EP.

Notes:

Bio-conversion of organic waste using composting technologies - a review

● open dumping = leachability = groundwater contamination

● CH4 released in anaerobic conditions
● GWP of methane at 25 times that of CO2 [occurrence during anaerobic, IIRC]
● composting reduces weed germination
● Dano Process - composting
● composting phase determined according to temperature patterns
● open and reactor [open = open field, reactor = vessels, etc.]
● agitated and static systems
● in-vessel is the most successful process
○ aeration plays a critical role in composting as it supplies oxygen (for aerobic activities) and it
removes CO2, moisture and excess heat
○ [fool proofing the composting system such that any combination of food scraps, etc. and the
differences in N:C ratios will not affect compost quality, HOW?!]
○ in-vessel = shorter time
○ C/N of 22 was able to produce a stable compost; Solvita Index of 8
○ leftover material = inoculum to the newly added material
○ directly entering the thermophilic phase after adding [due to residual heat]
○ high heat = degrading the material faster
○ turning frequency = temperature variance
■ once a day in early period
■ delayed turning favor nitrifying bacteria; carbon uptake to 23%
● co-compost vegetable waste with food and leaves - speed up process - because vegs. have high moisture
content [?]
● unstable if high biodegradable matter [high microbial activity]
● unstable = affect crops [negatively]
● stability - process performance monitoring
● reduction in ammonia usage
● compost aids in building the soil structures [proper granule sizes = aeration and water flow]

The use of wastes (organic and inorganic) in land restoration in relation to their
characteristics and cost

● compost characterization using UNE standards

● sewage sludge compost - for large areas [characteristics show best combination]
● irrel

Role of pollution control boards in municipal solid waste management

● livelihood
● poverty and protecting the environment, etc.
Design opportunities for organic waste recycling in urban restaurants

● analyzing food waste collection and processing equipment, and by observing the kitchen workflow and
interior design
● identify design opportunities to integrate and optimize the collecting and recycling of food waste
● consideration of cost, effort, lack of space, bad odor, hygiene, integration, organization and use of
resources/energy

Hybrid model for the prediction of municipal solid waste generation in Hangzhou, China

● aids in choosing appropriate treatment methods and,

● planning the distribution of disposal facilities
● data based on total urban population, total retail sales, per capita consumption
● balancing too aggressive/soft growth

Life cycle assessment (LCA) for solid waste management in Lebanon: economic implication
of carbon credit

● LCA - minimal impacts, and reduced emissions; economic valuation

○ charge companies which cause waste that can’t be broken down - non compliance, etc.
● carbon credit exchange rate

Municipal solid waste - zero tolerance management strategy

● incentive and subsidy scheme along with support from society, government
● treating the waste at source
● common people that most of them are not aware of the type of waste and moreover about its segregation
○ mass awareness
○ technology, financial, waste as resource
● may need financial incentives to boost up the required numbers

IDEAS DEVELOPED

1. usage of life-cycle assessment and retention + additional [gov’t] incentives when waste due to their
[company’s] products are managed by the company itself

Time calculation of waste collection routes: case study from the city of Oslo

● waste collection routes simulated under normal and averse conditions

● The routes simulated to check if they exceed work-hours
● 36% exceeded, requiring overtime
● Drivers impact time spent considerably

The role of solid waste composting in mitigating climate change in Jordan

 ● Waste sector contributing to 10.6% of total GHG emissions
● Composting as a way to reduce GHG
● Reasons of non-compliance
○ No incentives
○ Dumping to landfill/dumpsite is very low = no profit generated
○ Stigma that composting is hard and requires a lot of knowledge
○ Absence of market for solid waste

Towards improved governance for sustainable solid waste management in Lebanon:

centralized vs decentralized approaches

● De-concentrating disposal would limit the number of landfills constructed and facilitate monitoring
● [][][][]

A mini-review on the metabolic pathways of food waste two-phase anaerobic digestion

systems

● Anaerobic digestion of food waste = recover energy [methane] and value-added by-products
● [][] [non-relevant]

Benchmarking operational efficiency in waste collection: discussion of current approaches

and possible alternatives

● Collection Capacity Use -

● Segregated Waste Collection Efficiency -
●

Bioremediation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene-contaminated soils by two different aerated compost

systems

● Non-aerated [65 days] generated less toxic material than the first one [aerated]
● ??

Bioremediation of acid mine drainage using decomposable plant material in a constant flow
bioreactor

● pH-buffering efficiency in an acid mine drainage water

● … non

Bioremediation of high organic load lagoon sediments: Compost addition and priming effects

● bioremediation of organic rich sediments

● effect of compost on degradation and cycling of organic detritus, transfer of organic matter to higher trophic
levels, and in situ prokaryotic community structure
 ● efficient method to treat organic rich sediments

Bioremediation of industrially contaminated soil using compost and plant technology

● compost and compost+plant at 5~71% metal removal

● confirmed that compost can be used for bioremediation
● using the active microorganisms present in the matrix of contaminants
● compost = cow dung, water hyacinth and sawdust
● measurements include: pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, total nitrogen, phosphorus, exchangeable
cations and heavy metals

Effects of compost stability and contaminant concentration on the bioremediation of

PAHs-contaminated soil through composting

● effects of stability of compost [from different sources] and concentration of PAHs mixture
● compost stability degree was important during the first stage of the process
● stable compost enhanced degradation in soil-compost, 92% degradation rate reached [40% for least stable]
● degree of stability = ‘rate of organic matter decomposition as a result of the microbiological activity’
● Dewar vessels used [4.5L]

Municipal compost-based mixture for acid mine drainage bioremediation: metal retention
mechanisms

● pH neutralized and metals were significantly removed

● AMD [no no]

Organic compost as catalyst or mediator for speedy and cost effective bioremediation

● problem: establish of a particular biological entity in a heavily polluted soil

● bioremediation mechanisms which combines action of two or more organisms
● soil amendments serves as fuel to run the system

Bioremediation

● performance parameters
○ temperature - indicates microbial activity, development of unfavorable situations
○ oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations - level of activity of the microorganisms; [high = high
activity]
○ odor - foul = anaerobiosis
● in-vessel
○ high capital and maintenance
● remediation of soil contaminated with diesel oil can be enhanced using previously remediated, contaminated
soil as inoculum [hwang et al., 2001]
Soil bioremediation - combination of earthworms and compost for the ecological remediation
of a hydrocarbon polluted soil

● Compost [alone, with earthworms]

● Greatest hydrocarbon reduction using compost, particularly the ones with earthworms - contributed to
regulate the biochemical equilibrium of soil

Application of compost for effective bioremediation of organic contaminate and pollutants in

soil

● Compost addition can thus be considered as a sjper-bioaugmentation with a complex natural mature of
degrading microorganisms, combined with bio stimulation. Improves abiotic soil conditions

