John K.

Warren

Evaporites : Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons

John K. Warren

Evaporites :
Sediments, Resources
and Hydrocarbons
With 654 Figures

123
Professor John K. Warren
Department Petroleum Geoscience
University Brunei Darussalam
Brunei

E-mail : jkwarren@ozemail.com.au

ISBN-10 3-540-26011-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

ISBN-13 978-3-540-26011-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2005932089

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topic data also show compositional changes due to periodic
influx of continental waters into the depositional basin seen by
the clustering of the laminar gypsum values along the SMOW
concentration-dilution line with a regression coefficient of 0.98.
The massive gypsum signature indicates rehydration by mete-
oric waters (probably modern). Open-marine-water incursions
probably led to the deposition of carbonate layers overlying the
laminar gypsum. These contain abundant aragonite with textural
features and isotopic compositions suggesting precipitation in
shallow and quiet marine waters slightly enriched in 18O by
evaporation (Figure 2.24b).
Sulphur is largely resistant to isotopic fractionation during
burial alteration and transformation (Worden et al., 1997).
Primary marine stratigraphic sulphur isotope variation is pre-
served in anhydrites of the Permian Khuff Formation, despite
subsequent dehydration to anhydrite during burial (§1,000m)
and initial precipitation as gypsum from Permian and Triassic
seawater. Gypsum dehydration to anhydrite did not involve
significant isotopic fractionation or diagenetic redistribution
of material in the subsurface. At depths greater than 4300 m,
the same sulphur isotope variation across the Permian-Triassic
boundary is still present in elemental sulphur and H2S, both
products of the reaction of anhydrite with hydrocarbons via
thermochemical sulphate reduction (Figure 9.44). Clearly,
thermochemical sulphate reduction did not lead to isotope
fractionation. Worden et al. also argues that significant mass
transfer has not occurred in the system, at least in the vicinity of
the Permian-Triassic boundary, even though elemental sulphur
and H2S are both fluid phases at depths greater than 4300 m.
Primary differences in sulphur isotopes have been preserved
in the rocks and fluids, despite two major diagenetic overprints
+20
+10 y=3.97x-0.59
r=0.98
D13CPDB‰
0 SMOW
DD‰
-10
-20 laminar gypsum
massive gypsum
-30
y=2.66x-46.73
r=-0.85
-40
-4 -2 0 +2 +4 +6
A. D18OPDB‰
B.
Figure 2.24. Isotope crossplots in Messinian evaporites, Sicily. A) Isotopic associations
(carbon and oxygen) in water of crystallisation. B) Deuterium- carbon relationships in
carbonate layers in the same units (after Bellanca and Neri, 1986).
CHAPTER 2
that converted the sulphur in the original gypsum into elemental
sulphur and H2S by 4300 m burial and the potentially mobile
nature of some of the reaction products. That is, all reactions
occurred must have occurred in situ; there was no significant
sulphur isotope fractionation, and only negligible sulphur was
added, subtracted, or moved internally within the system.
Boron Isotopes
Boron isotope determinations on halite, borate salts, and brines
are all capable of distinguishing between marine and nonmarine
sources (Figures 2.25; Vengosh et al., 1992; Swihart et al.,
1986). Marine evaporites are characterised by distinctly higher
b11B values (+18.2 to +31.7‰) than non-marine evaporites
(-30.1 to +7.0‰; Swihart et al., 1986). The latter span the
range typical of the boron isotope signatures of most other
rock types (Palmer and Helvaci, 1997). Likewise, there is a
clear isotopic separation between marine and nonmarine brines
(Figure 2.25a, c).
The separation reflects the enrichment of the 11B isotope in
seawater compared with both oceanic crust and continental crust.
Differences are due to the original isotopic fractionation that
occurred when boron was extracted from seawater into detrital
clays, weathered basalts and carbonate minerals. Continental
evaporite brines are derived from the weathering of these various
lithologies, while the boron in seawater comes straight from
the concentration of seawater. Much of the boron signature
that is measured when whole rock halites and other salts are
analysed comes from the fluid inclusions and not from boron
in the lattice structure. The low level of fractionation between
the brine and its precipitate at the time of halite deposition
means boron isotope analysis can
reliably distinguish nonmarine
and marine brine parents in
modern salts, even in complex
0
multisource systems such as Lake
Qaidam (Liu et al., 2000).
-2
-4 Beyond the halite precipitation
field b11B values tend to increase
-6 with increasing concentration
aragonite
calcite
in both brine and the associ-
-8 dolomite in carbonate ated bittern precipitates. In all
dolomite in gypsum
fields the b11B values and boron
0 +2 +4 +6 +8
contents are higher in brine than
D18OPDB‰ in its precipitated halite suite
(Figure 2.25b; Vengosh et al.,
1992). However the boron is not
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118 CHAPTER 2

tend to be more stable, although a body of freshened surface
water comes and goes. Textures in schizohaline salt beds are
dominated by ongoing re-equilibration reactions, backreactions,
dissolution-reprecipitation and haloturbation, while textures in
beds deposited in perennial brine seaways and lakes tend to be
more stable and dominated by large growth-oriented crystal
beds and brine reflux re-equilibration textures below.
As an evaporite basin aggrades toward its hydrological equi-
librium level (Figure 2.39c) the depositional surface aggrades
into ephemeral brine sheet (pans) and ultimately mudflats
(filled accommodation space). The progression brine lake to
a mudflat induces schizohaline textures in the uppermost parts
of each shallowing upward hydrological cycle. If there is no
rise in regional watertable, the same textural shoaling occurs
across the whole discharge zone.
Indicators of fluctuating water tables
Because evaporites form by the evaporation of discharging and
ponding waters, any longterm water table fluctuations in an
evaporite basin influence sedimentation style and mineralogy
on scales coarser than the stacked gypsum and tepee trunca-
tion layers and parasequences described in Chapters 1, 3 and

