Histology Final Review

Wednesday, October 18, 2017 9:02 AM

- Eye
○ Cornea - primary focusing device in the eye
▪ Largely collagen
▪ Bowman's membrane
□ Outermost surface
□ Strat squam, doesn't regenerate
□ ECTODERM
▪ Endothelium
□ Simple epithelium
□ NEURAL CREST
□ Right up against aqueous humor
 Critical for transport from humor into cornea
 Hydration of cornea is critical to transparency
○ Anterior chamber
▪ Filled with aqueous humor
▪ Ionic composition similar to plasma
▪ Maintains ocular pressure
▪ Feed cornea
○ Iris
▪ Open and close - adapt to intensity of light
▪ Autonomic control
▪ 2 sets of muscles
□ Circular
 Contract to close iris
□ Radial
 Contract to pull open
▪ Fully pigmented layer below iris surrounding ciliary process and continues
around the eye
□ Melanosomes made by cells that are NOT melanocytes
□ This pigment captures scattered light
 If the inside of the eye was glistening, light would strike the
retina from all different angles
▪ Musculature - 2 layer epithelium
□ SM
□ And a layer of pigmented myoepithelial cells
□ Zonula fibers connect to processes and those process connect to the
lens
○ Lens
▪ Fine focusing knob of the eye
▪ Changes shape from somewhat flattened to somewhat ovoid
□ Dependent on tension from contractions from ciliary processes
 3 sets of muscles
◊ Radial set
 Contract, others relax - flat lens - distant vision
◊ Circular set
 Contract - near vision
◊ Other set not discussed
 Decreases with age
Source of aqueous humor

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  Source of aqueous humor
◊ Doesn't flow into eyeball bc vitreous humor is a gel
◊ Drains into canal of Schlemm
◊ Connects to venous drainage
○ Vitreous body
▪ Mostly GAG and hyaluronic acid
▪ Gelatinous
▪ Pushed up against the retina
▪ Not obstructive to light until later in age - floaters (precipitates)
▪ Shrinks with age
□ Starts pulling on the retina
 Can pull the retina off the back of the eye - retinal detachment
◊ Repair - laser welding the retina back onto the RPE
○ Retina
▪ Neural retina facing inside
▪ RPE facing outside
○ Choroid
○ Optic stalk
▪ Optic nerve
▪ Blood vessels
□ Come in and course over the inside surface of the retina
○ Color detection
▪ Circulation in the retina
□ Nutrition coming from 2 directions
 Vessels lying inside the eye send vessels into the retina down to
the level of the bipolar cell zone
 These cells receive from optic stalk vessels
 Rods and cones
◊ Receive vessels from choroid
◊ Transported by RPE
◊ Gives access to the rods and cones
▪ RPE
□ Tight junctions - RBB
□ Metabolism of inner parts of the retina
 Separation of neural retina from RPE - neural retina will die
irreversibly
□ Blood vessels cannot circulate through here - would obstruct light
○ Fovea
▪ Light sensing CONES only
□ All other layers of neural retina are gone so that resolution is
maximized and not blocked by other cell type
□ Unimpeded light flow to cones - high resolution color vision
○ Phototransduction
▪ How is light converted into electrical signals
▪ Rods and cones are inhibitory
□ Their primary neurotransmitter is glutamate
□ In the dark they become depolarized
 Leads to release of glutamate, which inhibits all transmission of
all connective neurons to the brain
□ In light Na channels are closed, so they cannot inhibit downstream
neurons, which transmit light perception to the brain
▪ Associated neurons
□ Are there for the purposes of mapping the retina (pixelation) - light
information coming from individual groups of rods and cones can be