Bioremediation field trial of oil-contaminated soil with food-waste compost

● Oil degrading microorganism should be induced in the remediation site with accompanying nutrients
● Compost greatly decreased total petroleum hydrocarbons [TPH] concentrations [8300~2300 ppm] after 74
days
● Compost resulted in significant reduction in alkanes and aromatics concentration due to induction of growth
of bacteria possessing the alkm and C230 genes
● Food-waste compost to bioremediation was very effective
●

Lean thinking as organizational practice in enabling supply chain sustainability

● sustainable supply chain management

Comparing greenhouse gas emission from different waste management alternatives in India

● Improper treatment and disposal of MSW + increase = increase GHG

● Increasing recycling to 50% = 17% decrease in GHG
● Biological treatment process to 50%= 12% decrease in GHG
● 94% of emissions from open dumping

Designing a sustainable municipal solid waste management system in Pathum Thani,

Thailand

● Sustainability performance measured under satisfaction scale

● Social impact = people affected by unpleasant sanitary conditions
● Facility location can significantly alter the sustainability performances
● Without spatial strategic planning = MSW can become huge burden
● Determine number of people living within the impact areas - used to determine number of people affected
● Problem: long term planning for sustainable MSWM

Understanding ecodesign through a communities of practice perspective

 ● ecology wise
● ??

The effects of setting conditions of trash bins on waste collection performance and waste
separation behaviors; distance from walking path, separated setting, and arrangements

● distance to trash bins along walking path gave no significant effect on waste collection and the others
● less compliance when bins are not within walking path
● Separated setting significantly decreased separation efficiencies [at about 3m]
● appropriate location of trash bins can improve waste collection and waste separation
● Psychological model-based approach recommended for further study - between preference and behavior

Assessment of the major odor contributors and health risks of volatile compounds in three
disposal technologies for municipal solid waste

● Gaseous emissions - odor pollution and health risks

● Sulfur compounds as main source of odor
● Aromatic compounds also
● Cancer risk values for found substances exceeds carcinogenic risk value
● Hazard index values exceeded acceptable levels

Charging for municipal solid waste disposal in Beijing

● bundle pricing model of Municipal Solid Waste [MSW]

● set to per capita annual disposal income, consumption expenditure
● Three packages according to different income levels
● Mitigate capital shortage problem, reduce MSW qty, improve MSW incineration disposal technology
● Landfill cost and incineration cost - then used that as basis for pricing

No time for composting - subjective time pressure as a barrier to citizen engagement in

curbside composting

● citizen engagement crucial in such programs

● why individuals who have such composting methods fail to use them
● subjective time pressure
○ they lack time, no time to compost
○ weekly hours negatively associated with composting
● providing formal and informal education - bridges the gap between residents’ environmental awareness and
actual behavior
● How they perceive their role in community building
● Negatively influence by these non-monetary factors
Proof of concept of high-rate decentralized pre-composting of kitchen waste: Optimizing
design and operation of a novel drum reactor

● location: antwerp belgium

● 75 euros/ton
● reduction of 33% in mass, 62% in volume and 32% organic solids of real kitchen waste [when transported]
● mature compost in 68 days
● Monte Carlo simulation [economic] - urban composter not more expensive than current approach [8~14.5k
euros over 10 year period, needs clarification]
● Pre-composter a promising system for pre-treatment of household waste in an urban context
● Kitchen waste at 67~85% moisture [reduction would mean lower transport costs and volume, etc.]

The effect of recycling bin design on PET bottle collection performance

● [relevance to the study: design of the bin will play a vital role on the compliance of the
subjects/users/customers; we wish to aid the users in every way possible so as to ease them to the use of
the bins]
● Preceptive preferences of recycling bin designs measured using an online survey
● Proper slot shapes contributed to lower recycling contamination
● Signage is significantly effective to promote compliance
● Design effect depended on the setting condition of recycling bins in terms of cap removal and foreign waste
disposal
● Commingled setting decreased recycling contamination [maybe setting bins with other bins indicating which
product to throw there?]
● Further psychological approaches are necessary for rational designing

Analysis of residents’ choice of waste charge methods and willingness to pay amount for
solid waste management in Hong Kong

● Quantity based method will most likely be adopted - effectiveness in reducing waste
● Residents prefer the household volume charging method ~ HKD 38.4/household [HK]
● [calculation of breakeven point when garbage fees are maintained, considering savings and free compost
bin distribution]
● Perceived fairness and effectiveness has a considerable effect on the payments required - to perceive how it
affects them financially as well.

Replication of urban innovations - prioritization of strategies for the replication of Dhaka’s

community-based decentralized composting model

● Community based decentralized composting as successful demonstration of solid waste management while
maintaining low cost technology, relying on local resources, community participation and partnerships
● Thirteen strategies required [?]
○ Transferability
○ Longevity
○ Economic Viability
○ Adaptation
 ○ Overall Replication
● May or may not result in an unsustainable replication [if copied as is without modification according to the
host’s requirements]
● [Do we study the economic potential of reclaimed or remediated land? ~ to determine how much savings,
profitability, etc. can be produced]
● Tk 0.2045/tonne for disposal [1995, 2004, 2005]
● Community participation is an essential element in this practice, conduct a survey to determine the opinion
of the population on the problems of waste management and willingness to participate and contribute
● Conducted experimental runs to identify a suitable method of composting by trying different methods
[chinese covered pile, indonesian windrow]
● Agreement with a fertilizer marketing company - to sell all the compost produced in different
community-based composting plants in Dhaka
● 23 months payback period
● Other benefits
○ land savings and reduced waste disposal cost
○ employment generation and improved community participation
○ crop yield and soil quality
○ agriculture enterprise
○ impact on agriculture and trade policies
○ impact on fertilizer industries and need for pricing regulation

Understanding residents and enterprises’ perceptions, behaviors, and their willing to pay for
resources recycling in Macau

● Increased awareness of recycling along with improved waste collection and recycling facilities should be
priorities for the government

Sorting out a problem: A co-production approach to household waste management in

Shanghai, China

● co production implies involvement of citizens, consumers, volunteers and/or community organization in

producing public service
● peer-pressure effect help realize the potential of waste-management co-production at a lowered cost with
improved efficiency and collaborative innovation
● co-production approach most effective at the initial stage of policy implementation to foster the waste-sorting
habit-formation in regions where the waste collection rates remain low
● policy consistency, strong volunteer effort and compatibility with local culture to promote public participation
must be present for further co-production application
●

Decentralised composting of urban waste - an overview of community and private initiatives

in Indian cities

● With support of the municipal authorities, operation of decentralized composting combined with a collection
service can recover data costs and even yield a profit [non conclusive]
● Composting of mixed waste also had a negative effect on compost quality and, thus, on its acceptance by
farmers
● Advantages of decentralized approach
 ○ residents less dependent on poor municipal waste collection service; improves waste situation
○ implemented at reduced investment and operating costs
○ reduces transportation costs of compost - less waste management costs
● numerous initiatives have developed as a result of the unbearable solid waste condition in residential areas
● locally produced compost usually used by residents in the area for private gardens and nearby parks
● [not done]

Home and community composting for on-site treatment of urban organic waste: perspective
for Europe and Canada

