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 Volume 5, Number 1, January 2013

Street Gangs, Organized Crime Groups, and Terrorists:

Differentiating Criminal Organizations
Carter F. Smith1
Jeff Rush2

Catherine E. Burton3

Abstract

Individually street gangs, organized crime (OC) groups, and terrorists all present serious
problems for national and international law enforcement agencies. Imagine though if these three
were connected or linked in substantive ways. Whether we want to accept this or not, the lines
between these structures are often blurred and ill-defined. Each of these groups often takes on
the characteristics of the other group, if not in motive then in technique. Additionally, these
groups sometimes form alliances with one another further complicating law enforcement efforts
to combat their criminal activity. Distinguishing these groups from one another, as well as
outlining areas in which they overlap will help direct law enforcement toward a more successful
pursuit of these groups.

Keywords: Gangs; Organized Crime; Terrorism; Law Enforcement

                                                            
1
 Austin Peay State University, P.O. Box 4455, Clarksville, TN 37044 smithcf@apsu.edu 
2
 Troy University, MSCX 320F, Troy, AL, rushj@troy.edu  
3
The Citadel, 171 Moultrie Street, Charleston, SC 29409 catherine.burton@citadel.edu

 
 
www.InvestigativeSciencesJournal.org Vol.5, No.1, January 2013
 

Birds of a feather flock together and so it is with gangs, organized crime (OC) groups and
terrorists. The lines between these three criminal groups are becoming blurred and ill-defined.
Understanding this will help law enforcement toward a more successful pursuit and investigation
of each of them individually and in their collective pursuits.

Street Gangs
As with terrorism, coming up with a nice, neat, acceptable definition of street gangs has
been difficult. There has been little agreement on the definition of a gang, especially between
academics and practitioners. With each state offering its own definition of a gang and perhaps
more importantly the numbers required to constitute a gang, The National Alliance of Gang
Investigator Associations (NAGIA) has proposed the following as a common definition for all
states:
A group or association of three or more persons who may have a common
identifying sign, symbol, or name and who individually or collectively engage in,
or have engaged in, criminal activity which creates an atmosphere of fear and
intimidation. Criminal activity includes juvenile acts that if committed by an adult
would be a crime.
Noted gang author Thomas Barker (J. Rush, personal communication 7 July 2012)
suggests the following definition: Group of individuals who engage in crime for profit on a
continuing basis. Both of these definitions make sense with Barker’s of course being the
simplest, and oftentimes the simplest explanation is best (cf. Occam’s Razor). While simple,
Barker’s definition has problems, the biggest of which is what constitutes a continuing basis.
However a state chooses to define a gang (and 41 choose to do so, along with Washington,
D.C.), most definitions do have some similarities and most include a group of three or more
persons who engage in illegal activity and have some common sign or identifier. In the end,
though, gangs are what gangs do (Ryan, 2012) and that is crime.
In the 2011 FBI Gang Threat assessment, they identify 1.4 million active gangs (of all
types) with more than 33,000 gang members nationwide. These gangs are represented in inner-
cities, suburbs, prisons, the military, and Native American reservations. Gangs, as do terrorists,
use the Internet extensively for recruitment and radicalization thus providing their wide ranging
representation. Contemporary street gangs “have generally been in existence for 20 or more
years: they keep regenerating themselves” (Klein & Maxson, 2006, p. 176). Gangs have existed
since the 1800s if not earlier, though it could be argued that they did not receive much attention
until the nineteen eighties. Not all gangs (like other criminal and most terrorist organizations)
have an identified hierarchy, however, those that do, follow the model with a defined set of
leaders and followers (Ball & Curry, 1995; Sheldon, Tracy & Brown, 2001; Weisberg, 2003).
Decker et al. (1998) noted that when asked, many gang members did not identify the structure of
their organization – perhaps in order to avoid assisting future conspiracy prosecutions. Of course
it is also possible they didn’t know the structure (kind of sounds like the lone wolf idea doesn’t
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it). Nonetheless, to operate at the political, international, and sophisticated levels where
advanced gangs are found, a functional organizational structure is essential.
While each gang’s structure is unique to it, O’Deane’s (2012) five step progression and
structure is informative for all three: gangs, OC groups and terrorists. While each gang may call
its member something different, the basic progression as outlined by O’Deane makes sense.
From an individual who is at risk or interested in joining, to becoming an associate to a regular
member to hardcore member and finally to leader (pp. 21-22).
Gang members vary in age. The below chart from the National Gang Center is
instructive:

