2.5 Analysis & Design Process

Materials, Analysis,
Imperfections & Design

Process
Owen Brooker
BEng CEng MICE MIStructE MCS
Technical Director
© 2019 Modulus Structural Engineering Ltd 1
Indicative Design Process

Step Task Standard
1 Determine design life EN 1990
2 Assess actions EN 1991 (Parts 1 to 10)
3 Assess load arrangements EN 1992-1-1
4 Assess combinations of actions EN 1990
5 Assess durability EN 1992-1-1(BS 8500?)
6 Assess fire resistance EN 1992-1-2
7 Determine cover EN 1992-1-1
8 Analyse structure EN 1992-1-1
9 ULS checks EN 1992-1-1
10 SLS checks EN 1992-1-1
11 Detailing EN 1992-1-1
Materials
Eurocode 2 - Contents
1. General 7. Serviceability limit state
2. Basis of design 8. Detailing – general
3. Materials 9. Detailing – particular rules
4. Durability 10. Precast concrete
5. Structural analysis 11. Lightweight concrete
6. Ultimate limit state 12. Plain concrete
Concrete - Introduction
Density assumed to be 25kN/m3 EN 1991-1-1
Designs are based on cylinder strength, fck Cl. 3.1.3(2)
Relationship between cylinder/cube 28 day

strength are given in Table 3.1 (see next slide) Table 3.1
Maximum value of characteristic strength

Cmax = C90/105 for buildings
Cmax = C70/85 for bridges Cl. 3.1.2(2)
Cl. 3.1.2
(102)
Note: the shear strength should not be greater than
that for C50/60
EN 1992-1-1
UK NA
Concrete – table 3.1
Strength classes for concrete

fck (MPa) 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90
fck,cube (MPa) 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 67 75 85 95 105
fcm (MPa) 20 24 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 78 88 98
fctk,0.05 (MPa) 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5
Ecm (GPa) 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 42 44
fck = Concrete cylinder strength

fck,cube = Concrete cube strength
fcm = Mean concrete strength
fctk,0.05 = Characteristic concrete tensile strength 5th percentile
Ecm = Mean value of elastic modulus
Concrete design strength values
Design compressive strength, fcd

fcd = cc fck /c Exp (3.15)
Design tensile strength, fctd
fctd = ct fctk,0.05 /c
Exp (3.16)
cc = 1.0
ct = 1.0
cc & ct are coefficients to take account of long Cl. 3.1.6 (1)
term unfavourable effects resulting from the way & (2)
the load is applied
Concrete - creep
t0
1
N R Figure 3.1
2 S
3
5 C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
10 C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
20 C55/67
C60/75
C70/85
30 C80/95
C90/105
50
100
7,0 6,0 5,0 4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
 (t 0) h 0 (mm)
h0 = 2Ac/u, where:
Ac = the cross-section area
u = perimeter in contact with the atmosphere
Creep – calculations
(Annex B)
The creep coefficient ϕ(t,t0) may be calculated
from:
ϕ (t,t0) = ϕ0 β c(t,t0) Exp (B.1)
where:
ϕ0 = notional creep coefficient
= ϕRH β(fcm) β(t0)
ϕRH = factor to allow for effect of relative humidity
1  RH /100
1 13
for f cm  35 MPa
0.1h0
  1  RH /100  
 1  1 13  2 for f cm  35 MPa
 0.1h0 
RH = relative humidity in %
Creep - calculations
β(fcm) = factor to take account of concrete strength

= 16.8/fcm0.5
β(t0) = factor to allow for the effect of creep at
age of loading
= 1/(0.1 + t00.20)
 t  t 0  
0.3
c t ,t 0    
 H  t  t 0  
t = age of concrete in days
t0 = age of concrete at loading in days
βH = coefficient depending on the relative humidity and the

notional member size
= 1.5[1+(0.012RH)18]h0+250 ≤ 1500 for fcm ≤ 35 MPa
= 1.5[1+(0.012RH)18]h0+250 α3 ≤ 1500 α3 for fcm > 35 Mpa
α1 = (35/fcm)0.7
α2 = (35/fcm)0.2
α3 = (35/fcm)0.5
The effect of type of cement on the creep coefficient of

concrete may be taken into account by modifying the age of
loading t0

 9 
t 0  t 0 ,T  1.2
 1   0 .5
 2  t 0 ,T 
t0,T = temperature adjusted age of concrete at loading in days
adjusted according to Expression (B.10)
α = power which depends on type of cement
= -1 for cement Class S
= 0 for cement Class N
= 1 for cement Class R
Where the cement Class is not known:
• Generally Class R may be assumed (eg CEM I)
• Where ggbs exceeds 35% or fly ash exceeds 20% Class N
may be assumed
• Where ggbs exceeds 65% or fly ash exceeds 35%, Class S
may be assumed.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage strain is composed of two components:

