1

UNIT-II SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT

Introduction

With the more precise demands of modern engineering products, the control of surface texture
together with dimensional accuracy has become more important. Surface texture greatly influences the
functioning of the machined parts. The properties such as appearance, corrosion resistance, wear
resistance, fatigue resistance, lubrication, initial tolerance, ability to hold pressure, load carrying
capacity, noise reduction in case of gears are influenced by the surface texture.

It is not possible to produce perfectly smooth surface. The manufactured surface always
departs from the absolute perfection to some extent. The irregularities on the surface are in the form of
succession of hills and valleys varying in height and spacing. These irregularities are usually termed
as surface roughness, surface finish, surface texture or surface quality. These irregularities are
responsible to a great extent for the appearance of a surface of a component and its suitability for an
intended application.
Factors Affecting Surface Roughness:-
(1) Vibrations
(2) Material of the workpiece
(3) Type of machining.
(4) Rigidity of the system consisting of machine tool, fixture cutting tool and work
(5) Type, form, material and sharpness of cutting tool
(6) Cutting conditions i.e., feed, speed and depth of cut
(7) Type of coolant used

Reasons for Controlling Surface Texture:-

(1) To improve the service life of the components
(2) To improve the fatigue resistance
(3) To reduce initial wear of parts
(4) To have a close dimensional tolerance on the parts
(5) To reduce frictional wear
(6) To reduce corrosion by minimizing depth of irregularities
(7) For good appearance
Orders of Geometrical Irregularities:-
Material machined by chip removal process can't be finished perfectly due to some departures from
ideal conditions. The surface Produced will have some irregularities, these geometrical irregularities
can be classified into four categories.
 2

First Order: The irregularities caused by inaccuracies in the machine tool. It includes:
(1) Irregularities caused due to lack of straightness of guide ways on which the tool most moves.
(2) Surface regularities arising due to deformation of work under the action of cutting forces, and
(3) Due to the weight of the material.

Second Order: These are caused by vibrations.

Third order: These are caused by machining itself due to the characteristics of the process.
Fourth Order: The fourth order irregularities include those arising from the rupture of the material
during the separation of the chip.

Irregularities on the surface of the part:-

(i) Roughness or primary texture (ii) Waviness or secondary texture.

(i) Primary texture (Roughness):

The surface irregularities of small wavelength are called primary texture or roughness.
Causes: Direct action of the cutting elements on the material i.e., cutting tool shape, tool feed rate or
by some other disturbances such as friction, wear or corrosion.
These include irregularities of third & fourth order and constitute the micro-geometrical errors.

(ii) Secondary texture (Waviness):

The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength of a periodic character are called secondary
texture or waviness.
Causes: These irregularities result due to inaccuracies of slides, wear of guides, misalignment of
centres, non-linear feed motion, deformation of work under the action of cutting forces, vibrations of
any kind etc.
These errors include irregularities of first and second order and constitute the macro-geometrical
errors.
 3

ELEMENTS OF SURFACE TEXTURE:-

Lay: It is the direction of any section through a surface.

Flaws: It is the surface irregularities (or) imperfection which occurs at frequent intervals.

Surface: The surface of a part is confined by the boundary which separates that part from another
part, substance or space. Actual surface refers to the surface of a part which is actually obtained after a
manufacture ring process.

Actual Surface: It is the surface of a part which is actually obtained.

Nominal surface: A nominal surface is a theoretical, geometrically perfect surface which does not
exist in practice, but it is an average of the irregularities that are superimposed on it.

Profile: It is the contour of any section through a surface.

Roughness Height: This is rated as the arithmetical average deviation expressed in micro-meters.

Roughness Width: It is the distance parallel to the normal surface between successive peaks.

Roughness Width cutoff: This is the maximum width of surface irregularities that is included in the
measurement of roughness height. This is always greater than roughness width.

Waviness: It is the surface irregularities which are of greater spacing than roughness.

Effective profile: It is the real canter of a surface obtained by using instrument

Laws: Flaws are surface irregularities or imperfections which occur art infrequent intervals and at
random intervals. Examples are: scratches, holes, cracks, porosity etc.
 4

Surface Texture: Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal. Surface which forms the pattern
on the surface. Surface texture includes roughness, waviness, lays and flaws.

Sampling lengths: It is the surface irregularities which are of greater spacing.

Mean Line of profile: A Line divides the effective profile such that within the sampling length is
called as Mean line of Profile.

Centre Line of Profile: A Line divides the effective profile such that the areas embraced by the
profile above and below the line are equal.

• Measurement of surface finish surfaces texture (or) Roughness methods

The surface finish methods can be classified into two groups.

1. Inspection by comparison. 2. Direct instrument measurement

1. Inspection by comparison methods. In these methods, the surface texture is assessed by
observation of the surface. The surface to be tested is compared with known roughness value.
Varoius methods which are used for comparison is as follows:
(i) Visual Inspection (v) Surface photographs
(ii) Touch Inspection (vi) Micro-Interferometer
(iii) Scratch Inspection (vii) Wallace surface Dynamometer
(iv) Microscopic Inspection (viii) Reflected Light Intensity.

(i) Visual Inspection: In this method the surface is inspected by naked eye.
(ii) Touch Inspection: In this method, the finger tip is moved along the surface at a speed of about
25 mm per second and the irregularities as small as 0.0125 mm can be detected.
(iii) Scratch Inspection: In this method a softer material like lead, babbit or plastic is rubbed over
the surface to be inspected. The impression of the scratches on the surface produced is then
visualised.
(iv) Microscopic Inspection: In this method, a master finished surface is placed under the
microscope and compared with the surface under inspection
(v) Surface Photographs: In this method magnified photographs of the surface are taken with
different types of illumination to reveal the irregularities.
(vi) Micro-Interferometer: In this method, an optical flat is placed on the surface to be inspected
and illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. Interference bands are studied through a
microscope. The scratches in the surface appear as interference lines extending from the dark
bands into the bright bands.
 5

(vii) Wallace surface Dynamometer: It consists of a pendulum in which the testing shoes are
damped to a bearing surface and a predetermined spring pressure can be applied. If the surface is
smooth, then there will be less friction and pendulum swings for a longer period. Thus, the time
of swing is a direct measure of surface texture.
(viii) Reflected Light Intensity: In this method a beam of light of known quantity is projected upon
the surface. This light is reflected in several directions as beams of lesser intensity and the
change in light intensity in different directions is measured by a photocell.
2. Direct Instrument Measurement:

These are the methods of quantitative analysis. These methods enable to determine the numerical
value of the surface finish of any surface by using instruments of stylus probe type operating on
electrical principles.