For every year, the number of adults involved in gangs is greater than the number of
juveniles. This seems to make sense and lends credibility to the idea that many gang members
probably don’t age out of gang banging. Though what may happen is older members become the
shot callers rather than the workers. While there’s no doubt that many a juvenile gang member
cease gang activity upon becoming an adult (for a variety of reasons) many continue to gangbang
as an adult. We would suggest that as gang members become older, the level of sophistication
and organization of the gang increases. In other words, the gang changes to fit the older gang
members, or perhaps the older gang members change the gangs as their interests, knowledge,
education and training change. Like any organization, as the member’s progress up the ranks, the
organization changes to reflect the new leadership and/or the realities of the world in which it
finds itself. This is true of gangs, OC groups and terrorist groups (e.g., Al Qaeda is not dead, but
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is certainly different with the death of OBL and the ascension of Zawahiri). As the gang
becomes more structured, and more focused (or criminally diversified if you will), the
recruitment of younger people takes on a new level of sophistication. Much like OC and terrorist
groups, there’s more to offer the young recruit than just banging. Participation gets the individual
money, power, women, cars, status, respect, etc.
The question also exists as to whether we’re seeing two distinct groups here or whether
the youth gang becomes the adult gang. Regardless, the possibility of connections between youth
gangs and adult criminal organizations has become a classic issue in gang research (Howell &
Decker, 1999; Klein & Maxson, 2006; Thrasher, 1927). Many scholars have proposed that
organized crime groups differ significantly from street gangs (Klein & Maxson, 2006). A
progression of sorts exists in both gangs and organized crime groups. This progression begins
with youth (generally under age 18) who participate in a variety of criminal activities to prove
themselves or otherwise demonstrate their usefulness and/or dedication to the gang or OC group.
Terrorist groups would seem to follow the same basic pattern, though the idea of the
Lone Wolf seems to be unique to terrorism.
Of the gangs Thrasher studied almost 100 years ago, the majority (37.51%) had members
in the 11-17 age range, followed by 25.15% in the 16-25 year old range. Relatively few of the
gangs of that day and time were comprised exclusively of adults (3.13%). Though the age of the
membership has not been used to distinguish gangs from organized crime groups, gangs of today
also appear to be more youth oriented, while adults often comprise the ranks of organized crime
groups. As one moves along the continuum toward the goal of being the Italian Mafia, this
makes some sense. That is the traditional youth gang is further to the left and as they become
older, wiser, more mature they become more sophisticated, more stable, more organized.
This is important for a variety of reasons. The FBI report identifies a significant increase
in gang membership across the country with the Northeast and Southeast seeing the largest
increase and the West and North Central having the larger numbers. This increase includes all
types of gangs as well as an increase in the numbers of juveniles being involved. Will these
juveniles simply age out or will they just become adult gang members?
As noted earlier, the composition of gangs is important for a variety of reasons. The
organization of gangs can be determined by the levels of membership and leadership, the holding
of regular meetings, existence of written rules, and involvement in or relationships with the
owners of legitimate businesses (Decker et al., 2001). As gangs evolve, so too does their
criminality activity. Gang involvement has been seen in a wide variety of crime including drug
and human trafficking, gun trafficking, robberies, and burglaries. The National Gang Information
Center identified gangs as at least a moderate criminal threat in all reporting jurisdictions and as
a significant threat in most (FBI, 2011). Depending on the jurisdiction, gangs (and gang
members) were responsible for 48-90% of the violent crime (FBI, 2011). As can be seen, while
gangs may change their level of criminality, violence remains a significant part of who they are
and what they do.