• drying shrinkage strain
• autogenous shrinkage strain
εcs = εcd + εca
where:
εcs = total shrinkage strain
εcd = the drying shrinkage strain
εca = autogenous shrinkage strain
Drying shrinkage
The final value of the drying shrinkage strain

εcd,∞ = kh εcd,0
Where
εcd,0 may be taken from Table 3.2 or from Exp (B.11)
kh = coefficient depending on the notional size h0
Eurocode 2 also gives guidance on calculated drying shrinkage
over time
h0 kh
100 1
200 0.85
300 0.75
500 0.7
Table 3.2 – εcd,0
fck/
fck,cube
(MPa) 20 40 60 80 90 100
20/25 0.62 0.58 0.49 0.3 0.17 0
40/50 0.48 0.46 0.38 0.24 0.13 0
60/75 0.38 0.36 0.3 0.19 0.1 0
80/95 0.3 0.28 0.24 0.15 0.08 0
90/105 0.27 0.25 0.21 0.13 0.07 0
Shrinkage with time
Drying shrinkage strain in time can be calculated from:

εcd(t) = βds(t, ts) kh εcd,0
where
t = age of the concrete at the moment considered, in days

ts = age of the concrete (days) at the beginning of drying
shrinkage (or swelling). Normally this is at the end of
curing.
Autogenous shrinkage
The autogenous shrinkage strain follows from:

εca(t) = βas(t) εca(∞)
where:
εca(∞) = 2.5 (fck – 10) 10-6
βas(t) = 1 – e(–0.2t 0.5)
t = time in days given in days
Design aid –
70 year shrinkage strains
Elastic shortening
Variation of elastic modulus with
time
Variation of the modulus of elasticity with time can be
estimated:
Ecm(t) = (fcm(t)/fcm)0.3Ecm
where
Ecm(t) = Elastic modulus at an age of t days
fcm(t) = Mean concrete strength at an age of t days
Determining age dependent

concrete properties
Change in concrete strength
with time
fcm(t) = βcc(t) fcm
where:
fcm(t) = mean concrete compressive strength at age of t days
βcc(t) = coefficient which depends on the age of the concrete
  28 
12
s 1    
 cc t   e
  t  
s = coefficient which depends on the type of cement:

= 0.20 for Class R
= 0.25 for Class N
= 0.38 for Class S
Reinforcement
EN 10080 provides the performance characteristics EN 10080

and testing methods
Material properties are given in Annex C

Annex C
Principles and application rules are given for
• deformed bars Cl. 3.2.1(1)
• decoiled rods
• welded fabric
• lattice girders.
Reinforcement
Fig 3.8
Reinforcement
Bars and de-coiled Table C.1

Product form rods Wire Fabrics
Class A B C A B C
Characteristic yield
strength fyk or f0.2k 400 to 600
(MPa)
Minimum value of k = 1.15 1.15
(f t / f y )k 1.05 1.08 <1.35 1.05 1.08 <1.35
Characteristic strain at
maximum force. εuk
(%) 2.5 5.0 7.5 2.5 5.0 7.5
In the UK fyk, = 500 MPa

UK NA
Reinforcement – specifying UK
(BS 8666)
Prestressing Steel
Eurocode 2 refers to EN 10138. Cl. 3.3

• This has not been published yet
• Use BS 5896 (incl. Amd. 1)
Prestressing steel losses are defined for:

Class 1: wire or strand – ordinary relaxation Cl. 3.3.2(4)
Class 2: wire or strand – low relaxation
Class 3: hot rolled and processed bars
Prestressing steel
Fig 3.8
Jacking forces
Prestress during tensioning
The maximum force during prestressing is:

Pmax = Ap p,max Exp (5.41)
where
Ap = cross-sectional area of the tendon
p,max = maximum stress applied to the tendon
= MIN{0.80 fpk ; 0.90 fp0,1k}
Pmax can be increased to Ap0.95 fp0,1k with accurate
jack (±5%)
Maximum stress in concrete c ≤ 0.6 fck(t)
Where c > 0.45 fck(t) non-linearity of creep must
be considered (see Cl. 3.1.4(4))
Prestress force
Pmax – Pi(x) ≤ Ap pm0(x) Cl. 5.10.3(2)