Some of the Direct measuring Instruments are as Follows

1. Stylus probe Instruments (Contact type Surface Roughness Instruments)

2. Profilometer (Contact type Surface Roughness Instruments)

3. Taylor-Bobson-Talysurf (Contact type Surface Roughness Instruments)

4. Profilograph (Contact type Surface Roughness Instruments)

5. Tomlinson Surface meter (Non-Contact type Surface Roughness Instrument)

1. Stylus Probe type Instrument

When the stylus is moved over the surface to be measured, the irregularities in the surface texture are
measured and it is used to find the surface finish of the work piece.

Working: The stylus type instruments consists of skid or shoe, Finely pointed stylus or probe, An
amplifying device for magnifying the stylus movement and indicator and Recording device. The skid
is moved slowly over the surface of the workpiece by using motor drive. The skid follows the
irregularities of surface and stylus moves along the skid. When the stylus moves vertically up and
down, the stylus movements are magnified, amplified and recorded to get a trace. Then the trace is
analyzed by an automatic device.
 6

Advantages: Any desired roughness parameter can be recorded.

Disadvantages:
(i) These instruments are bulky and complex. (iii) Skilled operator required
(ii) Cost is high. (iv) limited surface can be measured.

2. Profilometer

Profilometer is an indicating and recording instrument used to measure roughness in microns. The
principle of the instrument is similar to gramophone pick up. It consists of two principal units: a tracer
& an amplifier. Tracer is a finely pointed stylus. It is mounted in the pick up unit which consists of an
induction coil located in the field of a permanent magnet. When the tracer is moved across the surface
to be tested, it is displaced vertically up and down due to the surface irregularities. This causes the
induction coil to move in the field of the permanent magnet and induces a voltage. The induced
voltage is amplified and recorded. This instrument is suited for measuring surface finish of deep bores

3. The Taylor Hobson Talysurf

Taylor-Hobson Talysurf is a stylus and skid type of instrument working on carrier modulating
principle. Its response is more rapid and accurate as comparred to Tomlinson Surface Meter. The
measuring head of this instrument consists of a sharply pointed diamond stylus of about 0.002mm tip
radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a motorised driving unit.

In this instrument the stylus is made to trace the profile of the surface irregularities, and the
oscillatory movement of the stylus is converted into changes in electric current by the arrangement as
shown in Figure. The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about the centre piece of
E-shaped stamping. On two legs of (outer pole pieces)'the E-shaped stamping there are coils carrying
 7

an A.C. current. These two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator. As the armature is
pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the stylus causes the air gap to vary and thus the
amplitude of the original A.C. current flowing in the coils is modulated.

4. Profilograph:

The principle of Working of a tracer type profilograph is shown in Figure below. The work to be
tested is placed on table of the instrument. The work and table are traversed with help of a lead screw.
The stylus which is pivoted to a mirror moves over the tested surface. Oscillations of the tracer
point are transmitted to the mirror. A light source sends a beam of light through lens and a precision
 8

slit to the oscillating mirror. The reflected beam is directed to a revolving drum, upon which a
sensitised film is arranged. This drum is rotated through two bevel gears from the same lead screw
that moves the table of the instrument. A profilogram will be obtained from the sensitised film, that
may be sub-sequently analysed to determine the value of the surface roughness.

TACTILE SURFACE ASSESSMENT

It is a comparative test, involves drawing a finger nail across the surface and by the same technique
making a comparison with surface finish measurement.
1. It consists of 20 blocks, each of a specific surface finish attained by a specific machining
operation. Type of machining operation is marked on each block together with the surface
roughness number foe height and width.
2. Using standard surface finish, comparisons between the machined surface and the standard
surface using over sense of touch.
3. Tactile Testing is based on the frictional properties of the specimen while electronic stylus
instruments explore the geometry.
4. When surface irregularities are random, as in case of grinding, the parameters obtained from stylus
instruments are compared with Tactile surface test. Differences arise when more regular, periodic
surfaces are assessed by each method in turn. Electronic stylus instrument used to evaluate Ra

Non-Contact type Surface Roughness Instrument

A non-contact measuring instrument uses light in place of the stylus of used in a contact-type
measuring instrument. These instruments come in multiple types, such as confocal and white light
interference, and vary depending on the principle used, Optical sensors and Microscopes used instead
of probes.
 9

The Tomlinson surface meter

The Tomlinson surface meter is a comparatively cheap and reliable instrument. It was originally
designed by Dr. Tomlinson. It consists of a diamond probe (stylus) held by spring pressure against the
surface of a lapped steel cylinder and is attached to the body of the instrument by a leaf spring. The
lapped cylinder is supported on one side by the probe and on the either side by fixed rollers. Alight
spring steel arm is attached to the lapped cylinder. It carries at its tip a diamond scriber which rests
against a smoked glass. The motions of the stylus in all the directions except the vertical one are
prevented by the forces exerted by the two springs.

For measuring surface finish the body of the instrument is moved across the surface by screw
rotated by asynchronous motor. The vertical movement of the probe caused by surface irregularities
makes the horizontal lapped cylinder to roll. This causes the movement of the arm attached to the
lapped cylinder. A magnified vertical movement of the diamond scriber on smoked glass is obtained
by the movement of the arm. This vertical movement of the scriber together with horizontal
movement produces a trace on the smoked glass plate. This trace is further magnified at 50X or 100X
by an optical projector for examination.