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As street gangs evolve toward organized crime groups, we begin to see written and
enforced codes of conduct with consequences for breaking the rules and leaving the gang. This is
more characteristic of organized groups (Decker et al., 2001). We also begin to see more
relationships between gangs and between gangs (and gang members) and more legitimate
pursuits. Again, these relationships can be indicative of a transformation from street gang to
organized crime group (Decker et al., 2001).
Organized Crime
As with gangs and terrorism there exists no universally accepted definition of organized
crime. Organized crime has not gone away as the FBI has mentioned on several occasions, and
it has its tentacles in a wide variety of criminal and legitimate enterprises. Cressey (1969) was
one of the first to suggest a standardized definition:
An organized crime is any crime committed by a person occupying, in an
established division of labor, a position designed for the commission of crimes
providing that such division of labor include at least one position for a corrupter,
one position for a corruptee, and one position for an enforcer. (p. 319)
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004) defined organized crime as:
…a structured group of three or more persons, existing for a period of time and
acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or
offences established . . . in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or
other material benefit. (p. 5)
This sounds strikingly similar to definitions of street gangs.
Abadinsky (2010, p.3) put forth a list of common attributes often found in organized
crime groups:
1. lack of political goals
2. hierarchical structure
3. limited or exclusive membership
4. constitution as a unique subculture
5. self-perpetuation
6. willingness to use illegal violence and bribery
7. demonstrated specialization/division of labor
8. monopolism
9. strict rules and regulations
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Many of these characteristics have been used to define organized crime by earlier research and
also include political corruption, innovations, and participation in legitimate business as well as
criminal activity (Grennan, Britz, Rush, & Barker, 2000; Britz & Grennan, 2006). Other studies
challenged the idea of using a definition that includes a hierarchical structure, and instead point
out that some groups defined as organized crime, are in fact disorganized and often consist of
loose networks or cells (Varese, 2010).
Most, if not all, organized crime groups evolved to that point from their beginnings as a
street gang. Whether they would have met any of the current definitions of a street gang is
irrelevant, they presented themselves as one, believed themselves to be one, and perhaps more
importantly the community and in many cases law enforcement saw them as one. This is an
important point, because many in law enforcement today don’t see, can’t see, or won’t see their
gangs as gangs, despite how the gangs or the community view them. Given this apparently
natural transition from street gang to organized crime group, it seems fair to suggest that we
should be able to identify where street gangs fall on a continuum like the one depicted in Figure
1 ranging from disorganized gangs (referred to as Houly Ghoulies) to well organized crime
groups, with the Italian (to be distinguished from the Russian, the Israeli, etc.) Mafia as what
may be the best example of organization (and what many street gangs strive towards).

Figure 1 (created by the authors)

