signs in a single course. This is particularly useful in case you're in a region immersed with
surrounding signals that you need to maintain a strategic distance from.

Having a microphone that will give you and your subject full focus while overlooking the
encompassing commotion and prattle is a profitable method for controlling the circumstance.

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