3D laser scanning microscope (Non-Contact type Surface roughness Measuring Device)

A 3D laser scanning microscope uses the confocal principle, and a laser as the light source, to measure
the asperity of the target's surface.
1. The laser beam emitted from the laser light source scans the target surface.
 10

2. The laser light is reflected from the target surface, passes through the half mirror, and enters the
light-receiving element. At this point, the laser intensity of the received reflection, as well as the
height position of the lens, are recorded by the microscope. The laser microscope acquires 1024 data
points in the X direction and 768 data points in the Y direction, and records the intensity and lens
height for each point (1024 x 768 = 786432 points).
3. When the scan of one surface finishes, objective lens moves in Z direction by the specified pitch.
4. The same surface scan is performed again for the surface that the objective lens has moved to, and
the laser’s reflected light intensity is checked over 1024 × 768 points. The reflected light intensity of
each pixel is compared with the reflected light intensity recorded in memory as “v”. If the new
reflected light intensity is higher, the reflected light intensity data and lens height position data are
overwritten. The operations of steps (2) to (4) are repeated for the specified Z distance.
5. Finally, for each of the 1024 × 768 pixels, the reflected light intensity and lens height position are
recorded in memory at the time when the strongest laser light reflection was received.
6. If it is assumed that the image is in focus when the reflected light intensity is at maximum, it is
possible to obtain 3D data in the observation area (1024 × 768 pixels) of the microscope by stitching
together the lens height positions from the different times that the image was in focus, that is, when
the reflected light intensity was at its maximum.

 SURFACE REPLICAS A simple but effective method of surface texture measurement. The
technique involves either pressing a piece of softened plastic on to the surface (or) placing a
plasticine wall or metal ring round the specimen area and pouring in a plastic fluid.
After suitable setting time the replica is removed and an instrument reading taken using a
lightly loaded stylus. 100% is obtainable using the fluid method and softened plastic sheet offers
about 80% fidelity.
 11

Where circumstances permit, the fidelity of the replica may be checked by comparing the
profile graph of the sample with that of replica. Both readings are taken along the same path 45o cross
may be scribed on the sample and stylus reading is taken.
The stylus passes to one side of the cross two disruptions will appear on the trace indicating
that the setting must be corrected.
Surface texture: It is defined as those regular (or) irregular surface spacings which tends to form a
pattern on the surface (It Includes Waviness and roughness).
Three components of Surface texture are: Roughness, lay and Waviness.

 ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY

The atomic force microscope (AFM) was invented in 1986. With an AFM, the topography and
structure of a surface is studied, either in air or in fluid. To study a sample in an AFM, it has to be
attached to a sample holder. A solution cannot be studied. Particles can be studied, when immobilized.
Theory
The AFM is a scanning probe type microscope. Probe Scans over the sample, and it measures the
forces between probe tip and surface. The forces can be either attractive or repulsive, depending on
the sample and on the distance between probe and sample.
Atomic force microscopy is a high resolution type of scanning probe microscopy measure
surface structure in length scale 10nm-100μm. Unlike an imaging traditional microscope, AFM
provides height information of the sample. Any sample can be imaged, be it very hard (ceramic
material) or very soft (human cells, individual molecules of DNA).
Tapping mode AFM Measures topography by tapping the surface with an oscillating tip. It
eliminates the shear forces which can damage soft samples and reduce image resolution. This is the
technique of choice for most AFM work. The force on the tip causes the cantilever to bend. The
deflection is transformed to an electrical signal, using a laser beam and a photodetector.
AFM provides a 3D profile on the surface on a nanoscale, by measuring forces. AFM provides
a 3D profile of the surface on a nanoscale, by measuring between a sharp probe (<10 nm) and surface
at very short distance the probe is supported on a flexible cantilever the AFM tip “gently” touches the
surface and records small force between the probe and the surface forces between the tip and sample.
The piezoelectric materials are used for controlling the motion of the probe as it is scanned across the
sample surface.
A laser beam is reflected by the back side of a reflective cantilever onto the photodetector.
The position of the beam in the sensor measures the deflection of the cantilever and in turn the force
 12

between the tip and the sample. The feedback loop includes all of the structural elements that are
required to hold the probe at a fixed distance from the sample.

CONSTRUCTION:

1. A very sharp probe must be constructed for measurement of high-resolution images.

2. A feedback controller that permits rapid control so that the probe can follow the topography on
the surface must be created.
3. An X-Y-Z piezoelectric scanner that has linear and calibrated motion must be created.
4. A structure must be constructed in rigid, so that probe does not vibrate relative to the surface.
AFM TIP is used

1. For imaging
2. For measuring forces (and mechanical properties) at the nanoscale
3. Ss a nanoscale tool, i.e. for bending, cutting and extracting soft materials
4. High-resolution image control
Advantages of AFM

1. Minimal sample preparation

2. It provides a three-dimensional surface profile (ability to magnify in the X,Y,Z axes)
3. It works perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment
4. Possible to study biological macromolecules and even living organisms
5. It does not require expensive equipment
6. Due to its small size, it can also be combined with other microscopes or instruments.

Disadvantages of AFM

1. Not practical to make measurements on areas greater than 100μm

2. Limited scanning speed, requiring several minutes for a typical scan.
3. Images can be affected by nonlinearity, hysterisis and creep of the piezoelectric material
 13

UNIT- IV MEASURING MACHINES AND LASER METROLOGY

Tool Makers Microscope

Figure a. Tool Makers Microscope Figure b. Optical Arrangement

The tool makers microscope is based on the principle of optics.

The microscope consists of a heavy hollow base, accommodating unit underneath and above this, on the top
surface of the base, the work table carriage supported on balls and Controlled by micrometer screw.
Projecting up from the rear of the base is a column which carried microscope unit and various
interchangeable eyepieces. Light from the lamp at extreme right is collimated in the tube correcting the lamp
to the centre of this instrument and is reflected as parallel beam by the prism at the end of the tube.
The beam collects the image of the object to be inspected and this enters the microscope being turned
by another prism into inclined eyepiece. Inspection done by eye in the normal way. Magnification depends
upon the objective of the microscope & it is usually 0x to 100x.
Linear movement of the table is controlled by micrometer screw having movement upto accuracy
0.0025mm. For the most effective manipulation, magnified image of the work is compared through the
eyepiece super imposed on a prepared background engraved on a glass disc in an eyepiece.
There are several interchangeable eyepiece units. The protractor unit is prepared with radial & cross
setting lines and this may be rotated by a knurled screw for setting any one of the line with the work or image
& reading of the protractor may be made to 1 minute by means of a scale which divides each degree into 60
parts.
Applications: 1. to find relative position of various points on the work.
2. Measurement of angle by using projector eyepiece.
3. Comparison of thread forms with master profiles engraved in the eyepiece.
 14

