ITC542

Internetworking with TCP/IP

Lecture 1

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School of Computing and Mathematics

Figures in this presentation taken from Pyles.J., Carrell, J., Tittel, E (2017). Guide to TCP/IP: IPv6 and IPv4, Cengage Learning
Agenda
• Introduction to TCP/IP
• TCP/IP Standards
• OSI Network Model
• Summary Learning Activities and Feedback

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Lecture 1 - Objectives
• To describe TCP/IP’s origins and history
• To explain the process by which TCP/IP standards and other documents, called Requests
for Comments (RFCs), are created, debated, and formalized (where appropriate)
• To describe the “huge difference” between IPv4 and IPv6 and explain why a switch to
IPv6 is both necessary and inevitable
• To describe the Open Systems Interconnection network reference model, often used to
characterize network protocols and services, and how it relates to TCP/IP’s own internal
networking model
• Describe data encapsulation and how it relates to the four layers of the TCP/IP protocol
stack

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

What Is TCP/IP?
• Large collection of networking protocols and services
• A protocol is “A precise set of standards that governs communications
between computers on a network.”
• Two key protocols
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Reliable delivery of messages
• Internet Protocol (IP)
• Manages the routing of network transmissions

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

The Origins and History of TCP/IP
• 1969
• Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded research for packet-
switched networking
• ARPANET
• Network built as a result of this project
• In a packet-switched network (A special type of long distance
network)
• Sender and receiver are identified by unique network addresses
• Packets are not required to follow the same path in transit

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP’s Design Goals
• To withstand a potential nuclear strike
• In the event of a significant outage in one part of the Internet, servers on
other portions of the Internet can take over roles and processes
• To permit different computer systems to communicate easily
• To interconnect systems across long distances

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

 TCP/IP Chronology
• 1978 • 1992
• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) • Internet Society (ISOC) is chartered
• 1983
• 1993
• Defense Communications Agency took over
operation of ARPANET • InterNIC is chartered
• Name server technology developed at the • 1994
University of Wisconsin • Online junk mail begins to proliferate
• 1987
• 1997
• Number of hosts on the Internet breaks,
10,000 • 31 million registered domain names
• 1989
• Number of hosts on the Internet breaks,
100,000

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Who “Owns” TCP/IP?
• TCP/IP
• Falls squarely into the public domain
• Funded with public monies since its inception
• Owned by everybody and nobody

Standards Groups that oversee TCP/IP

• Internet Society (ISOC) – A parent organisation for all internet boards and task forces
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) – Responsible for drafting, testing, proposing
and maintaining standards
• Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University
Communication needs
•Need arises as we need to uniquely identify each device on the Internet
• Need an addressing mechanism- An IP address is the address of the interface.

• IPv4
• Established mid- to late-1980s
• Uses 32-bit addresses (around four billion distinct network addresses)
• Entire address space now occupied
• America ran out of IPv4 addresses in September 2015
• IPv6
• Supports 128-bit addresses
• Address space roughly 8 * 1028 larger than IPv4 space

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Standards and RFCs
• Request for Comments (RFCs)
• Provide documentation to understand, implement, and use TCP/IP protocols
• Index for all RFCs available at
• www.faqs.org/rfcs/
• RFC 2026
• Describes how an RFC is created

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

OSI Network Reference Model Overview
• OSI reference model (1980)
• A network reference model (A model how networks operate)
• Formally known as ISO/OSI - Open Systems Interconnection
• Designed to replace TCP/IP
• Standard way to explain how networks operate
• TCP/IP is the open standard protocol suite of choice

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

 Breaking Networking into Layers
• Divide-and-conquer approach
• Separates networking hardware concerns from those related to networking software
• Key points about networking
• Easier to solve problems when broken into series of smaller problems
• Layers operate independently of one another
• Changes to one layer need not affect other layers
• Individual layers work together on pairs of computers
• Different expertise is needed at each layer
• Layers in a network implementation work together to create a general solution
• Network protocols usually map into one or more layers
• TCP/IP is designed around a layered model

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

The ISO/OSI Network Reference Model Layers
All
People

Seem

To

Need

Data

Processing

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

How Protocol Layers Behave
• Layers
• Exist to encapsulate or isolate specific types of functionality
• Provide services to the layer above
• Deliver data to or accept data from the layer below
• Protocol data units (PDUs)
• Include “envelope information” in the form of specific headers and trailers

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

The ISO/OSI Network Reference Model

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Network Architecture and Peer Layers
Application Application
Transport Transport
Network Network
Data link Data link
Physical Physical

Internet
A B

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Physical Layer
• Includes the physical transmission
medium
• Job is to activate, maintain, and
deactivate network connections
• Manages communications with the
network medium going down the
protocol stack
• Handles conversion of outgoing data

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Data Link Layer
• Situated between the Physical layer and the
Network layer in the reference model
• Job is to
• Enable reliable transmission of data through
the Physical layer at the sending end
• Check reliability at the receiving end
• Manages point-to-point transmission across the
networking medium

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Network Layer
• Handles logical addresses associated with
individual machines on a network
• Uses addressing information to
• Determine how to send a PDU
• Embodies notion of multiple simultaneous
connections between different IP addresses
• Flexible enough to
• Recognize and use multiple routes between a
sender and a receiver