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 information coming from individual groups of rods and cones can be
sent to the brain
▪ Muller cell
□ Like the glial cell of the retina
□ Critical in terms of nutritional support of neurons in the retina
 Not really discernable in cross section
○ Innermost nuclear layer - ganglia
○ Inner layer - bipolar and Muller
○ Outer layer - rods and cones
○ Embryology
▪ Begins as outgrowth of embryonic brain - projects towards skin
□ Develops a bulb at the end
□ That optic swelling will pucker in on the end, creating optic cup
 Single layer is puckered in to make two layers of cells adjacent
 Innermost layer - neural retina
 Outermost layer - RPE
□ Growth factors from cup trigger ectoderm to invaginate and initiate
development of the lens
 Lens vesicle drops into optic cup
◊ Has a central space which will disappear as it condenses
into a ball
 Lens triggers release of growth factors that cause remaining
overlying ectoderm to invaginate
 Results in large, flat structure that does not break connection
with the surface
◊ Zone over lens - forms the cornea
▪ Tissue around the eye - embryonic mesoderm
□ Choroid, sclera, vasculature derived from it
□ Vasculature from outside RPE and inside choroid
○ Sclera
▪ White because it's collagen rich
▪ Very little cellular
- Kidney
○ Pyramid and associated ureter = a lobe in the kidney
○ Nephrons
▪ Connect to collecting ducts
▪ Every collecting duct and it's accumulation of nephrons = lobule
▪ Millions of nephrons - many are lost with age
○ Medullary component
▪ Draining of filtrate into ureter
▪ Final determination of water emission
○ Cortical tissue
▪ Contains glomeruli, convoluted tubules, and upper segments of loops of
Henle, beginnings of collecting ducts
▪ Medullary rays
□ Straight bundles of tubules
□ Represent straight parts of loops of henle and ocllecting ducts
▪ Cortical labyrinth
□ Glomeruli and convoluted tubules
○ Juxtamedullary nephrons
▪ Generation of osmotic gradient in medulla
▪ Long loops of Henle with long thin segments in medulla
□ Rarely do you see cortical nephron structure in medulla
Vasa recta

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 ▪ Vasa recta
□ Circulation associated with juxtamedullary nephrons
□ A fraction of total kidney circulation
○ Interlobar artery to tufts to loop of Henle
○ Glomerulus
▪ Heavily fenestrated endothelium
□ Fluid is pushed through those holes
 Some protein and peptide, but usually smaller ones
▪ GBM is encountered first
▪ Podocyte slits between individual extension of podocytes
□ Coats outside of every glomerular capillary
□ Able to be pulled close or extended
 So the podocytes play and active role in the degree of filtration
taking place
 Mutations in these proteins - strong negative effects on
glomerular filtration
○ Fluid drains into Bowman's capsule and from there into convoluted tubule
○ Extraglomerular mesangial cells
▪ Phagocytic
□ Clinical - accumulation within mesangial cells
▪ Hold together the capillary loops
○ Macula densa
▪ Part of the distal convoluted/straight tubule (occurs near the transition
from convoluted to straight)
▪ These cells have sodium chloride concentration sensors
□ Respond to low levels of sodium in filtrate
 Blood pressure and electrolyte balance may be low, so the cell
emits paracrine factors to the juxtaglomerular cells on afferent
arteriole
◊ They produce renin
○ Histology
▪ Various types of sections - convoluted tubules in labyrinth
□ Big, scalloped = proximal, smaller = distal
▪ Medullary ray (can be adjacent to labyrinth)
□ Thick proximal and distal parts of the loop of Henle
□ Collecting duct - never found in labyrinth
 Finding a collecting duct will confirm where we are
◊ Large, not scalloped
▪ Medulla
□ Lots of collecting ducts with the loop of Henle
□ Lots of thin segment, some thick
○ Reabsorption
▪ PCT - primary site of bulk reabsorption
□ Most water, glucose, AA, polypeptides are resorbed
□ Na - not hormone regulated, just constitutive
▪ Loop of Henle
□ Role of juxtamedullary loops of Henle in generating osmotic gradient
▪ Distal straight
▪ DCT - touches back to glomerulus and forms macula densa (some books say
straight)
▪ Collecting tubule to collecting duct
▪ Water reabsorption
□ Aquaporins
□ ADH