Co-ordinate Measuring Machines

Co-ordinate Measuring Machines are equipped with digital readout or can be linked to computers for online
inspection of parts. These machines can be placed close to machine tools for efficient inspection and rapid
feedback for correction of processing parameter before the next part is made.
Important features of the CMMs are :
(i) To give maximum rigidity to machines without excessive weight, all the moving members, the bridge
structure, Z-axis carriage, and Z-column are made of hollow box construction.
(ii) A map of systematic errors in machine is built up and fed into the computer system so that the error
compensation is built up into the software.
(iii) Provided with their own computers with interactive dialogue facility and friendly software.
(iv) Thermocouples are incorporated with the computer to be used for compensation of temperature gradients
and thus provide increased accuracy and repeatability.
Construction:
They are also made more rugged to resist environmental effects in manufacturing plants such as temperature
variations, vibration and dirt. Co-ordinate Measuring Machines are built rigidly and are very precise
Main Structure
The machine incorporates the basic concept of three coordinate axes so that precise movement in x, y, and z
directions is possible. Each axis is fitted with a linear measurement transducer. The transducers sense the
direction of movement and gives digital display.

There may be four types of arrangement:

1) Cantilever type 4) Gantry type
2) Bridge Type 5) Horizontal type
3) Column type

Cantilever type:
The cantilever construction combines easy access and relatively small floor space requirements. It is
typically limited to small and medium sized machines. Parts larger than the machine table can be inserted
into the open side without inhibiting full machine travel. Below figure.1 shows a cantilever structure.

Figure.1 (Cantilever Type) Figure.2 (Bridge type) Figure.3 (Column type)

 15

Bridge Type
The bridge arrangement over the table carries the quill (z-axis) along the x-axis and is sometimes referred to
as a travelling bridge. It is claimed that the bridge construction provides better accuracy, although it may be
offset by difficulty in making two members track in perfect alignment. This is by far the most popular CMM
construction. Figure.2 shows a bridge structure.
Column Type
The column type machine is commonly referred to as a universal measuring machine rather than a CMM.
These machines are usually considered gage room instruments rather than production floor machine. The
direction of movements of the arms are as shown in Fig.3. The constructional difference in column type with
the cantilever type is with x and y-axes movements.
Gantry
In a gantry type arrangement, arms are held by two fixed supports as shown in Fig.4. Other two arms are
capable of sliding over the supports. Movements of the x, y and z-axes are also as shown in Fig.4. The gantry
type construction is particularly suited for very large components and allows the operator to remain close to
the area of inspection.
Horizontal
Figure.5 shows the construction of a horizontal structure. The open structure of this arrangement provides
optimum accessibility for large objects such as dies, models, and car bodies. Some horizontal arm machines
are referred to as layout machines. There are some horizontal machines where the probe arm can rotate like a
spindle to perform tramming operations. Tramming refers to accurate mechanical adjustment of instrument
or machine with the help of tram.

Figure.4 (Gantry type) Figure.5 (Horizontal type CMM) Figure.2 Bridge type CMM

Probing System
It is the part of a CMM that sense the different parameters required for the calculation. Appropriate probes
have to be selected and placed in the spindle of the CMM. Originally, the probes were solid or hard, such as
tapered plugs for locating holes. These probes required manual manipulation to establish contact with the
workpiece, at which time the digital display was read. Nowadays, transmission trigger-probes, optical
transmission probes, multiple or cluster probes, and motorized probes are available.

Motorized Probe
With the motorized probe, 48 positions in the horizontal axis, 15 in the vertical axis can be programmed for a
total of 720 distinct probe orientations. Fig.b shows some typical applications for motorized probe. It shows
 16

that with a range of light weight extensions, the head can reach into deep holes and recesses. The second
diagram shows that head of the probe is sufficiently compact to be regarded as an extension of the machine
quill. This enables the inspection of complex components that would otherwise be impossible or involve
complex setups.

Figure.(a) Motorized Probe Figure: b Applications of Motorized Probe

Multiple Styluses Probe Heads

Wide ranges of styli have been developed to suit many different gauging applications. Some of the different
styli available are shown mounted on a multiple gaging head in Fig.c. The selection of stylus is done based
on the application for which the probe is to be used.

Figure. C
Advantages of CMM:
1. Flexibility:
1. They can measure any dimensional characteristic of a part, including cams, gears & warped surfaces.
2. No special fixtures or gauges are required.
3. Because probe contact is light, most parts can be inspected without being clamped to the table.
2. Reduced Setup Time
3. Single Setup: Most parts can be inspected in a single setup, thus eliminating the need to reorient the parts
for access to all features.
4. Improved Accuracy
5. Improved Productivity
6. Reduced Operator Influence
 17

Functions of CMM
To measure the actual size of workpiece comparison with desired shape and evaluation of metrological
information such as Size, Form, Location, Position.
Actual size is obtained by probing the surface at discrete measuring points. Every pt is expressed in
terms of its x,y,z coordinates.
CMM components:
a. Mechanical Setup with 3 axes movement & the displacement transducer
b. Probe head to probe the work piece in a spatial direction
c. Control Unit
d. Computer with software to calculate & represent the results.

Sources of errors in CMM measurements: (i) Spatial errors (ii) Computational errors.
i. Spatial errors are errors in the measured position of a point on the surface of the Workpiece
ii. Computational errors are the errors in the estimated dimensions and form deviations of work-piece.

Applications of CMM: In automobile, machine tool, Electronics, Aerospace, and many other large companies.

The following accuracy/test items are carried out for CMM:

1. Measurement Accuracy (a) Axial length measuring accuracy (b) Volumetric length measuring accuracy
2. Axial Motion Accuracy
(a) Linear displacement accuracy (b) Straightness (c) Perpendicularity (d) Pitch, yaw and roll
3. The axial length measuring
Accuracy is tested at the lowest position of the z-axis on the opposite side of the main axial guide of CMM.
The length tested are approximately 1/10, 1/5, 2/5, 3/5, and 4/5 of the measuring range of each axis of CMM.
The test is repeated five times for each measuring.
4. Volumetric Length Measuring Accuracy

Define Tramming?
Tramming refers to indicating a cylindrical surface of a part in such a manner as to centralise the surface with
the spindle of the machine.
Probe: It is the sensory part of a CMM responsible for sensing different parameters required for
measurement.
Stylus : A pointed instrument used as an input device in the probe of a CMM.

