Abrasive Machining Processes

N. Sinha, Mechanical Engineering

Department, IIT Kanpur
 Introduction

Abrasive machining involves material removal by the action of
hard, abrasive particles.

The use of abrasives to shape parts is probably the oldest material
removal process.
They are important because

They can be used on all types of materials ranging from soft
metals to hardened steels and hard nonmetallic materials such as
ceramics and silicon.

Extremely fine surface finishes (0.025 µm).

For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be held to
extremely close tolerances.
Types of Abrasive Machining Processes

 Grinding
 Honing
 Lapping
 Superfinishing
 Polishing
 Buffing
 Abrasive water jet machining
 Ultrasonic machining
 Difference between grinding and milling

The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller and more
numerous than the teeth on a milling cutter.

Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling.

The abrasive grits in a grinding wheel are randomly oriented.

A grinding wheel is self-sharpening.

Particles on becoming dull either fracture to create new
cutting edges or are pulled out of the surface of the wheel
to expose new grains.
 Surface Grinding

---
Cross·feed. w

-----:d)Workspeed. v

(a) (b)
Horizontal Surface Grinding

(e) (d)

Vertical Surface Grinding

 Surface Grinding

Wheel head -,

~--Column

Wor1<speed--..::-
~-4-+---Grindingwheel
Crossfeed ---"""""'~~
f!-':::::"'~<t---Wor1q>art

Horizontal Grinding Machine

 Cylindrical Grinding

Wheel
speed

Work
speed
Freshly ground surface
Original work surface
(a) (b)

Two types of cylindrical grinding:

(a) external, and (b) internal
 External Centerless Grinding

Regulating Direction 01
Work '-........_ . through 1eed
Grindi.n.;.!g~ whee I .
wheel -- -.
t I
~ I I
I I ~
. -- I--

·
· ... . .
·

/
"'--
/
Rest blade
-, f-Inclination
an gIe, I
(End view) (Side view)
Grinding Wheel and Workpiece Interaction

Grit-workpiece (forming chip) "
q "
.. " "0 '-9
0
o
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Chip-bond
0', ..... .." '. 0
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Chip-workpiece

Bond-workpiece
~-------------------
 Except the grit-workpiece interaction, which is expected to
---
produce chip, the remaining three undesirably increase the total
grinding force and power requirement.

 Therefore, efforts should always be made to maximize grit-

workpiece interaction leading to chip formation and to
minimize the rest for best utilization of the available power.
 Grinding Wheel Parameters

Type of Abrasive material

Grain size

Wheel grade

Wheel structure

Bonding material
 Abrasive Materials
General Properties
Hardness, wear resistance, toughness, friability
Effective grit geometry due to material loading at tip

Grit geometry may undergo substantial change due to mechanical or

chemical attrition leading to rounding or flattening of the sharp cutting
points.

This happens when the work material has hard or abrasive constituent.

A chip material adhered to the tip of the grit because of some chemical
affinity can also change the effective rake angle of the grit leading to high
grinding force, temperature and poor performance of the grinding wheel.
 SiC and Ferrous Materials

SiC abrasives are harder than friable Al2O3 but they are usually
inferior for grinding most ferrous materials.

This is due to the dissociation of SiC to react with and adhere to

iron at elevated temperatures. (Affinity of silicon or carbon for the
workpiece)

Therefore, SiC tends to work better than Al2O3 on some ferrous

metals with excess carbon.

Superiority of SiC on some cast irons is due to the presence of

small amounts of SiC as a normal constituent in the iron, which
would have a more drastic effect on the wear of the softer Al2O3.
 Grain Size

Grain size is expressed in terms of a SIEVE NUMBER, Sn which
corresponds to the number of openings per linear inch.

The diameter of an abrasive grain is given by

The larger the size of grains, more will be material removal, but
surface finish will be worse.
Sieve No. Type of Grain
10-24 Coarse
30-60 Medium
70-180 Fine
220-600 Very Fine
 Grinding Wheel Structure
“Open” and “dense”

In what conditions
these structures be
provided?