● 34~50% lower management costs for waste

● ~40% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
● Doesn’t discuss about performance of home composters and quality of compost product
● Improper disposal of urban organic waste, results in well-known health and environmental issues
○ attraction of pests [insects and rodents]
○ parasite, pathogens and viruses
○ contamination of water
○ emission of unpleasant odors and greenhouse gases
● Incineration is not widely used because of issues of atmospheric emissions and the fact that the high
moisture content of UOW reduces the caloric value of the process
● ECONOMIC ASSUMPTIONS: Disposal of UOW through landfilling requires:
○ land acquisition
○ capital, operating and closure costs
○ collection and transportation of UOW to landfill sites generally located at some distance from the
city
○ costs involved [LF type]
■ collection and transportation costs - $115/tonne
■ landfill dumping fee - $50/tonne
■ capturing landfill bio gases - $1.50/tonne
■ total of $165~
○ however, CCC [community centralized compositing] can do the same at $118/tonne
○ however, HC [home composter] can also do the same at $31/tonne ~ $42 including purchase
[negligible bulking agent]
● Environmental Assumptions:
○ UOW generates [per tonne]
■ 204kg CH4
■ 500kg CO2
■ 0.13kg N2O
○ Transportation [tonne]
■ 25kg CO2
○ CCF [centralized composting facility]
■ 4kg CH4
■ 0.3 N20
○ HC
■ 0.8~2.2 kg CH4
■ 139~215kg O2 [or CO2]
■ 0.076~0.186kg N2O
● Savings:
○ CCC can save 25760 [or 5760?]n 28900 for Paris; 8150, 49570 for Toronto [$/km^2]
 ○ at 3400, 2500 persons/km^2;
○ calculated for baguio: savings/person at 7.58, 8.5; 3.26, 19.828 [$/person]
■ Baguio [population adj. to 300k] = 113.7, 127.5; 48.9, 297.4 million pesos
● Challenges for implementation
○ participation and involvement of waster producers - most need a stimulus
○ tax incentives or legislative pressures
○ Finding space for CCC, HC

Confirming decentralized composting as a definite option in urban waste management

● centralized - biological stabilisation prior to landfilling

● decentralized - preparation of a useful product; diverting all biodegradable waste from the landfill - meets
educational and technical barriers
● confirms that decentralized composting as a definite future option in urban waste management
● a society that is unable to control or reduce the size of its landfills is not sustainable
● source separated kitchen residue
● Several weeks of dedication and insistence were required to attain a reasonable level of participation
○ 22.641kg per week
○ 13 bins
○ 91 days
○ Humidity was maintained low in order prevent odor and insects
○ Sixth week onwards, water need be added to maintain humidity
○ 13th week, 9% residual humidity
○ sieved; corse parts used in first bin to replace tree leaves
● mass reduction on the order of 80%

KEN
Paper 1 (SUH) [not book, not journal][more of standards]

● Why test soil?

> for N, P, K, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Zn
>Not As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni

● What
> Soil pH ad nutrient testing ()

● How
>Based on University of Maryland Extension’s recommendations
> Divide into separate areas; pick variety of growing conditions; scoop from each area (10-12, 6in deep);
combine or separate (sparate = expensive); remove large debris and put in collection bag.
>Acid digestion method(?)(search vids)

Paper 2 Bio-Geo Interactions in Metal-Contaminated Soils [book+research]

● >Plain remediation = expensive

● >Bio remediation = less expensive
● AM fungi hlpful inoculant

● based on graphs, Compost soil (not sure how) generally has great potential to uptake heavy metals such as
CD PB and CR compared to normal soil
● by inoculant/phytoremediation [tested via sunflower on a uranium leached field]
● Lead is hard to bioremediate, Cd is easy, Inoculation makes it rapid
 ● Microbially enhanced phytoremediation is an emerging technology with potential for the future with little
imminent risk to health or the environment. However, more field studies are needed to fully exploit the
potentials of this methodology.

Paper 3 Soil Heavy Metals[book]

(ON TROPICAL SOILS)

● Generally, bioremediation technologies are performed either in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves
treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex situ bioremediation involves the removal of the
contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
● The most rapid composting occurs with the ideal ratio (by dry chemical weight) of carbon to nitrogen, which
ranges from 25:1 to 30:1.
● In Situ = less expensive
● High-carbon sources provide the cellulose needed by the composting bacteria for conversion to sugars and
heat. High-nitrogen sources provide the most concentrated protein, which allow the compost bacteria to
thrive.
● Compost remediation is known to give fast clean-up results, taking weeks rather than the months needed for
other approaches.
● Metallic pollutants are not degraded during composting but may be converted into organic species that are
less bioavailable.
09/2/11

Paper 4 Soil Degradation, Conservation and Remediation (book)

>Even if the compost is low in nutrients, it can be valuable since application of compost, or any other form
of humic material, effectively enhances soil structure, improves the water holding capacity, and reduces the sensitivity
to erosion

>encouraged in many countries of the world

>cosidered as ex-situ remediation (putting soil in a treatment lab before returning)

>more on Heavy Metal's behaviors

>itai-itai (?)

Paper 2 Spoil to Soil (book and case studies)

>4 Fractions of Soil Organic Carbons
Successful Mine rehabs
> Malaysia -Tin Mining -
>Tin ailings may contain heavy metals (large amounts)
> lands were reclaimed via treating slime but not via composting

Lack of waste disposal [news]

472m in hauling and tipping (COA)
hauling it to Tarlac since 2011
hauling - 254.4m
tipping - 217.9m
2017 - 56000 tons

COMPAL:

A cost-effective microbial slurry technology for rapid composting of municipal solid

wastes in waste dump sites in India and its feasibility for use in Australia: (Springer US)
 ● The slurry culture containing active decomposer bacteria and enzymes is spread on the surface of the
garbage and inside the heaps in windrows constructed at waste dump sites.
● The microbes produce hydrolysing enzymes to break down the long chain complexes of the organic
substrates.
● 1 kg of “slurry’ + 20 litres of water=3m of solid waste
● 1 Ton waste = 200 liters of slurry water are needed
● turned once in 7 to 10 days for proper aeration, inoculant slurry is sprayed at each turning to enhance
decomposition and to maintain the proper moisture level which is usually 45–55 percent
● exothermic(70–75C within 24–36 hours)kills harmful pathogens
● repelling all birds, stray animals, flies and mosquitos
● process(4–6 weeks)temperature falls to normal as the decomposition is completed
● compost produced:
○ rich in sodium, potassium and phosphorous
○ certain trace elements,and contains active nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilising bacteria.