Write short notes on Air bearing?

The fluid film of the bearing is achieved by supplying a flow of air through the bearing itself to the bearing
surface. Bearing designs exist to ensure uniform pressure is distributed across the entire bearing area.
The design of the air bearing is such that, although the air constantly dissipates from the bearing site,
the continual flow of pressurized air through the bearing is sufficient to support the working loads. Being
non-contact, air bearings avoid the traditional bearing related problems of friction, wear, and lubricant
handling, and offer distinct advantages in precision positioning and high speed applications.
 18

Computer Aided Inspection

Computer Aided Inspection (CAI) is a new technology that enables one to develop a comparison of a
physical part to a 3D CAD model. An automatic inspection method and apparatus using structured light and
machine vision camera is used to inspect an object in conjunction with the geometric model of the object.
Camera images of the object are analyzed by computer to produce the location of points on the object's
surfaces in three dimensions. Point-cloud data is taken from a laser scanner or other 3-D scanning device.

During a setup phase before object inspection, the points are analyzed with respect to the geometric
model of the object. The software provides a graphical comparison of the manufactured part compared to the
CAD model. Many points are eliminated to reduce data-taking and analysis time to a minimum and prevent
extraneous reflections from producing errors. When similar objects are subsequently inspected, points from
each surface of interest are spatially averaged to give high accuracy measurements of object dimensions. The
inspection device uses several multiplexed sensors, each composed of a camera and a structured light source,
to measure all sides of the object in a single pass.
Advantages: This process is faster, more complete, and more accurate than using a Coordinate Measuring
Machine (CMM) or other more traditional methods.

 Microhite: This high-end instrument is intuitive due to a clear and refined user philosophy of its
embedded software and allows measurements in 1 or 2 coordinate directions. Universal machine developed
for workshops and for laboratories that can be integrated as close as possible to the user. Indeed, the
robustness of its cast iron base and frame makes it a reliable instrument that guarantees an excellent
repeatability and precision in any kind of conditions. With the exception of the 1D basis functions, it is
equipped with advanced functions (angle, programming, tolerancing, 2D) and turns it into a metrological
“multi-user” asset, that replaces the most conventional measuring tools.

Laser Scanning Gauge: It basically utilises a transmitter, receiver and processor electronics. A thin band of
scanning laser light is made to pass through a linear scanner lens to render it parallel beam. The object placed
in a parallel beam, casts a time-dependent shadow. Signals from the light entering the photo cell (receiver)
are processed by a microprocessor to provide display of the dimension represented by the time difference
between the shadow edges. It can provide results to an accuracy of + 0.25 um for 10-50 mm diameter objects.
It can be used for objects 0.05 mm to 450 mm diameter and offers repeatability of 0.1 um. Figure shows a
laser scanning gauge used for non-contact measurement of large objects to an accuracy of about 0.01 mm
using the low divergence of a laser beam. A rotating mirror at the focus of the first lens produces a beam
parallel to the optic axis. The time between the leading edge of the beam being extinguished by the object
and when it emerges from the other side is a measure of the cross-section which is a function of the tangent
of the angle subtended by the object at the focus of the first lens. This technique is useful to measure the
 19

roundness and diameter of hot steel bars under conditions of vibration to an accuracy of 0.025 mm over
diameters of 5-25 mm.

UNIT - III INTERFEROMETRY

PRECISION INSTRUMENT BASED ON LASER:

1. Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
2. Laser instrument is a device to produce powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of light in which
the waves are coherent.
3. Laser development is for production of clear coherent light. The advantage of coherent light is that
whole of the energy appears to be emanating from a very small point.
4. The beam can be focused easily into either a parallel beam or onto a very small point by use of lenses
A major impact on optical measurement has been made by development in elector optics, providing
automation, greater acuity of setting and faster response time.
5. Radiation sources have developed in a number of areas, the most important developments are light
emitting diodes and lasers.
6. The laser is used extensively for interferometry particularly the He- Ne gas type.
7. The laser distance measuring interferometer has become an industry standard.
8. This produces 1 to 2mm diameter beam of red light power of 1MW and focused at a point of very
high intensity. The beam begins to expand at a rate of 1mm/m.
9. The laser beam is visible and it can be observed easily.
10. This is used for very accurate measurements of the order of 0.lnm is 100m.
LASER METROLOGY
1. Metrology lasers are low power instruments. Most are helium-neon type. Wave output laser that emit
visible or infrared light. He-Ne lasers produce light at a wavelength of 0.6nm that is in phase,
coherent and a thousand times more intense than any other monochromatic source.
2. Laser systems have wide dynamic range, low optical cross talk and high contrast.
 20

3. Laser fined application in dimensional measurements and surface inspection because of the properties
of laser light.
4. These are useful where precision, accuracy, rapid non-contact gauging of soft, delicate or hot moving
points.
USE OF LASER
Laser Telemetric system:
1. Laser telemetric system is a non-contact gauge that measures with a collimated laser beam. It
measures at the rate of 150 scans per second.
2. It basically consists of three components, a transmitter, a receiver and processor electronics. The
transmitter module produces a collimated parallel scanning laser beam moving at a high constant,
linear speed.
3. The scanning beam appears a red line. The receiver module collects and photoelically senses the laser
light transmitted past the object being measured.
4. The processor electronics takes the received signals to convert them to a convenient form and
displays the dimension being gauged.
5. The transmitter contains a low power helium-neon gas laser and its power supply, a specially
designed collimating lens, a synchronous motor, a multi faceted reflector prism, a synchronous pulse
photo detector and a protective replaceable window.
6. The high speed of scanning permits on line gauging and thus it is possible to detect changes in
dimensions when components are moving on a continuous product such as in rolling process moving
at very high speed.
7. There is no need of waiting or product to cool for taking measurements. This system can also be
applied on production machines and control then with closed feed back loops.
8. Since the output of this system is available in digital form, it can run a process controller limit alarms
can be provided and output can be taken on digital printer.
 21

Laser and LED based distance measuring instruments

22
23
 24

Figure: Two rays out of phase

 25

Light Sources of Interferometry:

To get Interference over large path differences, it needs with narrow lines, for that temperature and pressure
of the discharge must be low and so that the surface brightness will be moderate.
Variety of light sources is available for Interferometry and is chosen based on application. Lights are
used such as Mercury 198, Hydrogen, Helium, Neon, Cadmium, Krypton 86, thallium.
26
 27

Types of Interferometer
1. Michelson Interferometer 2. Twyman- Green Interferometer
3. N.P.L Flatness Interferometer 4. N.P.L Gauge Interferometer
5. A.C Laser Interferometer 6. D.C Laser Interferometer
28
29
 30

* TWYMAN GREEN MICHELSON INERFEROMETER

In this Michelson Interferometer the rays actually describe a cone, giving rise to various types of fringe
Patterns which may be difficult to interpret. It consists of a pair of collimated lenses L1 and L2. The
collimated lenses render the light beam from it parallel combined with a pinhole source diaphragm. Thus
all the rays describe the same path, this makes the fringe patterns to be interpreted easily. Two beam
interferometer as modified by Twyman-Green Interferometer.

NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

Its an optical arrangement of the NPL Flatness Interferometer, This Instrument as name suggests is mainly
used for checking the flatness of the flat surfaces. In this Instrument mercury vapour lamp is used as
light source whose radiations are passed through a green filter and thus leaving a green monochromatic
light. The wavelength of resulting monochromatic radiation is of order of 0.0005 mm. This radiation is
then brought to focus on pin hole in order to obtain an intense point of source of monochromatic light,
which is in the focal plane of a collimating lens, and is thus projected as a parallel beam of light.
This beam is directed on to the gauge to be tested with is wrung on the base plate, via on optical flat
so that optical fringes are formed across the face of the gauge, the fringes being viewed from directly
above by means of a thick plate semi-reflector set at 45o to the Optical axis. If the gauge face is flat and
parallel to the base plate, the fringe pattern produced will be straight, parallel and equally spaced.
In case taper id present, then the fringe pattern obtained is as shown in Figure.b, when the gauge
surface is convex or concave the fringe pattern is shown in figure.c
31
 32

Pitter-N.P.L Gauge Interferometer:

This is also called as the gauge length interferometer, as it is used for determining actual dimensions or
absolute length of the gauges. Figure shows the schematic arrangement of N.P.L Gauge interferometer.
The light from the sources falls on slit A through lens L1. After collimation by lens L2 it goes through
constant deviation prism P whose rotation determines wavelength passed, through reference flat (F) to
upper surface of gauge block G and base plate B to which it is wrung. Light is reflected black in mirror P
and its patterns are observed through a telescope.

A.C LASER INTERFEROMETER:

Laser Interferometer utilizes the principles of both optical techniques and digital electronics. It used A.C
Laser as the light source and thus enables the measurement to be made over longer distances. Figure
shows the arrangement of a laser Interferometric system. It is highly accurate and versatile measuring
system that can cope with industrial environments. It has high repeatability and resolution of
displacement measurement, high accuracy, long range optical path, easy installation and no change in
performance due to ageing or wear and tear. A Single laser sources can be used for as many as six
simultaneous measurements in different axes. Its highly expensive.
 33

 DC Laser Interferometer

Multiple Beam Interferometer:

In Ordinary methods the interference bands are obtained

are broad in themselves and the shapes of irregularities cannot be
established with certainity. These disadvantages can be overcome
by the use of multi beam interferometer. In this type the beams are
forced to pass the interference space a great number of times so
that the final image is built up from a large number of partial
beams with decreasing intensity. These fringes are sharp. The light
from source S falls on semi-Silvered mirror M through the
collimating lens L1 and reflected through a semi-silvered
mirror interference plate P and on the surface B to be tested.
The fringes are observed through the microscope A.
34
 35

UNIT-V IMAGE PROCESSING FOR METROLOGY

Imaging Systems Overview

Computer imaging systems come in many different configurations, depending on the application.
As technology advances these systems get smaller, faster and more sophisticated. How images are
sensed and transformed into computer files, how the computer vision and image processing tools
software can be used for image processing and analysis.
Computer imaging systems are comprised of two primary component types: Hardware &
software. The hardware components can be divided into image acquisition subsystem, the computer
itself and display devices.
Software allows us to manipulate the image and perform any desired analysis or processing on the
image data. Software is used to control the imae acquisition and storage process. Images may be
acquired by the computer via camera or scanner or can be input from any media that can store.
Standard analog video camera requires a frame grabber, image digitizer to interface with the
computer. It is a piece of hardware that accepts a standard analog video signal and outputs an image
in the form that a computer can understand a digital image.

Typical video signal contains frames of video information, where each frame corresponds to a full
screen of visual information. Each frame may then broken down into fields and each field consists
of alternating lines of video information. Where the solid lines represent one field of information
and the dotted lines represent the other field. The analog signal is converted to a digital image by
sampling the continuous signal at a fixed rate. Once this process has been completed for an entire
frame of video information, Grabbed a frame and computer can store it and process it as digital
image.
 36

 Computer Imaging Systems:

Computer Imaging systems is defined as the acquisition and processing of visual information by
computer. The importance of digital image processing is derived from the fact that our primary
sense in our visual sense.
Computer Imaging systems also referred to as digital image processing, it is a field that
continues to grow, with new applications. Visual information, transmitted in the form of digital
images, has become a major method of communication.
Our vision system allows us to gather information without the need for physical interaction,
it analyzes all types of information directly from pictures and videos. It has ability to navigate
environment. The information that can be conveyed in images has been known throughout the
centuries to be extraordinary. “One picture is worth a thousand words.
The computer representation of an image requires the equivalent of many thousand words of
data, without a corresponding amount of information.
For the development of many subareas within the field of computer imaging, such as image
segmentation and image compression. Important aspect of computer imaging involves ultimate
“receiver” of the visual information.
Digital Image Processing into two primary application areas namely
1. Computer Vision Applications 2. Human Vision Application with image analysis
In computer vision applications the output images are used by a computer while in human vision
applications the output images are for human consumption.
The human visual system and the computer as a vision system have varying limitations and
strengths. The human vision system limited to visible wavelengths of light, which cover only small
area.