Ilo"J

Dense spacing Medium spacing Open spacing

Alll'hlOU$ wear
 Wheel Grade
Indicates the strength of the binding material.

When the work material is hard, the grains wear out

easily and the sharpness of the cutting edges is
quickly lost. This is known as WHEEL GLAZING.

To avoid this problem, a soft wheel should be used.

 A-H – Soft Wheel
 J-P – Medium Wheel
 Q-Z – Hard Wheel
 Bonding Materials
• Must withstand centrifugal forces and high temperatures
• Must resist shattering during shock loading of wheel
• Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for cutting yet
allow worn grains to be dislodged so new sharp grains are exposed

Vitrified Bond (V) – Strong and Rigid, commonly used.

Resinoid (B) – Provides shock absorption and elasticity.
They are strong enough.
Silicate (S) – Provides softness (grains dislodge quickly)
Shellac (E) – Used for making thin but strong wheels
possessing some elasticity.
Rubber Bonds (R) – For making flexible wheels.
Metallic Bond (M) – For diamond wheels only.
Grinding Wheel Specification
 Chip Formation
• Chips in this process are formed by the same mechanism of
compression and shear as other machining processes.
• As the grains or abrasives become dull, the cutting forces
increase. The increase in the cutting force causes the grains
to plow and rub rather than cut. As the plowing and rubbing
increases, the grains fracture at the cutting edge to revile a
new cutting edge.

Bond structure Individual

grain

Work
Material plowed aside
L Friction against
work surface
(a) (b) (c)
 Testing of Grinding Wheels
Strength of a bond: pass a sintered metal carbide or diamond
chisel over the wheel surface in such a way that it tears a layer of
grains from the bond.
The forces required to separate a layer of grains from the bond are
taken as a measure of the strength of the bond.
Hardness
a) Drill the wheel with a hard spade-type drill with a constant force.
The depth of penetration in a given time is a measure of wheel
hardness.
b) Use an air/abrasive jet to break the bond. The depth of
penetration of the jet erosion in a standard period of time is
used to determine equivalent wheel hardness.
c) Measure the resonant frequency of an isolated wheel after a
sharp blow with a rubber hammer and relate it to hardness.
 Grinding Wheel Wear
Grain fracture: a portion of the grain breaks off, but the rest of
the grain remains bonded in the wheel.
Attritious wear: dulling of the individual grains, resulting in flat
spots and rounded edges.
Bond fracture: the individual grains are pulled out of the
bonding material.

f.urlU."
~kmrrOlk'/
AtfritiDIJ} wear
 Grinding Wheel Wear
G = Volume of material removed
Volume of wheel wear

Vary greatly (2-200 or higher) depending on the

type of wheel, grinding fluid, and process
parameters

Higher forces decrease the grinding ratio

(1): the grains are initially sharp, and wear is accelerated due to
grain fracture.
(2): characterized by attritious wear, with some grain and bond
fracture.
(3): the grains become dull and the amount of ploughing and
rubbing increases relative to cutting.
 ~ surface roughness, Ra 1 urn
"""
Grinding, fine grit size

Honing

Lapping

Superfinishing

Polishing

Buffing
 Diagram of Height of micro
Process
resulting surface irregularity (pm)
Precision Rouyhnc$$
~-
""'f -
~ 1.25-12.50
Turning

Grinding ~ ~
0.90-5.00

Honing .,.............
'~'f'
(- ..'...- ......."'"-.....w~~·-·r - 0.13-1.25

Lapping f
,
~f'
I 0.08-0.25

Super
Finishing ~
~f:
5 0.01-0.25 4
Lapping

p
• In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based
fluid suspension of very small free abrasive grains
called a lapping compound is applied between the
workpiece and the lapping tool.

• Relative motion between the lap and the work should

change continuously so that path of the abrasive grains
of the lap is not repeated on the workpiece.

• Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. However, soft

steel, copper, brass, hardwood as well as hardened
steel and glass are also used.
Abrasives of lapping:

•Al2O3 and SiC, grain size 5~100μm

• Cr2O3, grain size 1~2 μm
• B4C3, grain size 5-60 μm
• Diamond, grain size 0.5~5 microns

Vehicle materials for lapping

• Machine oil
• Rapeseed oil
• Grease
 Honning

UnivefSaJ
I Joint
o

~_J--':=:!::~"" Bonded
~~J"Abrasive Slicks
: .

I
. .:.' (Hones)
:::
. Hones Of Slicks
.
(Made oj HaItI
ADrasives like
Ak.mIfUll oXlCle)
• Honing is a finishing process performed by a
honing tool, which contains a set of three to a
dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The
sticks are equally spaced about the periphery
of the honing tool.

• It is generally used to finish bores of cylinders

of IC engine, hydraulic cylinders, gas barrels,
bearings, etc.
 cross-hatched
surface attern

J
I •
The critical
critlcal process
process parameters
parameters are:

1. rotation speed
2. oscillation speed
3. length and position of the stroke
4. honing stick pressure
Superfinishing

.'
osc illat 0 ry ,..._.c::;-----
motion ~ feed motion along
the work part

workpart
• Superfinishing is a finishing operation similar
to honing, but it involves the use of a single
abrasive stick.
• The reciprocating motion of the stick is
performed at higher frequency and smaller
amplitudes.
• Grit size (400 to 600) of abrasive used in case
of super finishing is smaller than that is used
with hones.
 Polishing and Buffing
• Polishing is used to remove scratches and burrs
from a machined surface.

• Abrasive grains embedded to a polishing wheel

rotating at high rpm.

• The rotating wheels are made of softer materials

like canvas, leather or paper.

• Thus, the wheels are enough flexible to finish the

cavities and internal of intricate shapes.
• In Buffing abrasive grains are not glued to the
wheel but are contained in a buffing
compound that is pressed into the outside
surface of the buffing wheel while it rotates.

buffing compound
NON
NON TRADITIONAL
TRADI'TIONAL MACHINING
IM,ACHIINING
Classification of Non Traditional Machining Processes

Mechanical Processes
⎯ Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
⎯ Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
⎯ Water Jet Machining (WJM)

Electrochemical Processes
⎯ Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
⎯ Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)

Chemical Processes
⎯ Chemical Machining (CHM)

Electro-Thermal Processes
⎯ Electro-discharge machining (EDM)
⎯ Laser Jet Machining (LJM)
⎯ Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
⎯ Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
 Traditional Machining Non Traditional Machining
1.Contact process ie Material removed by Non contact Process.
interference between tool and work

2. Machinability and MRR depends on Not dependent on hardness.

hardness.

3. Further deburring operation is needed. Burr free operation.

4. Relatively simple shapes. Complex Extremely complex shapes can be

shapes are either not possible or difficult to produced with relative ease.
produce.

5. Tool wear is considerable. No tool wear or negligible tool wear.

6. Tool should be harder than work piece. Soft tool can be used.

7. MRR is high. MRR is low.

8. Cutting force is large. Practically no cutting force.

9. Stress can be induced in the work piece. No stress is induced in the work piece

10. Material is removed by shearing Basically Erosion

AJM -Principle
High velocity abrasive gas
jet 2.5 - 5 m/s(500 ~ 1000
ft/min)