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 □ ADH
□ Aldosterone in sodium reabsorption
○ Renin-angiotensin
▪ Activated in the kidney by macula densa response to low sodium
▪ Renin cleaves angiotensinogen (from liver) to angiotensin I
▪ ACE cuts it to angiotensin II
□ Created locally, amount that is sufficient to be important in kidney
□ Dilation and constriction of afferent and efferent arterioles
□ Constrict arterioles throughout body and raises BP
□ Adrenals - stimulate aldosterone - will work on distal collecting tubule
 Hormone driven sodium reabsorption
- Urinary tract/bladder
○ Epithelium lining ureters, urinary bladder, beginning of urethra - transitional
epithelium
▪ Allows for stretching without breaking
▪ Resistant to chaotropic effects of urea
○ Ureter
▪ Layers of SM - often 3 layers (2 layers closer to kidney)
□ Longitudinal
□ Middle circular
□ Inner longitudinal
▪ Peristaltic action
○ Bladder
▪ Transitional epithelium
▪ Non-discrete layers of muscle (contraction of a bag in multiple orientations)
- Digestive
○ Oral cavity
▪ Epithelia
□ Keratinized
□ Parakeratinized
□ Nonkeratinized
□ Lining
▪ Lips
□ Outside - skin
 Strat squam kerat
□ Over vermillion border - keratinized epithelium converts to
parakeratinized epithelium
 No full keratinization of cells
 No stratum granulosum, no keratohyalin
 Cells still have nuclei but are harder
□ Soft palate and lining mucosa - nonkeratinized
▪ Teeth
□ 3 mineralized layers
□ Enamel - hardest mineralized tissues in body
 Created by ameloblasts
 When teeth emerge from gums, no ameloblasts
 So enamel is only produced while the tooth is below the gum line
 As ameloblasts lay down enamel they are pushed to the outside
of the tooth
□ Dentin
 Odontoblasts
 Inner layer of dentin next to pulp - they still exist, dentin is
regenerable
□ Cementum

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 □ Cementum
 Like bone
 Cementoblasts
□ Collagen fibers - Sharpe's fibers - connect tooth to bone
□ Nerve and vascular supply - up center into pulp
□ Spongy bone - undergoing remodeling
 Continually changes shape of tooth socket depending on forces
placed on it by the tooth
 Orthodontics - place pressure on tooth so alveolar bone will
remodel itself in that direction
▪ Tongue
□ Anterior surface - strat squam keratinized
□ Bottom surface - nonkeratinized
□ Muscular - runs in all different direction
□ Glands in core of tongue
 Some are mucous, some are serous
 Called Von Ebner's glands
 Ducts lead onto surface around papillae that are found there
□ Papillae
 Filiform
◊ Mechanical activity
◊ Tips are keratinized
◊ Angular projection - curved towards back of the mouth (not
so much in humans)
 Foliate
◊ Clustered next to one another
◊ Taste buds within epithelium
 Fungiform
◊ Surrounded by filiform
◊ Taste buds
 Circumvallate
◊ Surrounded by filiform
◊ Taste buds
 Move food out of the crypts
▪ Salivary glands
□ All over the oral cavity
□ Minor salivary glands in soft palate and below tongue
□ Major salivary glands
 Acinus
◊ Creates initial content of saliva
 Ducts lead from the unit
◊ Intercalated and striated modify
◊ Secretory doesn't modify
 Saliva matters
◊ Digestion enzymes
◊ Anti-microbial enzymes
 Vs. pancreas
◊ No striated ducts in pancreas
◊ And there is a centroacinar cell with nucleus in pancreatic
acini
 Duct in pancreas goes into the pancreas
 Myoepithelial cells
◊ Surround acini and ducts
□ Parotid

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 □ Parotid
 Completely serous
 Some fat cells depending on age
□ Submandibular
 Mixed
□ Sublingual
 Almost completely mucous
 Fewer striated ducts - less modification to mucus than serum
○ GI tract
▪ Inner mucosa
□ SM involved in manipulating inner linng
▪ Submucosa
▪ Muscularis externa
□ Inner - circular
□ Outer - longitudinal
□ Primarily involved in peristalsis
○ Esophagus
▪ Strat squam
□ Not keratinized in humans
▪ Submucosa - varying amounts of mucous glands
□ Esophageal mucus at top
□ Cardiac mucus at bottom
▪ Musc mucosa
□ Varies in thickness depending on region
▪ Externa
□ Varies in terms of relative amount of skeletal muscle present
 Upper 1/3rd of esophagus - voluntary swallowing skeletal
 Lower 2/3rds - peristalsis, SM
▪ GERD - abnormalities resulting from acid exposure in the stomach
□ Gaseous acid can get into esophagus and can be breathed into the
lungs
□ Metaplastic change first
□ Can convert into dysplastic change - esophageal cancer, Barrett's
esophagus
□ Interactions between stomach/esophagus and heart
○ Stomach
▪ Fundic glands
□ In fundus and antrum
▪ Epithelium is entire mucous
□ No absorption in the stomach
□ Mucus predominantly protects cell from acid
 Bicarbonate rich, relatively thick mucus
▪ Crypts
□ Mucus from the mucous neck cells
 That mucus is primarily within the cell to be released when it
gets to the top
◊ Not a thick mucus - fluid in these cells
▪ Fundic glands
□ Parietal - relatively unstained
 HCl and intrinsic factor
 Proton pumps are targets of many drugs
□ Chief cells - darker
 Pepsinogen
□ Enteroendocrine