SOIL BIOREMEDIATION: COMBINATION OF EARTHWORMS AND COMPOST FOR THE

ECOLOGICAL REMEDIATION OF A HYDROCARBON POLLUTED SOIL:( Springer
Netherlands)

● Earthworms maintain aerobic conditions through the continuous mixing of the soil (Kretzschmar, 1978;
Schack-Kirchner and Hildebrand, 1998)
● Earthworms,​ L. Terrestris​ and ​E. foetida​ were shown to INDUCE HIGHER MICROBIAL ACTIVITY and OIL
DEGRADATION (Schaefer et al., 2005)
● Several reports indicate that E. foetida tolerates 1.5% crude oil while ​Lumbricus terrestris​ did not survive
0.5% of it (Safwat et al., 2002) and the use of ​Eisenia foetida​ increases the PAH REMOVAL
(Contreras-Ramos et al., 2006).
● MICROBIAL ACTIVITY represents one of the PRIMARY biological mechanisms to remove organic
contaminants, such as petroleum products, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon, industrial solvents
(benzene, phenols, etc...) and other pollutants from soil.
● Enzyme activities,indicators of microbial activity and to interpret the intensity of microbial metabolism in soil
(Schinner et al., 1996; van Beelen and Doelman, 1997).
● the addition of compost (especially with earthworms) had the double effect of adding nutrients and labile
organic matter for the soil autochthonous microorganisms
● the compost treatments, stimulating soil metabolic processes, achieved the best result in the hydrocarbon
degradation preserving the biochemical quality of the soil.

Bioremediation of Industrially Contaminated Soil Using Compost and Plant

Technology:(Elsevier Science)

● For a compost to be used as a growth medium its C/N ratio should be between 12 and 18;however, a C/N
ratio of 20 may be acceptable ( press x for doubt, “may”)
● The compost was effective in removing metals from the contaminated soils.

Bioremediation of diesel-contaminated soil with composting:(Elsevier)

● contaminated soil to organic amendments ratio The most active degradations of TPH and n-alkanes were
observed at the soil to amendments mix ratio of 1:0.5 on wet weight basis.

Wood ash for application in municipal biowaste composting:(Elsevier)

● It is known that degradation in biowaste composting can be enhanced by pH control of the process
(Nakasaki et al., 1993; Smårs et al., 2002; Sundberg et al., 2004; Sundberg and Jönsson, 2008)
● Wood ash has been applied as an amendment in composting due to its known capability to buffer pH and
reduce compost malodours (Koivula et al., 2004; Rosenfeld et al., 2004; Kuba et al.,2008).
● The present results showed that addition of low doses (4–8%) of wood ash raised process pH, and
enhanced heat production and microbial activity in biowaste composting.
Evaluation of municipal solid waste composting kinetics:(Elsevier)

● Effect of temperature
○ immersed in water baths,The optimum starting temperature for decomposition, as judged by the
amount of TOC reduction, was 40°C

● Effect of Moisture
○ the optimum moisture content for the composting process is 60%, as the largest decrease in TOC
took place under this condition (room temperature (20+-1°C), the results are in agreement with the
findings of other researchers

● Effect of Particle Size

○ the rate of organic matter decomposition is higher for material of 40 mm particle size, as judged by
the amount of reduction in TOC
○ with 40 mm particle size, the voids between the waste particles are bigger than with smaller sizes,
where the oxygen has better access to the particles and degradation proceeds faster.

● Effect of C/N
○ the optimum C/N of raw waste is 30, as the TOC degradation was about 11%, while it was 8 and
8.7% for C/N ratios of 15 and 20, respectively.
JEFF
A negative-pressure aeration system for composting food wastes
● compost temperature maintained at high level for 30 days
● at 60th day Ph increased, C/N ratio drop from 32 to 20
● effective in disinfecting compost
● reduce production of NH3
● negative fermentation reactor [?]

Thermophilic composting of municipal wastes

● 40 day composting
● good humus for basic plant nutrients
● 78% in volume reduction, eliminates ration,odor and rodents
● thermophilic bioreactor [?]

Relationship between biological and chemical parameters on the composting of a

municipal solid wastes
● combination of chemical and biological parameters can be used to determine the compost maturity
● 110 day composting in a 2x2x3m with 55 % moisture content all throughout
○ high activity of microorganism during the first 15 days
● moisture level is determined by drying the samples at 105C to consistent weight [?]
● decreased in temperature in the compost is responsible for the decrease of the microbial biomass-c [mindini
et al., 2004]

Reducing the composting time of broiler agro-industrial wastes: The effect of process
monitoring parameters and agronomic quality
● tree trimmings used as a bulking agent = short composting [zhang and sun,2014, 2017]
● optimization of the different environmental parameters [time, aeration, moisture, and particle size]
● is fundamental importance for determining the best composting conditions to ensure and optimum
composting evolution [Bueno et al., 2009] = evaluation of compost quality over different time after
maturation/storage phase can provide useful information to increase the economic feasibility of the
technology and its adaptation
● utilized processed chicken meat wastes and green waste
● effect of the composting time reduction on the compost's agronomic characteristics
○ value of CEC (cation exchange capacity) must be higher than 60meq/100g
○ elongation of composting time = CEC:TOC ratio increased
○ CEC:TOC ratio is proposed as humification index applicable to manures
● 35 days combined with eight turning showed a degree of stability for the high temperature sanitation
● reduction of composting time = affects end-product properties
Evaluation of mixing ratio and frequency of turning in the co-composting of biowaste
with sugarcane filter cake and star grass
● overcome the physical-chemical limitation of BW (Biowaste composting), allowing adequate composting
from the beginning
● improvement of product quality
● higher quality of product is achieved with a turning frequency of twice a week and mixing ratio of 20% of
SFC and SG.
● final product depends on the characteristics of the substrate and operational parameters
● BW generally represent limitations such as low C:N ratio, high moisture, low porosity and deficiency of
elements like TOC and TP (Campuzano and Gonzalez-Martinez, 2016)

TAN:
RECYCLING BIODEGRADABLE WASTE USING COMPOSTING TECHNIQUE
· Composting, the recycling of organic waste such as vegetation and food waste reduces the amount of waste
going to landfill and is therefore a rapidly growing sector
· Land application of composted household waste can be one of the most economical and attractive methods
to two problems: waste disposal and the necessity to increase the organic matter content of soil
· The variety of composting technologies is extensive as composting can be carried out in private garden
(home composting) to advanced, highly technological centralized plants
· Compost heat was produced as a by-product of the microbial breakdown of organic material
· This stabilized organic matter can also be used to control soil erosion.

Effects of compost particle size, moisture content and binding agents on co-compost
pellet properties
· Pelletization (densification) using mechanical forces can provide a practical solution to increase the density.
· Densification increased density of various biomass including agricultural residues and irradiated dewatered
fecal sludge
· Organic and inorganic binders have been employed for densification of biomass
· Pelletization increased the bulk density of compost pellets due to compaction.
· Among the three binding agents used in this experiment, lime and RP were found to be the most promising
in terms of achieving strong and long pellets.