nozzle

Stand off
distance 3 to 75 mm

P= 0.2 to 1.4MPa
Grit size 15-40 microns

work piece
 Construction

Pressure control valve

filter Abrasive feeder

exhaust

Mixing
Drier chamber

Nozzle
Electro-magnetic shaker
work piece
Air compressor
table
 Basic components of AJM tool
• Compressor
• Mixing chamber
• Nozzle
• Abrasives
• Carrier gas
 Nozzle
Generally nozzles are made of
• Tungsten carbide (life up to 12-30 hrs)
• Sapphire (up to 300 hrs)
• Diamond (up to 500 hrs)
• Aluminium (up to 20 min)
 Abrasives
Some of the commonly used abrasive particles
are
• Aluminium dioxide.
• Silicon carbide.
• Diamond.
• Dolomite powder.
 Carrier gas
• The carrier gas should be cheap & easy
available .
• It should not cause oxidation of the work
piece.
• It should also not react with the nozzle and
the abrasive materials.
• Some of the commonly used carrier gas are
1. Air
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Nitrogen
 Advantages
• Ability to cut intricate hole shapes in
materials of any hardness and brittleness.
• Ability to cut fragile and heat sensitive
materials without damage.
• Low capital cost.
 Disadvantages
• Material removal rate is slow and hence its
application is limited.
• Stray cutting can occur.
• Embedding of the abrasive in the work piece
surface may occur while machining softer
materials.
 Applications
• Machining of brittle and heat sensitive materials like glass, quartz,
sapphire, semiconductor, materials, mica, and ceramics.
• Drilling holes
• Cutting slots
• Cleaning hard surfaces
• Cutting fine lines, deburring, grooving, polishing.
• Delicate cleaning such as removal of smudges from antique documents.
• Because of accuracy and reliability of AJM, some research laboratories
are using to test the abrasion resistance of different materials.
Electrical processes
 Electrochemical Machining
• An electrolyte acts as a current
carrier which washes metal ions Pump for circulating
electrolyte
away from the workpiece (anode)
before they have a chance to plate on
(- )
the tool (cathode).
• The shaped tool is either solid or
tubular. ...._- Tool

• Generally made of brass, copper,

bronze or stainless steel. Tank
• The electrolyte is a highly
conductive inorganic fluid.
Workpiece Electrolyte
 Tool feed
,-- Tool hokJer and
V = CIt
feed mechanism
~
gr
R=
A
~ Electrolyte flow
Formed tool (cathode)
EA
I=
gr
Electrolyte
C ( EAt )
V=
gr
Work (anode)
V CE
= fr =
At gr
CI
V: Volume of Metal Removed; C: Specific Removal Rate
R: Resistance; g: Gap between Electrode and Work fr =
r: Resistivity of Electrode; E: Applied Voltage
A
I: Current; t: Time; fr: Feed Rate
 Electrochemical Machining
• Process capabilities
– Generally used to machine complex cavities and
shapes in high strength materials.
• Design considerations
– Not suited for producing sharp square corners or
flat bottoms.
– No irregular cavities.
 (a) Telescoping
cover Ram

65

Machined workpiece Copper Electrode

electrode carrier

(b) 86 mm
14 holes

T
112 mm

1
Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of
a nickel alloy, 360 HB; note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin
slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor
disk.
 ECM
ECM can be thought of a controlled anodic dissolution
at atomic level of the work piece that is electrically
conductive by a shaped tool, due to flow of high
current at relatively low potential difference through an
electrolyte.
 Process

Example : Cast Iron

Electrolyte : Sodium Chloride

Ionic dissociation

NaCl ↔ Na+ + Cl-

H2O ↔ H+ + (OH)-
• 2H+ + 2e- = H2↑ at cathode

• Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode (work
piece) as: Fe = Fe+ + + 2e-

Within the electrolyte

• Fe+ + + Cl- = FeCl2
• Na+ + OH- = NaOH
• FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 would form and get precipitated in the
form of sludge.
 Equipment
• Power supply
• Electrolyte filtration and delivery system
• Tool feed system
• Working tank
 Process Parameters

• Power Supply : Type direct current

Voltage 2 to 35 V
Current 50 to 40,000 A
• Electrolyte : Material NaCl NaNO3
Flow rate 20 lpm per 100 A current
• Working gap 0.1 mm to 2 mm
Feed rate 0.5 mm/min to 15 mm/min
• Electrode(Tool) material Copper, brass, bronze
 Advantages:

• There is no cutting forces therefore clamping

is not required except for controlled motion of
the work piece.
• There is no heat affected zone.
• Very accurate.
• Relatively fast
• Can machine harder metals than the tool
 Disadvantages

• More expensive than conventional machining.