Gangs/OC Continuum

Middle
East OC Vice
Bloods 18th Street Lords Italian OC

Hooly Mexican Gangster

Crips
Ghoulies Mafia Disciples

Mara Russian
Salvatrucha Mafia

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As can be seen from the continuum in Figure 1,law enforcement professionals, educators,
helping professionals, and others interested in classifying a specific crime group (i.e. gang)
should be able to place the gang(s) along this continuum allowing them to compare them to other
gangs/groups and have some sense of their level of organization and maturity. For example,
missing from Figure 1 are outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMGs). Clearly OMGs fit toward the
Italian OC end of the continuum. This is based on their level of sophistication and organization.
Asian gangs, Tongs, Triads and the like can also be placed along the continuum, again more
toward the Italian OC end for many of the same reasons as the OMGs. Doing so would help the
agency identify what approach(es) might work best to intervene, suppress or prevent. For the
purposes of this discussion, however, it helps in assessing the likelihood of a gang-OC group-
terrorism connection. The assumption here being that a terrorist group would most likely prefer
to affiliate or work with a gang that is farther advanced along the continuum.
Terrorism
Similar to definitions of street gang and OC groups, definitions of terrorism also vary
widely and are usually inadequate (Hudson, 1999). Terrorism often defies a universally
acceptable definition (Abadinsky, 2010). Even terrorism researchers often neglect to define the
term other than by citing the basic U.S. Department of State (2004) definition of terrorism,
contained in Title 22 of the United States Code, Section 2656f(d): "premeditated, politically
motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or
clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience." And the State Department’s is but
one definition of terrorism that exists in U.S. agencies. To the extent that people look to the
United Nations for help in these areas, “there is no UN definition of terrorism” (EYE, n.d.
emphasis in the original).
As opposed to organized crime, terrorism is political, and is considered relative to one’s
political views (Abadinsky, 2010). One could argue that the Italian Mafia is very political, they
corrupt public officials, engage in bribery, lobbying, etc. It should be noted here that although
organized crime is not political in the purest sense, the Italian Mafia could be considered political
as they are politically connected and through corruption, bribery and lobbying try to use politicos
for their own, almost exclusively nefarious, purposes. An act of violence considered terrorism in
the U.S. may not be viewed as such in another country. The type of violence that distinguishes
terrorism from ordinary crime or military action in wartime can be defined in objective terms
(Hudson, 1999). This seems to be part of the sticking point at the United Nations (EYE, n.d.).
Adding to the complexity of definitions are the Mexican Drug Cartels. They operate both
as organized crime and terrorist groups using youth for recruitment thus mimicking street gangs
as discussed herein. The Mexican DTOs (or TCOs) might be the quintessential group represented
by this article, encompassing the characteristics of street gangs, OC groups and terrorist groups.
What they’re officially categorized as depends on who is doing the categorizing.

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Like gangsters, terrorists are often recruited to the cause. Also like gangsters, their
reasons for joining vary as much as the individuals vary. The terrorist recruiters seem to be
particularly adept at identifying where the potential recruit is and using that as their primary
recruiting mechanism. Some join a terrorist group out of boredom, or a desire to pursue a cause
they regard as just, or a desire to use special skills (Hudson, 1999). More educated youths may
be motivated by genuine political or religious convictions (Hudson, 1999). With the Internet, we
know that many a terrorist becomes one on their own by reading and listening to information on
the Internet. The speeches of long dead Al Qaeda recruiter Al-Awlaki is one example of this.
This of course presents some problems for law enforcement, especially the Feds, as many think
if you can’t tie the offender (and thus the offense) to Al Qaeda then it’s not terrorism and they’re
not a terrorist. This is similar to many dealings with gangsters, though less so with members of
OC groups.
As state support for terrorism seems to be waning, the ability of financing terrorism
becomes more problematic. As a result, many terrorists and terrorist groups are relying on pre-
existing criminal networks for financing and personnel (Altran, 2010). Attempting to analyze
terrorism without considering crime undermines all other counter-terrorist activities (Shelley et
al., 2005). Using crime to finance terrorist activities is not new as right wing terrorists have been
doing this for many years. The boundaries of the new terrorist networks are very loose, and
anyone who wishes to become a terrorist can become one with Internet access (Altran, 2010).
Over a period as long as a year or more, a recruit generally moves in a slow, gradual fashion
toward full membership in a terrorist group (Hudson, 1999).
Connecting Street Gangs, OC and Terrorism
It is well known that terrorists have affiliations with organized crime groups (Shelley et
al., 2005). Organized crime activity, especially the levying of taxes against the drug trade and
committing credit card fraud, has become a major revenue source for terrorism (Makarenko,
2004). In a Wikileaks memo released in April of 2011, it was suggested that "the Mafia 'still
abounds in Italy and may be indirectly supporting terrorist groups in Columbia and Central
Asia'" (Friends, 2011, n.p.). This memo, sent by the Charge d'affaires in Rome goes on to note
that the drugs and arms trafficking of the Mafia in Italy have at least indirectly benefited terrorist
groups in Colombia and Central Asia (Friends, 2011). The Charge d'affaires urged then Speaker
of the House Nancy Pelosi, to "mention, both publicly and privately, the importance for both
Italy and the United States of the fight against organized crime" (Friends, n.p.). The assessment
was confirmed by a 2005 FBI intelligence assessment which noted, in part, the exchange of
weapons for drugs with Islamic terrorist groups (Friends, n.p.).
Gangs in the U.S. cultivate connections to terrorist groups and threaten the homeland
security of the U.S. (Rogers, 2007). There are several similarities between terrorists and
individuals engaged in gang activity and organized crime. Members of each of the organization
types commit fraud, theft, forgery, and violent street crime (Shelley et al., 2005). They all