Where:
Pi(x) = immediate losses
pm0(x) = tendon stress after tensioning/transfer
= MIN{0.75 fpk ; 0.85 fp0,1k}
Mean prestress force
Pm,t(x) = Pm0(x) - Pc+s+r(x).
where
Pm,t(x) = mean value of the prestress force at
the time t > t0
Pc+s+r(x) = change in prestress due creep,
shrinkage and the long term
relaxation of the prestressing steel
Losses
Losses
Immediate loses
• Friction loss in the tendon
• Anchorage slip
• Deformation of the structure (Elastic shortening)
Long-term losses
• Shrinkage of the concrete
• Creep of the concrete including the effects of the prestress
• Relaxation of the steel tendon
Most of the losses occur in first 2 years, and nearly all of the
losses will have occurred after 10 years
Immediate losses – relaxation
Relaxation loss may be obtained from the manufacturers test

certificates or from (for class 2: wire or strand low relaxation):
0.75 (1  )
 pr 9.1   t 
 0.66 1000e   10 5
 pi  1000 
Where
Δσpr = absolute value of the relaxation of the prestress
σpi = absolute value of the initial prestress
t = time after tensioning (hours)
μ = σpi/fpk
fpk = characteristic tensile strength of prestressing steel
ρ1000 = 2.5% for class 2 wire or strand
Immediate losses – elastic

shortening
Loss of prestress
Δσpe = fc(Es/Ecm(t))
Where:
fc = Concrete stress at the centroid of tendons
Es = Elastic modulus of prestressing steel
Ecm(t) = Elastic modulus of concrete at time, t
Long-term losses
A simplified method can be used: Cl. 5.10.6
Relaxation Creep
Shrinkage
Factor
“High Strength Concrete”
• EN 1992-1-1 does not use the term “High Strength

Concrete”
• However, it is clear from the text that for concrete classes
C55/67 and above the rules are varied to consider changes
in materials
• Key changes to be aware of:
• Strain limits reduce
• η – factor reduces
• λ – factor reduces
• UK NA limits shear strength to that of a C50/60 concrete
• For bridges the maximum concrete class is C70/85
• For bond the strength is limited to a C60/75 concrete
Analysis
Eurocode 2 - Contents
1. General 7. Serviceability limit state
2. Basis of design 8. Detailing – general
3. Materials 9. Detailing – particular rules
4. Durability 10. Precast concrete
5. Structural analysis 11. Lightweight concrete
6. Ultimate limit state 12. Plain concrete
Load arrangements
Principle – relevant load cases shall be considered to enable

the critical load conditions to eb established at all sections
within the structure
Simplifications for buildings:
Analysis
The following types of analysis may be used:

• Linear elastic Cl 5.4
• Linear elastic with limited redistrib. (up to 30%) Cl 5.5
• Plastic analysis e.g. yield line, strut and tie Cl 5.6
• Non-linear behaviour
Cl 5.7
The following principles apply:

• Plane sections remain plane
Cl 6.1(2)
• In monolithic construction, maximum hogging
moment can be taken at face of support
Cl 5.3.2.2(2)
Analysis
Linear elastic analysis may be used for both ULS Cl 5.4(2)

and SLS and assuming:
• uncracked cross sections
• linear stress-strain relationships
• mean value of the modulus of elasticity
For thermal deformation, settlement and shrinkage

effects at ULS a reduced stiffness corresponding to Cl 5.4(3)
cracked sections may be assumed.
Analysis – effective span
Figure 5.4
Geometric imperfections
Geometric Imperfections
Deviations in cross-section dimensions are normally Cl. 5.2(1)

taken into account in the material factors and
should not be included in structural analysis
Imperfections need to considered: Cl. 5.2(2)

• Persistent situations (ULS)
• Accidental situations (ULS) Cl. 5.2(3)
• But not for SLS
Geometric imperfections -
Buildings
Out-of-plumb is represented by an inclination, l
l = 0  h  m Exp 5.1
where
0 = 1/200
h = 2/l (2/3  h  1)
m = (0.5(1+1/m)
l = height of member (m)
m = number of vert. members
For walls and isolated columns in braced systems the

following simplification can be used:
ei = l0/400 Cl. 5.2(7)
Geometric imperfections
Figure 5.1
Hi = θiN for unbraced members

Hi = 2θiN for braced members
Geometric imperfections -
Bridges
Out-of-plumb is represented by an inclination, l
l = 0  h Exp (5.101)
where
0 = 1/200 UK NA
h = 2/l  1
l = height of member (m)
For bridges class 1 construction tolerances apply

EN 13670
For individual members:
ei = θ l l0 /2
Cl. 5.2(7)
Worked example – calculating
creep
Calculating creep
Relative humidity – 50%