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 □ Enteroendocrine
▪ Cardiac glands
□ Predominantly mucous
□ More branched glands
▪ Pyloric glands
□ Predominantly mucous
□ Less branched
□ Distinguishable with colon - no absorptive cells in stomach
○ Intestine
▪ Peyer's patches
▪ Ganglia
□ If sandwiched between muscles - myenteric, Auerbach
 Coordinates peristalsis
□ If under mucosa - submucosal, Meissner
 Regulates inner fold contraction
▪ Duodenum
□ Sphincter between stomach and duodenum
□ Few goblet cells
□ Brunner's gland - bicarbonate-rich mucus that protects intestine
▪ Jejunum
□ Distinctive villi
□ More goblet cells
□ Lacteals - pick up chylomicra
 Chylomicra prevent fat in blood from fusing
 Also, recognition of LDLs and HDLs allow cells to take in fats
□ Fatty acids have to be broken down to cross membranes
□ Paneth cells
 Defensins, anti-microbial peptides
□ Less absorptive, more mucous
▪ Ileum
○ Colon
▪ Lots of goblet cells
▪ Localized thickening of external layer of SM
○ Appendix
▪ Lymphatic follicles completely surround the lumen
□ Vs. Peyer's patches, which are only on one side
▪ Large amounts of mucous cells, as with rest of colon
○ Endocrine
▪ CCK - pancreas
▪ Gastrin - stomach acid
○ Liver
▪ Central vein
▪ Incoming artery
▪ Portal vein
▪ Vessels deliver blood directly into sinusoids
▪ Hepatocytes line the sinusoids for exchange of materials with the blood
▪ Bile flow
□ In canaliculi created by tight junctions between hepatocytes, forming
a channel
 No epithelium, just hepatocytes
□ Flows into a specifically designed duct
□ Main bile duct in triad
▪ Hepatocytes
□ Polyploid, sometimes multinuclear

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 □ Polyploid, sometimes multinuclear
□ Limited amount of regeneration
□ Major producers of proteins in the blood
□ Take up many of the products from the digestive tract
▪ The lining of the sinusoids facilitates this exchange
□ Incomplete, fenestrated endothelium
□ Extensive folding of hepatocyte surfaces at endothelium
□ Macrophages - Kupffer cells
□ Ito cells - massive droplet of retinol
▪ Bile drainage
□ Down bile duct to sphincter that leads to the duodenum
□ Backup of this sphincter - leads into the gallbladder
○ Gallbladder
▪ Concentrates bile
▪ Major transporter of fluid from lumen to blood
□ CCK and gastrin stimulate
▪ Bile - compounds important in lipid digestion (keeps lipids in micellar
organization)
□ Bilirubin
▪ Reabsorbed and recirculated back to the liver after use in the intestine
▪ Solvent drag
□ Na-K ATPases pump sodium into basolateral space, water follows
□ Primary mechanism of water movement in the body
○ Pancreas
▪ Acini
□ With centroacinar cells
□ Produces zymogens
 Inactive until they get to the duodenum
 Products in ducts minimize activity of prematurely activated
zymogens
 So the ducts are active
◊ Water, bicarb, and mucus
▪ Islets of Langerhans
□ A - glucagon
□ B - insulin
 Majority of cells
□ D - somatostatin
□ Islet cell ratios are not identical throughout pancreas
- Male reproductive

Histology
Final Revi...