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engage in weapons trafficking if only to further their own ability to acquire weapons (Abadinsky,
2010). Members of each have engaged in trafficking drugs and human beings, extortion,
intimidation, and bribing of government representatives (Shelley et al., 2005).
Rogers suggested that the definitional similarities between youth gangs and terrorist
groups were superficial, as gang members were most interested in committing criminal activities
while the goals of terrorists were related to inflicting massive numbers of casualties and crippling
the U.S. economy (2007). Rogers’ analysis of street gangs more closely defined those in the first
and possibly second generation as described by Sullivan and Bunker (2007). Terrorist groups
appear to have a blend of youth and adults, based apparently on the type of position and level of
responsibility.
As the Arab Spring becomes the Islamic Winter, the likelihood of increased connections
between gangs, OC groups and terrorists appears to be increasing. From the west coast to the east
coast, with many stops in between, more and more ethnic gangs are being identified (Knox,
2006; NGIC, 2007; Valdez, 2007). While “new” gangs forming are really nothing new, many of
these gangs are ethnically based from countries which also breed Islamic Supremacists. Kurdish
Pride, Somali gangs, Yemini gangs, and Iraqi gangs have been identified in a variety of cities
across the country. The membership of these "street" gangs initially began with refugees or
immigrants from these war torn countries. In terms of organized crime groups, outlaw
motorcycle gangs have long since absorbed chapters of smaller, local biker gangs in order to
foster the growth of their organization. In Germany, we have seen chapters of the outlaw
motorcycle gang, the Mongols, and police indicate they are Lebanese led, Muslim dominated,
and are living up to the violent reputation of the OMGs and having territorial disputes with
chapters of the Hell’s Angels. Additionally, there have been reports of OMGs fighting with
Muslim dominated street gangs (Welch, 2009). While none of this is necessarily indicative of a
connection between terrorist groups and gangs, however, it is not unreasonable to believe that
terrorist groups (or leaders) would seek out members of their own ethnicity to work for them
regardless of a shared ideology (at that time). While ethnicity may be the preferred “glue” in the
end it’s about making alliances that benefit everyone involved. One group does not necessarily
have to like or trust another group if, in the end everyone gains something they want. This is
perhaps best portrayed with the FX television series Sons of Anarchy. Congresswoman Sue
Myrick, in a letter to Janet Napolitano said, "We have seen their cooperation in countries across
South America, particularly the tri-border area of South America (bounded by Puerto Iguazu,
Argentina; Ciudad del Este, Paraguay; and Foz do Iguanzo, Brazil). Hezbollah operates almost
like a Mafia family in the region, often demanding protection money and 'taxes' from local
inhabitants" (New Terror, 2010). While not citing her source(s), Rep. Myrick asked Secretary
Napolitano to set up a task force to investigate whether such ties exist and to what extent. We
know that Mexican drug cartels have affiliated with American gangs, as well as Asian and
Russian organized crime groups that have a presence in Mexico as well as in the United States
(Miro & Curtis, 2003). It may not be too much of a stretch that a terrorist-cartel-American gang
connection may have been formed.