Figure: Computer imaging is

separated into computer vision
and human vision, with image
analysis being part of both

Image analysis involves the examination of the image data to solve an imaging problem, Image
analysis methods comprise the major components of a computer vision system. In the development
of a human vision image processing application, many images must be examined and tested.
 37

 Image Analysis and computer Vision

Image analysis is necessary during the development of the system. Image analysis involves
investigation of the image data for a specific application. The image analysis process requires the
use of tools such as image segmentation, image transforms, feature extraction and pattern
classification.
Image Segmentation is to find higher level objects from the raw image data.
Feature Extraction is the process of acquiring higher level image like shape or colour information.
It requires the use of image transforms to find spatial frequency information.
Pattern Classification: It takes higher level information and identifying objects within the image.
Computer vision systems are used in various applications like environments, manufacturing plants,
hospital surgical suites, mars suites.
Exmaple:
In Manufacturing systems: Computer vision is used for quality control, here computer vision
system will scan manufactured products for finding defects, if there are any defects it send signals
to robotic manipulator to remove defective parts.
For this type, first image database consisting of sample images is first created. Next image
analysis is applied to develop necessary algorithms to solve the problem. This type of examples
involves the automated inspection.

 Image Processing and Human Vision

Human Vision applications of digital image processing involve a human being in the visual loop.
In other words, the images are to be examined and acted. These applications require and
understanding of how human visual system operates.
The field of Image processing for human visual applications include Image restoration,
enhancement and compression. It is used to develop these types of algorithms.
In order to restore, enhance or compress digital images, needed to examine the images and
understand how the raw image data relate to human visual perception.
Image restoration is the process of taking an image with estimated, degradation and
restoring to its original appearance.
It is often used in the field of photography or publication where an image was degraded.
Image analysis is used in development of many computer vision applications in medical field.
In medical field like systems to automatically diagnosis skin tumors, to aid neurosurgeoms
during brain surgery and to perform clinical tests. When specialists are unavailable, this method
is used to diagnosis.
Computer vision systems that are being used in the surgical suite have been used to improve the
surgeons ability to “see” what is happening in the body during surgery.
It is also used for tissue and cell analysis, and it is also identify and count the cells.
 38

Applications:
1. The field of law enforcement and security is an active area of image analysis research.
2. Security systems to identify people by retinal scans, facial scans and the veins in the hand.
3. Reflected ultraviolet imaging systems are used to find fingerprints, shoe prints, body fluids
and bite marks which are not visible to human visual system.
4. Applications range from autonomous vehicles to target tracking and identification.
5. Satellites orbiting the Earth collect massive amounts of image data every day and these
images are automatically scanned to aid in making maps, predicting weather changes.

Restoration techniques used in noise removal or to fix geometrical distortion. Image restoration is
used in space applications. Image enhancement is used to improve visual quality, image sharpening
and enhancement are done with the help of human visual system. Image enhancement method used
for medical is different to satellite images.

Figure a) Noisy Image b) Noise removed with Image restoration

 39

 Image Pre-Processing
1. The aim of the pre-processing is an improvement of the image data that enhances some image
features important for further processing.
2. Pre-processing is the name used for operations on images at the lowest level of idea- both input
and output are intensity images.
3. These images are same like as the original data captured by the sensor, with an intensity image
represented by a matrix of image function values(brightness).
4. Pre-processing doesnot increase image information content, pre-processing is to concentrate on
high quality image acquisition.
5. It is useful in a variety of situations, it helps to suppress information that is not relevant to the
specific image processing.
Image pre-processing methods are classified into 4 categories:
1. Pixel brightness transformations. 3. Local neighborhood pre-processing.
2. Geometric Transformations. 4. Image restoration.
 40

Image pre-processing techniques are also can be done by image enhancement and Image
restoration.
Pre-Processing aims to correct some degradation in the image
First Group : No knowledge about the nature of the degradation.
Second Group: It assumes knowledge about the properties of the image acquisition device, and the
conditions under which the image was obtained.
Third Group: It uses knowledge about objects that are sought in the image, which may simplify
the pre-processing. In this the image is coarsely processes to reduce data quantity and to fine image
objects. And it is carried out until finer resolution is obtained.
Pixel Brightness Transformations:
There are two classes of pixel brightness transformation
1. Brightness corrections: Brightness correction modifies the pixel brightness
2. Gray Scale Transformations: It doesnot depend on the position of the pixel in the image. It
changes brightness without regard to position in the image.

 Image Enhancement
1. Aim of Image enhancement is to improve & explain the information present in images for
human viewers.
2. Image enhancement algorithms are used to sharpen or smooth images features for display
analysis
3. Image enhance techniques uses some features to improve the visual perception of an Image.
4. An enhancement algorithm shows a better quality image for some application which can be
done by reducing the noise or increasing the image contrast. It is done by Empirically.
Image Enhance techniques can be classified into two categories:
i. Spatial Domain Method ii. Transform domain method.

Spatial Domain Method

The spatial domain method operates directly on pixels, where as transform domain method
operates on fourier transform of an image and then transforms it back to the spatial domain.

1. Initially enhancement techniques are histogram-based, because they are simple, fast.
2. Unsharp masking sharpens the edges by subtracting a portion of a filtered component from
the original image.
3. Unsharp masking has popular enhancement tool to assist in diagnosis.
4. The spatial domain techniques deals with the manipulation of pixel values
Spatial domain techniques is of three types namely:
(i) Point Opeartion (ii) Mask Operation (iii) Global Operation
Point Operation:
 41

In point operation, each pixel is modified by an equation that is not dependent on other pixel
values. It is represented by equation g(m,n) = T [ f (m,n)]
In point operation, T operates on one pixel, or there exists a one-to-one mapping
between the input image f(m,n) and output image g(m,n).
Mask operation:
1. In mask operation, each pixel is modified according to the values in a small neighborhood as
shown in figure 2.
2. Examples of mask operations are spatial low-pass filtering using a box filter (or) median
filter. In mask operation, the operator T operates on neighborhood pixels.
3. Mask is a small matrix whose values are often termed as weights. Each mask has an origin.
4. The origins of symmetric masks are usually their centre pixel position.
Global Opeartion:
In global operation all pixel values in the image are taken into consideration. Frequency domain
operations are usually called as Global operations.

Figure.1 Point Operation Figure.2 Mask operation

Enhancement Through Point Opeartion
1. In point operation, each pixel value is mapped to a new pixel value.
2. Point operations are basically memory less operations.
3. In a point operation, the enhancement at any point depends only on the image value at that point
4. The point operation maps the input image f(m,n) to the output image g(m,n) shown in figure.3
5. It is clear from figure, every pixel of f(m,n) with same gray level map to a single gray value in
the ouput image.