Audio recording started: 11:07 AM Wednesday, October 18, 2017

- Female reproduction
○ Secondary follicle
▪ Zona pellucida
▪ Pinkish layer around the oocyte
▪ Antrum grows to get segregation of the granulosa cells
□ Granulosa - all cells that aren't oocyte

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 □ Granulosa - all cells that aren't oocyte
□ Cumulus cells - in stalk and surrounding egg
 Corona radiata - present around egg after ovulation
○ Corpus luteum
▪ After the egg is ovulated
□ Thecal cells remained behind
□ Outer granulosa cells
□ Cavity left behind
 Vasculature invades
 Cavity folds in on itself
▪ Granulosa lutein - larger cells - produce estrogen and progesterone
▪ Thecal lutein - smaller cells - produce androgen and progesterone
□ You cannot make estrogen without an androgen precursor
○ Fertilization
▪ A few hundred out of a few million end up in the entrance of the oviduct
with the egg
□ Only the normal shaped sperm
□ Sperm are transported here
▪ Sperm move to the egg
□ Capacitation
 Calcium influx into sperm, cAMP activated, hypermotility
 Sperm push through corona radiata
 Bind to zona pellucida - acrosome reaction occurs here
 Enzymes released, hole through zona pellucida
 Sperm binds to oocyte plasma membrane
 The membranes fuse
◊ Only sperm centrioles and nuclei stick around
◊ Mitochondria get rekt
▪ Cilia carry fertilized egg towards uterus
□ You can get peristalsis in both directions though
○ Uterus
▪ Proliferative
□ Entire endometrium is thinner
□ Glands are relatively tubular (they can distort)
□ Estrogen - stimulates mitotic proliferation
□ Progesterone - hypertrophy, but not mitosis
▪ Secretory
□ Glands tend to have wider lumen, irregular walls
□ Secretion product in the lumen
□ Endometrium is taller
□ Epithelium is ciliated down to the cervix
□ Progesterone - change in epithelium that allows implantation
▪ Menstruation
□ Whole endometrium is undergoing disintegration
▪ Cervical mucus
□ Becomes more viscous until ovulation
□ Then becomes viscous again under the influence of progesterone
○ Implantation
▪ Decidual cells develop just at the time that the zygote is coming down into
the uterus
▪ Decidual reaction - finish at the time of implantation
▪ Materials useful for nutrition of the zygote
▪ Are eaten
▪ Also influence the immune system

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 ▪ Also influence the immune system
○ Placentation
▪ Early in the implantation phase the most important even is the
development of the sctb
▪ Sctb
□ Product of the cytotrophoblast
□ Daughter cells fuse with one another creating syncytium
□ More division --> more sctb
□ Sctb is the leading edge of invasion so the zygote can be drawn further
into the uterus
□ Initial source of gonadotropin that keeps the corpus luteum functional
 LH levels have gotten so low that the corpus luteum is beginning
to deteriorate
◊ Otherwise corpus albicans, and endometrium sloughs off
 Endometrium is maintained so implantation can continue
 Until the placenta becomes steroidogenic on its own and no
longer relies on the corpus luteum
□ Spreads around entire invading zygote
□ Keeps piling up cells from the cytotrophoblast extending villi that
come around the invading embryo
□ Once the extraembryonic mesoderm develops, it develops under the
cytotrophoblast and creates a core of mesoderm in the center
□ From that mesoderm, circulation on the embryonic side of the
placenta develops
 Vasculature and blood cells developing outside the embryo
 While the same thing is happening in the embryo
 The two vascular systems form
▪ The sctb has developed pockets - trophoblastic lacunae
□ The sctb will meet up with maternal capillaries in endometrium and
cut them - blood dumps right into trophoblastic lacunae surrounding
the villi
□ So maternal blood fills in these space
▪ The cytotrophoblast continues to poke out and form a shell around the
entire space, connecting the tips of every villus
□ Seals the blood spaces that maternal vessels are emptying into
□ Otherwise blood leaks back into uterine tissue
▪ Mature placenta
□ Villi sitting within lacunae filled with maternal blood
 Maternal vessels stop at the shell
 Only embryonic vessels within the open space
○ Histology
▪ Outer - chorion and amnion
▪ Inside - villi
□ Two layers - sctb on outside, cytotrophoblast inside
 Mesoderm inside the cytotrophoblast
 Hofbauer cells - phagocytes

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