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Islam is the fastest growing religion among prisoners in Western nations. Much Islamic
radicalization occurs in the prison system with the primary targets of same being gang members
(usually minority), and many of these radicalized gang members leave prisons with a new
purpose and allegiance (Hamm, 2009; Useem & Clayton, 2009). In the United States, roughly
240,000 inmates have converted to the Islam faith since the 9/11 attacks (Hamm, 2009). As is
usually the case, there exist two sides here. One side argues that prisons have become incubators
for Islamic terrorism and the other side suggests that Islam plays a vital role in prisoner
rehabilitation. Research indicates that terror plots conceived in prison may not be too effective
(Useem & Clayton, 2009). Whether effective or not, two points remain salient. First, that prison
radicalization, usually of gangsters, is occurring in prisons. And second, whether effective or not,
the terrorists (or gangsters) need only be effective once.
In looking at where a gang or criminal organization might be placed along the continuum
of organization between gangs and the Italian Mafia, three elements should be considered:
sophistication, politicization, and internationalization of the gang. Three generations (or types)
of gangs: turf gangs, drug or entrepreneurial gangs, and globally oriented gangs with a mix of
political and mercenary elements, have been identified (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007).
Understanding the evolutionary continuum and its relationship to those generations was critical
to understanding the impact of those groups on national security (Wilson & Sullivan, 2007).
Traditional street gangs are identified as first generation gangs. When gangs are the
subject of conversation this is usually what’s being talked about (Knox, 2006; NGIC, 2007).
Most anti-gang legislation (e.g., injunctions and restrictive ordinances) and anti-gang activity has
been used to target those gangs. The analysts who authored the NGIC report (2009) identified
those first generation gangs as local-level street gangs, which comprise the highest number of
gangs in the United States.
Second-generation gangs have had a more organized structure and the leaders have
operated the gang like a business, with a market orientation (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Those
gangs usually operate in a broader geographic area and have had a more centralized and
developed leadership (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Anti-gang activities rarely included the
investment of time and intensity necessary to investigate those gangs. Authors of the NGIC
report (2009) identified those gangs as regional-level gangs, which may have some members in
foreign countries and maintain ties to drug trafficking and other criminal organizations in the
United States. In this analysis, the second generation gangs can be compared to the more
advanced organized crime groups. Carter, Rush and Burton (2012) suggest here that the
evolution from first generation to second generation gangs, for most gangs, is similar to the
differences depicted in the Gangs/OC continuum noted in Figure 1.
Sullivan and Bunker (2007) identify third generation gangs as highly sophisticated, with
the goals of political power or financial acquisition. The organizational structure of most third
generation gangs resembles the U. S. Military, where promotions and rank are based on
performance, time and grade (Valdez, 2007). Third generation gangs are highly organized and
sophisticated criminal organizations, and tended to operate in a global environment (Sullivan &

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Bunker, 2007). Local anti-gang legislation (e.g., civil abatement laws, injunctions, and
restrictive ordinances) had little impact on the operations of those gangs. These are national-
level street gangs, which have established cells or connections in foreign countries which assist
the gangs with global drug and human trafficking and other criminal enterprises. While many
continue to argue that gangs and terrorist groups are always separate entities and should be
treated that way, third generation gangs have shared many of the characteristics of terrorists and
insurgents (Wilson & Sullivan, 2007).
The intersection between crime and war has become the dominant operational
environment for both law enforcement and military in the United States in the past decade
(Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Though worthy of debate, while gang activities have not yet posed a
threat to national security in the United States, they have threatened the national security of many
Latin American Countries (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Street gangs are positioned “in one corner
of the intersection (or gray area) between crime and war” (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007, p. 7).
Manwaring (2005) identified the ultimate objective of some third generation gangs and
insurgents as a desire to control government, with implications when advanced gangs and their
political agendas engage in insurgency. Gang activity generated instability, reduced the ability
of military and police to control territory, and helped erode the legitimacy of the nation-states
(frequently unstable, evolving political and geographic states that serve people groups as a
sovereign nation). Insurgency was traditionally seen as a primarily military activity, while
gangs were seen as a law-enforcement problem (Manwaring, 2005). Gang-related crime is a
national security problem in many nations, placing gangs, crime, and even terrorism in the same
operational space (Wilson & Sullivan, 2007).
Makarenko (2004) provided a tool with which to analyze and clearly distinguish the
three, though the paper only applied the tool to organized crime and terrorism. The relationships
between gangs, organized crime and terrorism are in an ongoing state of evolution, represented
by a continuum with gangs on the far left, terrorism on the far right and organized crime in the
middle. This would suggest that OC is the buffer or connector between gangs (and gang
members) and terrorism (and terrorists). While each point have exclusive definitions, there are
varying degrees of blending of the three in between (ranging from alliance with the other group
to taking on characteristics of the other groups at some point in time, either temporarily or
permanently in order to further the original group’s needs). Makarenko (2004) noted that as the
two are on the same plane, they were theoretically capable of merging. This modified continuum
(as created by the authors) can be seen in Figure 2.