A Literature Review on the Composting

· landfill and incineration have until now been the most widely used means of solid waste disposal throughout the
world, the land filling of biodegradable waste is proven to contribute to environmental degradation, mainly through the
production of highly polluting leachate and methane gas
· Composting helps to optimise nutrient management and the land application of compost may contribute to
combat soil organic matter decline and soil erosion
· Compost characteristics desired by end users vary with intended uses, but most compost users look for the
following elements (in order of importance):
o Quality (moisture, odor, feel, particle size, stability, nutrient concentration, product consistency, and a
lack of weed seeds, phototoxic compounds and other contaminants). 

o Price (should be competitive with other composts, although high quality and performance can justify a
higher price). 

o Appearance (uniform texture, relatively dry, earthy color). 

o Information (product s benefits, nutrient and pH analysis, and application rates and procedures). 

o Reliable Supply.( Romeela Mohee,2005). 

· Compost has a lot of benefits like: reduce landfill space, reduce surface and groundwater contamination,
reduce methane emissions, reduce transportation costs , reduce air pollution from burning waste, provide more
flexible overall waste management, enhance recycling of materials and can be carried out with little capital and
operating costs. 


USE OF VEGETABLE WASTE THROUGH AEROBIC COMPOSTING OF VILLAGE

BAMHANI, DISTRICT: -GONDIA (MAHARASHTA STATE), INDIA
• NADEP Method was selected for the aerobic 
composting of the said village waste.

Comparative Evaluation of Compost Quality, Process Convenience and Cost under

Different Composting Methods to assess their Large Scale Adoptability Potential as also
Complemented by Compost Quality Index
· The total nitrogen content in the compost samples ranged between 1.74 and 2.24 percent, which was well above
the reference range (1.0 to 2.0 percent) as suggested by Alexander (1994) and Watson (2003)
· Microbial respiration forms an important parameter for determination of compost stability (Gómez et al., 2006)
The phytotoxicity bioassay test, as represented by germination index provided a means of measuring the combined
toxicity of whatever contaminants may be present (Zucconi et al., 1981)

DON:
BIOREMEDIATION OF PAH-CONTAMINATED SOIL BY COMPOSTING: A Case Study (2002)
● Composting is regulated by aeration to keep optimal temperature gradient and concentrations of O2 and
CO2 inside the composting pile.
● Bioremediation efficiency is evaluated by analysis of 11 individual three to six ring unsubstituted aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH).
● Done in a thermal-insulated composting chamber with standard mix of raw materials. Made of concrete and
thermally insulated with a layer of polystyrene coated with epoxy resin (1.3x1.35x2.5m)
● CO2 production and temperature decrease slows down process. Possibly caused by humidity changes.

BIOREMEDIATION OF PAH-CONTAMINATED SOIL BY COMPOSTING (2009)

● 3 main categories of treatment methods: removal of contaminated soil; containment of contaminant; and
removal of contaminants.
● Other naturally occurring pollutants not foreign to nature (e.g., PAH), ​do not biodegrade ​and has a
tendency to accumulate the food chain (Lee et al., 2003)
● Inadequacies are from absorption of PAH to soil, and temperature and soil type limitations.
● Good mixing of soil with nutrients and surfactants is easier with bioreactors but costly.
● Bioremediation of loam, sand and clay, contaminated with fuel products, with medium distillate fuels was
effective. (4 weeks)
● Supplementation with inorganic fertilizers and mixture of wood chips and compost enhance microbial
growth.
● Changing conditions makes it difficult to determine optimal conditions.
● Efficient and cost-effective bioremediation should include either complete mineralization of PAHs or
biotransformation to less hazardous compound.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE POTENTIAL OF BIOREMEDIATION FOR CONTAMINATED SOIL FROM MUNICIPAL

SOLID WASTE
● Bioremediation is affected by nutrients supplementation, microbial diversity, pH, and temperature (Jing et al.
2017)
● Potassium, Nitrogen, and phosphate can stimulate microbial growth (Kensa 2011).
● Microbes are affected by pH, as the optimum for diverse species in changing (Meier et al. 2012).
● Microbe-assisted integrated remediation can be best option for that specific contaminated site having
comparatively low pollution.

CONTINUOUS THERMOPHILIC COMPOSTING (CTC) FOR RAPID BIODEGRADATION AND MATURATION OF

ORGANIC MUNICIPAL WASTE
 ● Materials were shredded to a size of 1-3cm and then the moisture ratio was adjusted to about 60% by
natural air drying for 12hrs. (Suler and Finstein, 1977; Liang et al., 2003; Lin, 2008).
● A decline of pH value was generally detected in initial several days, and was considered as the result of
acids produced by some mesophilic microbes.
● The mesophilic, cooling, and maturing phase might not be necessary parts of a composting process, and the
composting cycle could be shortened if a compost windrow was heated artificially to make a suitable
condition for the growth of the thermophilics.

BIOREMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL AND SEDIMENT BY COMPOSTING

● Conditions of composting operation are aeration, moisture, temperature, pH and C/N ratio. (Savage et al.
1985).
● Moisture level is maintained bet. 40-70%
● Frequency of analysis was as follows
○ pH. 1 or more times per turnover period
○ Total volatile solids. 3x a week.
○ Humidity. 3-4x a week.
○ C/N. 3x a week.
○ Microbial count. 3x a week.
○ Nitrogen and Phosphorus. 2x a week.
● The C/N ratio increased after mixing 1:2 soil and 4:3 sediment to compost.
● Acclimatization stage lasted 5 days for soil and sediment piles.
● pH varied between 6.7 and 7.1
● Day 16-18: thermophilic phase. Day 18-32: mesophilic phase. Day 32-35: Stabilization. Day 35-40:
Maturation.

BIOREMEDIATION OF DIESEL OIL-CONTAMINATED SOIL BY COMPOSTING WITH BIOWASTE

● When diesel oil hindered the evaporation of water at thermophilic stage, wood chips were added, which
were commonly used in composting of contaminated soil (e.g. Chaw and Stoklas, 2001).
● During cooling and maturation phases, Gram-negatives were relatively more abundant in the contaminated
compost than in the control compost (Vinosa et al. 2000).

DRAFT

Purpose and Rationale/Introduction -

1. overview of the problem and aim of study

2. importance in solving
3. creating positive impact to individuals

The province of Benguet is [infamously] known for its mining industry. The industry faced multiple
scandals/issues during the past years where land was polluted heavily to the point of destruction [citation]. Waste
management is an important consideration in how an urban landscape functions [citation]. A failing waste
management system will lead to water table contamination, greenhouse gas emissions and unnecessary expenditure
of taxpayer money. The recent issue about Baguio disposing its waste to neighboring towns and cities attracted the
attention of the media and environmentalists, which was caused by the lack of capacity for biowaste. Current
installations can only handle 15% of Baguio's total output [citation].
 The aim of the study is to design an in-vessel composting system that can be implemented within the
barangay level. The compost product will then be tested in the rejuvenation of polluted mine soil. Optimization of
mixing parameters will be conducted to create a system for soil rejuvenation.

The decentralization of waste management aims to increase capacity without requiring large upfront costs,
compared to that of a centralized system [citation needed]. The compost product will provide an economic outlet,
balancing the capital expenditures and providing an industry within the barangay. The rejuvenation of mine soil will
return the land to its original state and will further increase its economic potential (e.g., usability for agriculture, etc.)
[citation].