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Transport Layer
• Ensures reliable end-to-end transmission of PDUs
• Includes end-to-end error detection and error recovery
• Segmentation
• Involves cutting up a big message into a numbered sequence of chunks called
segments
• PDUs used at the Transport layer are called segments, or data
segments

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Session Layer
• Defines mechanisms to
• Permit senders and receivers to request that a conversation start or stop
• Keep a conversation going even when traffic may not otherwise flow between
the parties involved
• Checkpoints
• Define the last point up to which successful communications are known to
have occurred

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Presentation Layer
• Handles transforming data from
• Generic, network-oriented forms of expression to more specific, platform-
oriented forms of expression
• A redirector or network shell
• Special computer facility that resides here
• Can supply special data-handling functions for applications

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Application Layer
• Defines an interface that applications
can use to request network services
• Defines a set of access controls over
the network
• PDUs
• Generically called Application PDUs

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Networking Model
• Design model that describes
TCP/IP differs somewhat
from OSI reference model
• Transport layers for both
models map together quite
well as does the
• Network layer from the OSI
reference model and the
Internet layer from the TCP/IP
model

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Network Access Layer
• Sometimes called the Network Interface layer
• Includes Ethernet, token ring, and wireless media devices
• Includes WAN and connection-management protocols, such as Point-
to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• The IEEE standards for networking apply
• Including the IEEE 802 family of standards

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Network Access Layer Protocols
• PPP
• Most important TCP/IP Network Access layer protocol
• PPPoE (“PPP over Ethernet” )
• Widely used on Ethernet networks or those with
Ethernet-like characteristics
• Other non-TCP/IP protocol suites
• High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
• Frame relay
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Internet Layer Functions
• Protocols handle routing between machines across multiple networks
• Three primary tasks
• MTU fragmentation
• Addressing
• Routing

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Internet Layer Protocols
• Protocols include
• Internet Protocol (IP)
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
• Packet Internetwork Groper (PING)
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Reverse ARP (RARP)
• Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Transport Layer Functions
• Functions
• Reliable delivery of data from sender to receiver
• Segmentation of outgoing messages and their reassembly prior to delivery to
the Application layer
• Hosts
• Devices that operate on the Internet

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Transport Layer Protocols
• Two TCP/IP Transport layer protocols
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Connection-oriented
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Connectionless
• UDP
• Transmits data in a “best-effort delivery”
• Does no follow-up checking on its receipt

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Application Layer
• Also known as the Process layer
• TCP/IP services depend on
• Special “listener process,” called a daemon
• Operates on a server to handle incoming user requests for specific services
• Port addresses
• Each TCP/IP service has an associated port address

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Protocols, Services, Sockets, and Ports
• Multiplexing
• Combining various sources of outgoing data into a single output data stream
• Demultiplexing
• Breaking up an incoming data stream so separate portions may be delivered
to the correct applications
• Well-known protocols
• Assign a series of numbers to represent a sizable collection of TCP/IP-based
network services

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Protocol Numbers

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Port Numbers
• TCP/IP application processes
• Sometimes called network services
• Identified by port numbers
• Source port number
• Identifies the process that sent the data
• Destination port number
• Identifies the process to receive that data

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

TCP/IP Sockets
• Well-known or registered ports
• Represent preassigned port numbers
• Socket address (or socket)
• The combination of a particular IP address and a dynamically assigned port
address

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Data Encapsulation in TCP/IP
• At each layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack
• Outgoing data is packaged and identified for delivery to the layer underneath
• Header (or packet header)
• PDU’s own particular opening component
• Identifies the protocol in use, the sender, and the intended recipient
• Trailer (or packet trailer)
• Provides data integrity checks for the payload

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Protocol Analysis
• Protocol analysis is the process of
• Tapping into the network communications system
• Capturing packets
• Gathering network statistics
• Decoding packets
• Protocol analyzer
• “Eavesdrops” on network communications

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Useful Roles for Protocol Analysis
• Used to troubleshoot network communications
• Used to test networks
• Passive
• Active (What is the difference?)
• Gather trends on network performance
• Analyzers available for variety of platforms

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Protocol Analyzer Elements
• Elements include
• Promiscuous mode card and driver
• Packet filters
• Trace buffer
• Decodes
• Alarms
• Statistics

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Protocol Analyzer Elements (cont’d.)

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

 Placing a Protocol Analyzer on a Network
• Protocol analyzer
• Captures packets that it can see on the network
• On network connected with hubs
• You can place analyzer anywhere on the
network
• Options for analyzing switched networks
• Hubbing out
• Port redirection
• Remote Monitoring (RMON)

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

 Summary
• Introduction to the topic of ‘TCP/IP’ and its underlying technologies
• History Behind “Internet”
• As Standard RFCs go through approval process, they begin as Proposed Standard documents
• IPv6 supports an enormous number of network addresses
• ISO/OSI network reference model
• Breaks networking into seven distinct layers
• TCP/IP uses a variety of encapsulation techniques at its various layers to
• Label the type of data contained in the contents, or payloads, of its PDUs
• Protocol analysis - Network interface inspects all traffic moving across a segment of network medium

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Recommended Learning Activities
• Recommended Reading
• Chapter 1
• Read Module 1 from the Interact 2 site
• Recommended Activities
• Do the Practice Quiz for topic 1 (Important)
• Complete the learning activities listed in Module 1

2019 - Dr Sabih Rehman, Charles Sturt University

Thank you