Figure.3 Illustration
of Point operation
 42

Types of Point Operation:

i. Brightness modification ii. Contrast Adjustment iii. Histogram manipulation
i. Brightness modification
1. The brightness of an image depends on the value associated with the pixel of the image.
2. The brightness of the image can be increased by adding a constant value to each and every
pixel of the image.
3. Similarly the brightness of the image can be decreased by subtracting a constant value to
each and every pixel of the image.
4. In a word, changing the brightness of an image, a constant is added (or) subtracted from
the luminance of all sample values.
a. Increasing the brightness of an Image: A simple method to increase the brightness value
of an imge is to add a constant value to each and every pixel of the image.
If f[m,n] represents the original image then a new image g[m,n] is obtained by adding a
constant k to each pixel f[m,n]. It is represented by g[m,n] = f[m,n] + k
b. Decreasing the brightness of an Image:
The brightness of an image can be decreased by subtracting a constant value k to
each and every pixel of the image. If f[m, n] represents the original image then a new image
g[m, n] is obtained by subtracting a constant k to each pixel f[m, n]. It is represented by
g[m, n] = f[m, n] – k
ii. Contrast Adjustment:
Contrast adjustment is done by scaling all the pixels of the image by a constant k.
It is given by, g[m, n] = f[m, n] * k
Changing the contrast of an image, changes the range of luminance values present in the
image. Differences in images are shown clearly below.

iii. Histogram Manipulation

1. It modifies the histogram of an input image so as to improve the visual quality of image.
2. To understand histogram manipulation, it is necessary that to have some knowledge.
Histogram equalization techniques is used to improve the visual quality of the image.
 43

a. Histogram
The histogram of an image is a plot of the number of occurrences of gray levels in the image
against the gray-level values. It provides intensities in an image. It unable to expand any
information regarding spatial relationships between pixels.
1. Histogram of a dark image will be clustered towards the lower gray level.
2. Histogram of a bright image will be clustered towards the higher gray level.
3. Image brightness may be improved by modifying the histogram of the image.
4. For a low-contrast image, the histogram will not be spread equally, histogram will be narrow.
5. For a high-contrast image, the histogram spread equally in the gray level.
b. Histogram Equalisation:
1. It is a technique, where the histogram of the resultant image is as flat as possible.
2. Equalization is a process that attempts to spread out gray levels in an image, so that evenly
distributed across. It re-assigns the brightness values of pixels based on the image histogram.
3. It provides more visually good results across a wide range of images.
44
 45

Linear Gray-Level Transformation

Image Negative (or) Inverse Transformation

It is clear that negative image gives more information than original image

Non-Linear Gray level Transformation:

Non-linear transformation maps small equal intervals into non-equal intervals. It is discussed
(i) Thresholding (ii) Gray-level Slicing
i. Thresholding:
It is used to extract a part of an image, which contains all the information. Thresholding is a part of
a more general segmentation problem.
Hard thresholding: Pixels having intensity lower than the threshold T are set to zero and the pixels
having intensity greater than the threshold are left to original intensity required.
Application:
1. Hard thresholding can be used to obtain a binary image from a Grayscale image.
2. The Grayscale mapping which allows to obtain binary image to grayscale image.
 46

ii. Grey level slicing The purpose of gray-level slicing is to highlight a specific range of gray value

a. Gray level slicing without background

It displays high values for a range of int3rest and low values in other areas. The main drawback of
this approach is that the background information is discarded.

b. Gray-level slicing with background

In this main aim is to display high values for a range of interest and original gray level values in
other areas. It preserves the background of the image, shown in below figure.2

Figure. 1 Figure. 2

Gray Scale Images:

1. Grayscale contains only brightness information. Each pixel value in a grayscale image
corresponds to quantity of light. Brightness can be differentiated in a grayscale image.
2. In a grayscale image, each pixel is represented by a byte or word. It represents light intensity
at that point of image.
3. An 8-bit image will have a brightness variation from 0 to 255, where “0” represents black
and “255” represents white. It shown in below figure.
 47

4. A Gray scale image measures only the light intensity. Each pixel is a scalar proportional to the
brightness.

 Image Transforms:

Image transform is basically a representation of an image. There are two reasons for transforming
an image from one representation to another.
First, the transformation may isolate critical components of the image pattern so that they
are directly accesible for analysis. Second, the transformation may place the image data in a more
compact form so that they can be stored and transmitted efficiently.

Different types of image transforms:

1. Fourier Transform 5. Discrete Cosine Transform
2. Walsh Transform 6. KL transform
3. Hadamard transform 7. Radon Transform
4. Slant Transform 8. Wavelet Transform

Classification of Image Transforms: Image transforms can be classified on the nature of the basis

(i) Transforms with orthogonal basis functions.

(ii) Transforms with non-sinusoidal orthogonal basis functions
(iii) Transforms whose basis functions depend on the statistics of the input data
(iv) Directional Transformation, that is transforms whose basis functions are capable of
representing he directional information present in the image.
 48

Fourier transform is the most transforms with orthogonal sinusoidal basis function, Sinusoidal in
nature include Fourier transform, discrete cosine transform & discrete sine transform. For Image
compression, discrete cosine transform is used.
The transforms whose basis functions are non-sinusoidal in nature includes Haar Transform,
Walsh transform, Hadamard transform and Slant transform.
The Haar transform is the best example of a wavelet transform. This signal can be
represented in different resolutions. The transform whose basis function depends on the statistics of
input signal are KL transform and singular value decomposition. The KL transform is considered to
be the best among all linear transforms with respect to energy compaction.

 Human Vision system (or) Human Visual System

Human visual system is the most sophisticated, advanced neural system in the human body.

Anatomy of the Human Visual System

 49

it is emitted. Two sources of equal intensity donot appear equally bright. Luminance, the intensity
per unit area, is a psychophysical property that can be measured. Contrast is used to find the
difference in luminance of objects. The brightness of a surface depends upon the background. The
small square on the right hand side appears brighter when compared to the brightness of the square
on the left-hand side, even though the gray level of both squares is the same. This phenomenon is
termed „Simultaneous Contrast‟. Colours look darker & smaller against white and lighter and
larger against black.
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner
Scanned by CamScanner