The study aims to create an untapped industry within what has always been considered a nuisance, waste.
The implementation of composting will further reduce pollution due to landfilling, creating a healthier atmosphere
[citation]. The act of working towards a greener earth will strike the people involved as being nationalistic [or is it
heroic?] and will enforce good habits for the future generation. The rejuvenation of mine soil will create a system
which will fix pollution problems and will provide a gateway to environmental restoration [何つつ？ワロタ] [citation].

082919

ABSTRACT(DRAFT):

Millions of pesos are being spent on disposing garbage into dumpsites. The growing amount of garbage fills
dumpsites while releasing harmful greenhouse gases into the environment. Garbage disposal, which has been a
means of reducing the effects of garbage through containing garbage in specified areas, is reaching its limit. Land is
running out while the amount garbage and wastes increase . This is a problem Baguio City is facing today.

The ever growing challenge of Baguio regarding its waste management is known to all its citizens. Baguio
city, since last (specify date) has been spending 1 billion pesos on the transportation of waste. Baguio's dumpsite,
Irisan dumpsite, has closed due to its overflowing waste. Baguio's waste management problem is rapidly growing and
is in need of an immediate solution.

There are several ways to address this problem like (other methods....,and composting). Composting is
(definition with citation). The research aims at composting biodegradable material thru (add how we will compost/
methodology). The product of composting, the compost, is known to have positive effects on soil. It can be used in
rejuvenating the contaminated mining soil. This is called bioremediation. That is one of many benefits of composting.

Studying and utilizing the benefits of composting can have a large impact in urban residences and mining
communities. (specify impacts to the environment, social impacts, then end with economic benefits in both urban
residences and mining communities with citations).

(cite economic benefits, economic figures)

 (cite what investors can benefit basing from the economic benefits/figures stated in the previous paragraph )

Brief

Baguio city spends 1 billion[1] on dated waste management practices which have bad environmental
consequences[2]. The practices resulted in the recent closure of the Irisan dumpsite and the reliance on other towns
for landfilling. The biowaste composting capacity of the city is currently at 15% of requirement[3]. A proposed solution
is barangay-level composting which allows an increase in capacity without large capital[4]. The compost product is
expected to start a new industry and the barangay initiative will increase citizens' environmental awareness. A
proposed application of compost is its use in rejuvenating polluted mine soil, allowing its [soil] usage for economic
and social purposes, ultimately benefiting the city and its neighboring towns.

- mention figures [1 billion pesos]

references:

1 baguio statistics, budget, etc.

2 GHG of landfilling vs composting

3 MSR

4 paper regarding economic impact of composting vs landfilling

Evan Tan

Title:

Rapid Composting of Urban Biowaste and its Application in Restoring Contaminated Soil from Mining
Sites

Objectives:

1. To evaluate compost sourced from urban households and its potential towards management, recovery,
and sustainability

2. To determine the optimum concentration of the compost for bioremediating contaminated soil found on
mining sites in Benguet.

Context:

Baguio is a city found in the province of Benguet and is known as the “Summer Capital of the Philippines” due to its
cold climate and great amount of pine trees. However, the city faces a huge waste management problem. It’s
dumpsite is long over due from its maximum capacity and so the Department of Natural Resources (DENR) has
ordered the closure of the dumpsite in 2012. The problem has only worsened as Baguio’s two waste-to-fertilizers
machines were shutdown on July 27, 2019. In an April 24 progress report to the Court of Appeals, the city
government said it had allocated P10 million to rehabilitate the dump, which remains unstable due to loose soil
(Inquirer 2019). The Philippines Inquirer also states that according to a city estimate, the mountain of trash is
composed of 480,000 to 500,000 cubic meters of biodegradable and plastic waste, and it would take 10,822.51
truckloads of garbage to haul out the dump. The city’s mayor plans to make the site into an ecological park and is
looking for possible solutions to make this happen.

Benguet, the province where Baguio City is located, is known for its mining industry. Although the industry provides
income for the city, it leaves an unaccounted cost which is paid by the environment. Large plots of land are left
unattended to after mining. Pollution such as water table contamination and greenhouse gas emissions are some of
the underlying consequences of this.

The researchers aim to find a viable solution to both these growing problems.

A large amount of the city’s waste is biodegradable material. The aim of the study is to design an in-vessel
composting system that can be implemented within the barangay level. This will turn the biodegradable waste into
compost which can, in turn, be used to bioremediate mined soil. ​To optimize and make this possible, the research
needs to evaluate the compost sourced from urban households and its potential towards management, recovery, and
sustainability and determine the optimum concentration of the compost for bioremediating contaminated soil found on
mining sites in Benguet.

The decentralization of waste management aims to increase capacity without requiring large upfront costs, compared
to that of a centralized system [citation needed]. The compost product will provide an economic outlet, balancing the
capital expenditures and providing an industry within the barangay. The rejuvenation of mine soil will return the land
to its original state and will further increase its economic potential (e.g., usability for agriculture, etc.) [citation].

This proposal will need the cooperation of the city government and mining companies as the collaborators. In turn,
the stakeholders will be urban households and mining communities since they will directly experience the benefits of
the project. (I’m not sure about the specifics of our plan about how we will collaborate with the government but the
plan goes in the context). The collaborators will also benefit from the project since it opens up new opportunities of
reusing the recovered land for whatever purpose they may need for it.

083119 - EPR

Some stuff i read

083119

The effect of technical progress on erosion damage

● non [yet]

Bioremediation for fueling the bio based economy

● production of byproducts due to bioremediation

● biomass produced from bioremediation can be used for producing novel bio-products
Building a bio-based economy through waste remediation: innovation towards sustainable
future

● Due to affluence and a rather plentiful supply of fuel, we tend to enjoy it now than think about its future
implications
● millions of tons of waste is generated worldwide every year, making its management and treatment a huge
challenge
● waste contains enough energy to help with the world’s energy crisis
● bio-based economy - future not based on resource, not dependent on fossil fuels, etc.

Environmental and economic impacts of agri-environmental schemes designed in french

west indies to enhance soil C sequestration and reduce pollution risks. A modeling approach

● agri-envi schemes as policy to encourage farmers to adopt environmentally friendly practices (eg., nitrate to
compost, reduction of nitrate pollution)
● [discusses more on implementation]

Reducing soil contamination - economic incentives and potential benefits

● no figures…

Socio-economic factors of soil pollution

● direct impacts of soil pollution

○ soil contamination restricts buffering and substance conversion capacities of soil
○ the contamination of soil causes the uptake of contaminants by soil biota
○ soil contamination affects groundwater
○ leaching of pollutants, nitrate, into water
○ NOX release due to higher nitrogen removal (denitrification)

The economic-environmental impacts of China’s action plan for soil pollution control

● soil pollution control program:

○ cost: 1.14 Trillion
○ GDP addition: 2.72 Trillion
○ 2 million jobs w/in 5 years
○

The economic effect on China is huge. Like 1.39 times larger return than capital costs. Adjusting that to that of the
population of Baguio: 2.9 billion in cost; 6.9 billion in total return (gross). It's huge! And 700 jobs (still big, that's like
SM, or something)

MEJIA
Abstract ​(In Progress)

Baguio city is challenged in managing ​402,776.38 kg of waste per day, which the majority is biodegradable.
Ineffective waste management leads to air and ground water contamination, which is a safety and health hazard to
the nearby residents and establishments. The city handles solid waste from a massive population 345,366, which
increases at a rate of 1.5%/year. From 2011 to 2017, hauling and tipping fees costs the city a total of Php 472.4
million due to the lack of capacity. Mining industries in Benguet constantly faces environmental dispute from the local
residents. Soil contamination from mining activities makes the soil hazardous and insufficient for agricultural and
residential use.
*Waste management capacity of Baguio (numbers); kg/day (Degree of Waste Management Problem/Challenge)

The aim of the study is to design an in-vessel composting system within a barangay level. The compost
product will then be tested for nutrient levels in bio remediating contaminated soil from mining activities.