• Need more area for installation.
• Electrolytes may destroy the equipment.
• Not environmentally friendly (sludge and
other waste)
• High energy consumption.
• Material has to be electrically conductive.
 APPLICATIONS:
Machining hard heat resistant alloys.

Cutting cavity in forging dies, for drilling holes

Machining complex structure.

• Pulsed electrochemical machining (PECM)
– Refinement of ECM.
– The current is pulsed instead of a direct current.
– Lower electrolyte flow rate.
– Improves fatigue life.
– Tolerance obtained 20 to 100 micro-meters.
Sodium nitrate solution
(a) (b)

(a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces)
with an ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces) (b)
Cross-section of the ECM process as applied to the metal implant.
Thermal processes
 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
• Principle of operation
– Based on the erosion of metal by spark discharge
• Components of operation
– Shaped tool
• Electrode
– Workpiece
• Connected to a DC power supply
– Dielectric
• Nonconductive fluid
 (a) (b) (c)
Currenl
Rcc~ilier cenirel Servo control

Tank

(a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process.

This is one of the most widely used machining processes, particularly for
die-sinking operations.
(b) Examples of cavities produced by the electrical-discharge machining
process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies
for extruding the aluminum the aluminum piece shown in front.
(c) A spiral cavity produced by ECM using a slowly rotating electrode,
similar to a screw thread.
 Electric Discharge Machining
• When the potential difference is sufficiently
high, the dielectric breaks down and a
transient spark discharges through the fluid,
removing a very small amount of material
from the workpiece
• Capacitor discharge
– 200-500 kHz
• This process can be used on any electrically
conductive material
 Electric Discharge Machining
Example
A certain alloy whose melting point = 1100 C is to be machined
in an EDM operation. If discharged current = 25 amps, what is
the expected metal removal rate?
Use Equation (MRR=KI/Tm1.23), the anticipated metal removal
rate is MRR = 664 (25)/(11001.23) = 3.01 mm3/s

KI
MRR =
T 1.23
 Electric Discharge Machining
• Movement in the X&Y
axis is controlled by
CNC systems
• Overcut (in the Z axis) is
the gap between the
electrode and the
workpiece
– Controlled by
servomechanisms
– Critical to maintain a
constant gap
 Electric Discharge Machining

• Dielectric fluids
– Act as a dielectric
– Provide a cooling medium
– Provide a flushing medium
• Common fluids
– Mineral oils
– Distilled/Deionized water
– Kerosene
– Other clear low viscosity
fluids are available which are
easier to clean but more
expensive
 Electric Discharge Machining
• Electrodes
– Graphite
– Brass
– Copper-tungsten alloys
– Formed by casting,
powder metallurgy, or
CNC machining
– On right, human hair
with a 0.0012 inch hole
drilled through
 Electric Discharge Machining

• Electrode wear
– Important factor in maintaining the gap between
the electrode and the workpiece
– Wear ratio is defined as the amount of material
removed to the volume of electrode wear
• 3:1 to 100:1 is typical
– No-wear EDM is defined as the EDM process
with reversed polarity using copper electrodes
 Electric Discharge Machining

• Process capabilities
– Used in the forming
of dies for forging,
extrusion, die
casting, and
injection molding
– Typically intricate
shapes
 Electric Discharge Machining
• Material removal rates affect finish quality
– High removal rates produce very rough surface finish
with poor surface integrity
– Finishing cuts are often made at low removal rates so
surface finish can be improved
• Design considerations
– Design so that electrodes can be simple/economical to
produce
– Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided
– Conventional techniques should be used to remove the
bulk of material
 Examples of EDM
Stepped cavities produced with a
square electrode by the EDM
process. The workpiece moves in
the two principal horizontal
directions (x-y), and its motion is
synchronized with the downward
movement of the electrode to
produce these cavities. Also shown
is a round electrode capable of
producing round or elliptical
cavities.
(b)

Schematic illustration of producing an inner cavity by EDM, using a

specially designed electrode with a hinged tip, which is slowly
opened and rotated to produce the large cavity.