Determine long term creep
Age of loading 35 days
Creep - solution
h0 = 2Ac/u
= 2 x 14275/(2 x (125+150) = 51.9 mm
α1 = (35/fcm)0.7 = (35/48) 0.7 = 0.801
α2 = (35/fcm)0.2 = (35/48) 0.2 = 0.939
α3 = (35/fcm)0.5 = (35/48) 0.5 = 0.854
  1  RH /100  
 1  1
ϕRH  13  2 for f cm  35 MPa
0.1h0 
= [1 + 0.801(1 - 50/100)/(0.1 x 51.91/3)] x 0.939
= 1.95
β(fcm) = 16.8/fcm0.5 = 16.8/481/2 = 2.42
When t = infinity, βc(t,t0) = 1
Creep - solution
β(t0) = 1/(0.1 + t00.20)

= 1/(0.1 + 350.20) = 0.468
ϕ0 = ϕRH β(fcm) β(t0)
= 1.95 x 2.42 x 0.468 = 2.21
ϕ (t,t0)= ϕ0 β c(t,t0)
= 2.21 x 1 = 2.21
Concrete - creep
t0
1
N R
2 S
3
5 C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
10 C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
20 C60/75
C55/67
C70/85
30 C80/95
C90/105
50
100
7,0 6,0 5,0 4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
 (t 0) h 0 (mm)
Workshop – calculating shrinkage
Shrinkage - problem
For the same beam determine the long-term shrinkage by

calculation and then check using the design aid.
Shrinkage - solution
Drying shrinkage:
From Table , for h0 ≤ 100, kh = 1
From Table 3.2, εcd,0 = (0.46 + 0.38) x 10-3 /2 = 0.42 x 10-3
εcd,∞ = kh εcd,0 = 1 x 0.42 = 0.42 x 10-3
Autogenous shrinkage
εca(∞) = 2.5 (fck – 10) 10-6
= 2.5(40 – 10) x 10-6 = 0.075 x 10-3
βas(t) = 1 – e(–0.2t 0.5) = 1 for t = infinity
εca(t) = βas(t) εca(∞) = 0.075 x 10-3 x 1 = 0.075 x 10-3
Total shrinkage
εcs = εcd,∞ + εca(t) = 0.42 x 10-3 + 0.075 x 10-3 = 0.495 x 10-3
Design aid –
70 year shrinkage strains
εcs = εcd,∞ + εca(t)

= 0.39 x 10-3
+ 0.075 x 10-3
= 0.465 x 10-3

2.5 Analysis &amp; Design Process

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2.5 Analysis &amp; Design Process

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Materials, Analysis,

Imperfections & Design

Indicative Design Process

Density assumed to be 25kN/m3 EN 1991-1-1

Designs are based on cylinder strength, fck Cl. 3.1.3(2)

Relationship between cylinder/cube 28 day

Maximum value of characteristic strength

Strength classes for concrete

fck = Concrete cylinder strength

Design compressive strength, fcd

β(fcm) = factor to take account of concrete strength

βH = coefficient depending on the relative humidity and the

The effect of type of cement on the creep coefficient of

Shrinkage strain is composed of two components:

The final value of the drying shrinkage strain

Table 3.2 – εcd,0

Drying shrinkage strain in time can be calculated from:

t = age of the concrete at the moment considered, in days

The autogenous shrinkage strain follows from:

Determining age dependent

s = coefficient which depends on the type of cement:

EN 10080 provides the performance characteristics EN 10080

Material properties are given in Annex C

Bars and de-coiled Table C.1

In the UK fyk, = 500 MPa

Eurocode 2 refers to EN 10138. Cl. 3.3

Prestressing steel losses are defined for:

The maximum force during prestressing is:

Pmax – Pi(x) ≤ Ap pm0(x) Cl. 5.10.3(2)

Relaxation loss may be obtained from the manufacturers test

Immediate losses – elastic

A simplified method can be used: Cl. 5.10.6

“High Strength Concrete”

• EN 1992-1-1 does not use the term “High Strength

Principle – relevant load cases shall be considered to enable

The following types of analysis may be used:

The following principles apply:

Linear elastic analysis may be used for both ULS Cl 5.4(2)

For thermal deformation, settlement and shrinkage

Deviations in cross-section dimensions are normally Cl. 5.2(1)

Imperfections need to considered: Cl. 5.2(2)

For walls and isolated columns in braced systems the

Hi = θiN for unbraced members

For bridges class 1 construction tolerances apply

Relative humidity – 50%

β(t0) = 1/(0.1 + t00.20)

Workshop – calculating shrinkage

For the same beam determine the long-term shrinkage by

εcs = εcd,∞ + εca(t)

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2.5 Analysis & Design Process

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