COMPAL

Abstract ​pero lang abs:

Baguio is facing a crisis in waste management taking a big amount in financial resources, which could have
been used in other development projects. In year 2017 Baguio City generated 56,000 tons of waste which is above
the 50,000 tons average produced yearly. The dumpsite of Baguio City is temporarily closed because of the garbage
avalanche that happened nearly a decade ago. The waste is hauled and dumped in Urdaneta City Landfill, hauling
and tipping cost of P​ 935.50 ​and P550 per metric ton, respectively. According to Commission of Audit (COA) these
will increase the expenses further. Mining is also a problem in Baguio. Soils are contaminated by heavy metals from
mining activities causing the quality to drop unfit for agricultural, and hazardous for residential use. The quality of the
contaminated soil can be restored by adding compost to increase microbial activity and remove contaminants.

SALAZAR

Abstract

Waste remains a challenge for many urban and rural areas in the Philippines[I think this is not needed].
Waste disposal is a concerning fact in Baguio city which generates 402,776.38 kg of waste per day. Further, the city
lacks disposal facility and only use temporary disposal sites. This is evident with the garbage landslide incident at
Irisan dumpsite in 2011. Mining pollution is also an issue to Baguio causing direct economic losses in agricultural
production and hazardous environment for residential use due to mining activities from mining sites. Thus, this paper
might provide a solution to reducing the waste generation of the city and for treating the contaminated soil in mining
sites.

DON

Abstract

From 2011 to 2017, Baguio City has spent P472.5M on hauling and tipping fees for solid waste to garbage collectors,
according to the Commission on Audit. In 2017, the recorded garbage collections increased to 56,000 tons, from the
average of 50,000 in the previous years. The city planned to build a solid waste management facility in the city but
residents from the proposed area opposed the project. Apart from solid waste, Baguio City is also currently suffering
from the pollution caused by illegal mining in the area, including the infection of agricultural and non-agricultural lands
and siltation of the Lower Agno River. This study aims to implement rapid composting of municipal solid waste to use
it for degradation of the bacteria and pollutants from affected mine soil through bioremediation.
DOST TAN

The Department of Science and Technology is the Philippine government’s executive department in charge of
science and technology related projects. Its mission is “to direct, lead, and coordinate the country’s scientific and
technological efforts geared towards maximum economic and social benefits for the people.” Executive Order No.
128 requires that the department must “provide central direction, leadership and coordination of scientific and
technological efforts and ensure that the results therefrom are geared and utilized in areas of maximum economic
and social benefits for the people.” The department is responsible for formulating policies and projects relating to
science and technology.

The cooperation of the department will be of great help in the further development of the composting process and
bioremediation. The department will also greatly help in the implementation and execution of the proposed plan. ​The
department will also be able to help satisfy the two objectives: to evaluate compost sourced from urban
households and its potential towards management, recovery, and sustainability​, and to determine the
optimum concentration of the compost for bioremediating contaminated soil found on mining sites in Benguet.

CONTEXT (BANDIOLA)

Researchers and Baguio City residents

According to Armas (2013), there are 209 schools and universities in Baguio City, 7 of which are major
universities. Students from all over the Philippines and also from abroad travel to Baguio City, not just because of its
climate, but also for good education. Local residents try to accommodate these students by creating dormitories,
boarding houses, and transients [data from zach]. Statistics show that 115,000 of Baguio’s 330,000 population are
students (Casayuran, 2019). Not only students are involved but also others that are considered part of the “daylight
population, which are employees and entrepreneurs from other towns and provinces (Cabreza,2019). The daytime
population on weekdays has grown to 725,366, doubling when tourists arrive during the Yuletide and summer
months, according to Candido Cabrido.* Each and every one of these contribute to the large percentage of biowastes
in the city’s garbage. Proper segregation bins are not available city wide. For the past years, trash bins installed in
different areas, particularly in the central business district were stolen which became a problem of the city (Addatu,
2017). The researchers will compensate for this lack by introducing the in-vessel rapid composting bins per barangay.
And if deemed successful, it may also be introduced in public places and business areas.

Researchers and City Government

Since the city government is also trying to face this issue[], the researchers could utilize their background in
mechanical engineering to improve the current strategy[…]. The in-vessel composting bin project shall be informed to
each of the respective barangay officials by the city mayor and the researchers. The city government could
implement, using their authority, strict ordinances that will aid in the success of the project.

Since this is a city-wide project, after a certain period of time, the large amount of the resulting* compost can
be collected. It is estimated that _ton of biowaste can produce _ton of compost[]. The compost could then be used in
different applications and could be sold to offset the costs of the current waste management plan. Baguio’s compost
can be sold to agricultural sites to replenish, condition, and fertilize their soil. It can also be used in remediating
barren soils from mining sites in nearby municipalities and provinces, in benguet. Etc.
Researchers and DENR

The City of Baguio and the whole country is facing major problems in the environment, and it's only getting
more (Myers, N., 1988). Government and non-government organizations are constantly looking for ways to reduce
these problems, and protect the nature from further ruin. One of them is the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR). The DENR, along with the national government, is implementing many of these ways to help
nature get back to its former glory, but it won’t hurt to find more solutions to these environmental problems. The
proper and efficient composting helps in cleaning municipal areas, and the remediation of land also treats
contaminated mining soil to make them capable of growing plants and trees and will contribute in the recovery of the
environment.

ABSTRACT 250-300 words

(229 words)

Baguio city is challenged in managing 402,776.38 kg of waste per day, in which the majority 41.67% is
biodegradable. Ineffective waste management leads to air and ground water contamination, which is a safety and
health hazard to the nearby residents and establishments. The city handles solid waste from a massive population
345,366, which increases at a rate of 1.5% per year. From 2011 to 2017, hauling and tipping fees cost the city a total
of Php 472.4 million due to the lack of capacity. Apart from its solid waste problem, Baguio City is also currently
suffering from the pollution caused by mining in the nearby areas, including the infection of agricultural and
non-agricultural lands and siltation of the Lower Agno River. Due to mining, soils are contaminated by heavy metals
from mining activities causing the soil quality to drop, therefore making it hazardous, and unfit for agricultural and
residential use. The proposed solution is a rapid barangay-level composting system, which allows an increase in
waste capacity without large capital. The compost product is expected to start a new industry and the barangay
initiative will increase citizens' environmental awareness. The compost product will then be tested for nutrient levels in
bio-remediating contaminated soil from mining sites. The rejuvenated mine soil can then open new opportunities for
economic and social purposes in the sites, ultimately benefiting the city and its neighboring towns.