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Figure 2

GANG  TERRORISM 
ORGANIZED 
ACTIVITY  CRIME 

Alliance  Black Hole  Alliance  Alliance  Black Hole  Alliance 

Syndrome  Syndrome  with 
with  with  with 
organized  street  terrorist  organized 
gang  group  crime 
crime 

Organized  Gang  Terror  Organized 

crime  tactics for  tactics for  crime 
tactics for  operational  operational  tactics for 
operational  purposes  purposes  operational 
purposes  purposes 

Entrepreneuria Opportunistic  Political  Commercial 

l crime  crime  crime  Terrorism 

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It is also possible that one can go from gang activity to terrorism as is often the result of
prison radicalization.
Originally, the motivation for organized crime was primarily monetary while the
motivation for terrorism was primarily political (Makarenko, 2004). This is consistent with the
observations of Sullivan and Bunker (2007), and aligns well with the distinguishing
characteristics of second and third generation gangs. Street gangs it could be argued are
primarily motivated by issues of opportunity.
To some extent the relationship between gangs, OC and terrorists is dependent on the
country and their level of development. In the more developing countries the connection may be
stronger between terrorists and gangsters while in more developed countries organized crime is
more likely to co-exist with terrorism through arm’s length business transactions (Shelley et al.,
2005). In any country, terrorists may use crime to support their activities (Shelley et al., 2005).
The cement in making the connection is criminality (Makarenko, 2004). Particularly in
developing or troubled countries, terrorist and criminal organizations take advantage of the same
breakdowns in authority and enforcement (Zaitseva, 2007). This is most obvious with drug (and
now more often human) trafficking and trafficking in arms. The proceeds from this criminality
are often used to finance terrorist activities (Zaitseva, 2007). As gangs become more organized,
their criminality and their relationships become more diversified with profit being the primary
motivator (Zaitseva, 2007). The implication here is that the focus more often than not should be
on criminality more than political activity (Makarenko, 2004)
Mauro (2011) suggested that:
It can be argued that the Mexican drug cartels have themselves become
terrorists. Rep. Michael McCaul, chairman of the Homeland Security
Oversight and Investigations Subcommittee, has introduced legislation to
designate six of the cartels as Foreign Terrorist Organizations. His office’s
press release says the cartels operate in the same manner as al Qaeda, the
Taliban or Hezbollah, each sharing a desire and using similar tactics to
gain political and economic influence (n.p.).
Talk to police officers in major gang cities and many will refer to the gangs as street terrorists.
Neither this nor the above quote is intended to suggest that American gangs are or should be
considered terrorist groups, at least not yet. However, failure to discuss these connections may
be at our own peril.
Gangs, OC and terrorism are connected in many ways, with crime being the primary
connector. To use age as a discriminator is questionable as all three appear to have a blend of
youth and adults, based apparently on the type of position and level of responsibility.
Nonetheless, there are several significant similarities between terrorists and individuals engaged
in gang activity and organized crime. Members of each of the organization types commit fraud,
theft, forgery, violent street crime, and weapons trafficking. Trafficking drugs and human

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beings, extortion, intimidation, and bribing of government representatives are also committed by
members of each of these groups.
Conclusion
Gangs, organized crime groups, and terrorist groups all play in the same space, the
criminal space. We must rethink the artificial distinctions that have been made between them.
Maple (1993) understood this with respect to individual criminals. We would do well to
understand this with respect to gangs, organized crime groups and terrorists. While alliances are
not the only way in which these groups may be connected, it is certainly one area in which we
should shed more light on through research and the development of policy initiatives that may
assist governmental agencies with the apprehension and prevention of criminal activity,
including potential terrorist threats.

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