Abstract/ intro/ context ----->

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1AobqNneRzpeEpPsEc0z5_8Q66OUjgaQoULLl7sZpxyg/edit?usp=shari
ng

Situation/locale/____? (compal)

Baguio suffers from tons of waste produced and it doesn’t have a dumpsite. Waste production
surpassed the average amount yearly(). Waste management takes a lot in Baguio’s financial, which can be
used in other improvement projects instead. Baguio has many tourist spot and also good performing
universities. Students from other provinces comes to Baguio and resides in boarding houses and
dormitories, tourists who take their vacation, local residents of Baguio all produce waste. Baguio’s waste
production will continue to increase as its population increases. Other provinces are also affected because
their space gets taken by Baguio’s waste, Tarlac’s landfill are accommodating these wastes.

Baguio’s mining sites produced heavy metal pollutants to the soil. The heavy equipment used
causes the pollution in the soil(). The diesel drippings from the heavy equipment sipps in the soil causing
contamination. Heavy rains spread these contaminants in near places increasing the area of the
contaminated soil. This pollutants degrade the quality of the soil and also making it hazardous. The
contaminated soil is not suitable for agricultural because the quality is poor. Building houses is also not
good because the soil is hazardous.

Contaminated soil can be treated through bioremediation. Adding compost to the contaminated soil
can treat the heavy metals that sipps in. The compost must have the right properties and composition to
have better results. Correct ratios between the contaminated soil and the compost must be determine to treat
the areas affected and the amount of compost needed. The compost product produced in the composting of
the Baguio’s biowaste will be used for bioremediation of the contaminated soil in the mining sites and places
near it.

CONTEXT

General MSW of Baguio (Tan)

Baguio is a city found in the province of Benguet and is known as the “Summer Capital of the Philippines”
due to its cold climate and great amount of pine trees. However, the city faces a huge waste management
problem. Its wastes consists of 41.27% biodegradables, 33.98% recyclables, 21.55% residuals, 2.72% for
disposal while 0.41% are special wastes. Biodegradable wastes are generally classified into yards wastes,
vegetables & fruit residues, food and kitchen wastes. The common practice is to dispose food and kitchen
wastes as animal feeds; however backyard composting is almost negligible due to limited backyard area.
Household wastes from 127 barangays are collected once a week. The Central Business District (CBD) and
the public market are served twice a day. Institutional areas are served once a day. The wastes are brought
to the Irisan Composting Facility. Two units of the Environmental Recycling System (ERS) were installed in
the facility in December 2010. ERS is a machine that processes biodegradable wastes into organic fertilizers
or animal feed ingredients. Each machine is capable of processing 24 tons of biodegradable materials into
fertilizer or feeds on a daily basis. On a daily basis, 48 tons of biodegradable materials could be processed
and accommodated by the 2 ERS machines. With 48 tons of biowaste fed, it could generate within the day 14
tons of fertilizers or animal feed ingredients. Section 34 of RA 9003, provides potential for the
commercialization of compost and organic fertilizers as by products of bio waste processing. For 2015,
Baguio City has allocated a total budget of PhP 90.175 million for the SWM maintenance and other operating
expenses (MOOE). In 2014, Baguio City has generated a total of PhP 15.0 million from garbage fees collected
from the business sector and few households.
Compost/Vermicompost

Composting definition and process

Composting is defined as the process of creating compost through decaying biowase while under oxygen
rich conditions(revise, need reliable source). Compost is a product that can be used as a soil conditioner, further
improving a soil’s moisture holding capability, increasing its infiltration rate, reducing soil erosion, and decreasing
runoff (Epstein E.,1997).

However, composting is easier said than done; the process requires five control variables to consider: feedstock and
nutrient balance, particle size, moisture content, oxygen flow, and temperature (​Types of Composting and
Understanding the Process, n.d). Each process will be explained in depth.

Feedstock and nutrient balance are measured by the ratio of Carbon rich waste to Nitrogen rich waste; ideally, a C/N ratio of
27:1 to 30:1 is to be maintained, too high will slow down the composting process and too low will produce Ammonia, causing
foul odors. ​(Epstein E.,1997)​. To obtain these ratios,

Particle size refers to shredding ​biowaste into smaller pieces for proper microorganic consumption that in turn produces a
more homogenous mixture; thus, improving pile insulation - which means that it allows the compost distribute temperature
equally (​Types of Composting and Understanding the Process, n.d). A particle size of (enter range with citation) is
recommended for biowaste allowing air to flow freely into the pile.

An ideal Moisture content of 50% is recommended, preventing a build up of compost in the mesh apertures during the
screening process ​(Epstein E.,1997) as well as ​allowing microorganisms to survive ​(​Types of Composting and
Understanding the Process, n.d). The degradation time of compost is reliant on the oxygen flow in the mixture; furthermore,
the mixture of compost requires a bulking agent to allow the compost to become porous making it so that oxygen is allowed
to pass through the compost. Oxygen flow is achieved by turning or forced aeration; although, too much oxygen flow will dry
out the compost and too little will cause anaerobic conditions - thus, an oxygen flow rate of (enter citation) is required.

Finally, temperature indicates active microbial activity within the compost, the three composting ​stages, mes, thermo, forgot​,
each have different temperatures that need to be maintained

a centralized composting facility with the design to minimize environmental impacts is ideal in order to prevent
inconsistent production (Epstein E.,1997). From an optimized MSW plan, the biowaste is then brought to a
centralized system where it can be composted for recommended plant soil conditions. Numerous waste from the
community can be composted, specifically biowaste (E. Epstein) (this is more for MSW, try adding it to the end of
msw paragraph).

(Part of Context)(Salazar)

Researchers and DoA

Agriculture is the source of income of most Filipinos. The advancement of civilization has been an
advantage and disadvantage of agriculture. Department of Agriculture is responsible for the promotion of
agricultural and fisheries development growth. Its mission is “to increase the income of farmers and
fisherfolk to alleviate poverty and promoting sustainable economic growth”. The department provides a
policy framework that directs public investments and, in partnership with the local government units (LGUs),
provides the support services necessary to make agriculture and fisheries, and Agri-based enterprises
profitable and to help spread the benefits of development to the poor.
The researchers intend to treat the polluted soils in mining sites for it to be used for Agri-based products.
And if deemed successful, these soils can be used for Agri-based products or it can be habitable by people
and livestock’s in which it will be a source of new income for its community and its nearby communities. The
compost can also be a source as an affordable fertilizer for the farmers to produce more good quality
products. [relation to fisheries]

Mining Process