ephemeral
freshened dry saline saline dry
wedge supersaline brine lake
mudflat or seaway mudflat

capillary evaporites

brine reflux subaqueous salts

A. Perennial saline lake/seaway (bottom precipitates) clastics/bioclastics
direc
t fluvia freshened brine lake flood
l inflo or seaway eseep/
w marin

fresher

denser brine

limit of dense salt-

B. Perennial saline lake/sea (marine influx or flood -pelagics) saturated pore waters
met ps
eor see
ic s rine
eep
s mudflat ma

brine reflux
C. Playa stage: desiccation surface in equilibrium with watertable - minor fresh groundwater wedges
Figure 2.39. Cross sections showing hydrological stages in the active phreatic zone in an evaporitic seaway or a continental
lake. A) Perennial saline lake accumulating widespread subaqueous evaporites from a nonstratified brine body. Capillary
evaporation of fresher water lenses about the lake margin. B) Perennial saline lake or water full stage with subaqueous brine
lens isolated from solar evaporation processes by a layer of surface water. This shuts down widespread crystallisation in lower
brine body and slows brine reflux. C) Playa stage where ongoing evaporite fill, or lowering of regional water level, means
the sediment surface is mostly subaerial and in capillary equilibrium with saline lake water table. This is a classic evaporitic
mudflat or sabkha hydrology. No fresh water lens exists until after the next flood event.
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120 CHAPTER 2

NW SE
W Sandsheet/ Sabkha surface
interdune (Stokes surface)
Dune Core
Sealevel
Accretion
10m Tertiary dolomite Slope

2km
Dune
Well-sorted sand, crossbedded (marine/eolian)
Quartz sand and mollusks (clean) marine
Muddy (carbonate) sand, marine

B.
metres Sealevel Stokes Surface
0
High-angle
Crossbedding
eolian

Low-angle
10 Crossbedding

Fine sand
No bedding
Bioturbation
Shell fragments
marine

20
Muddy carbonate
Quartz sand
C. Bioturbation
Articulated molluscs

Figure 2.40. Umm Said Sabkhat, Qatar. A) Transverse and barchan dune moving seaward atop sandflat and coastal sabkha
(Image courtesy of NASA). B) Cross section and core from an Umm Said sabkha in coastal Qatar showing how the deflation
surface that defines sealevel and the top of modern coastal sabkhas is also a Stokes equilibrium surface (indicates the top of
the capillary zone). C) Schematic core taken in position shown in B. (B and C after Shinn, 1973).

modern dunes and sandflats these aggrading salt-cemented in-
tervals are sometimes called salcretes, the evaporite equivalent
of capillary calcretes. They are made up of passive pore-filling
cements (gypsum or halite), not the active displacive nodules
and crystals that typify sabkhas. Schenk and Fryberger (1988)
noted such massive phreatic-gypsum cemented zones act as a
lower limit to any subsequent eolian deflation in the gypsum
dunes of the White Sands dune field, New Mexico. They create
a cemented near-horizontal base level to erosion, now seen as a
widespread Stokes surface in the interdunal corridors. Aggrading
salcretes, tied to a rising water table, can help preserve capil-
lary and eolian sedimentary structures. Salcretes were the main
reason why dune topography is preserved in some transgressive
settings where ancient ergs are overlain by evaporite beds (e.g.
Entrada-Todilto and Rotliegende-Zechstein formations).
Megapolygonal desiccation cracks are another expression of
the hydrology associated with a Stokes surface and form in
deflating mudflat or playa sediments in conjunction with a
regionally falling water table (Figure 2.41). Megapolygons can
be up to 300 m wide and separated by fissures up to 5 m deep,
they characterise the modern surfaces of a number of Basin
and Range playas in Oregon, Nevada, California, Arizona and
New Mexico (Neal et al., 1968). Fissures are hosted in fine-
grained playa sediments rich in clays and carbonate minerals.
The fissures, which are up to 1 metre wide, are routinely filled
or partly filled with wind blown sands (mixture of quartz and
gypsum). Individual fissures tend to be discontinuous across
the playa surface and often display en-echelon patterns.
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122 CHAPTER 2

The Jurassic Entrada Formation shows

Upejmup!mjnftupof
B/ a similar water table control with its
Nbtt!gmpx!tboet sea-marginal setting, promoting nu-
Fousbeb!evof!tboet
xjui!qbmbfpupqphsbqiz merous internal truncation surfaces
tied to deflation to the top of the cap-
Fousbeb illary fringe (Crabaugh and Kocurek,
nvegmbut
1993). Sediments deposited in the pas-
Fousbeb
21 evof!tboet sage of the Entrada Fm. into the overly-
n
31!n ing evaporitic Todilto Fm. are unusual
for an eolian system. The upper part of
the Entrada is characterised by mass
flow deposits and preserved eolian
C/ dune palaeotopographies beneath
sandy subaqueous strata, rather than
Tfb the more typical erosional top with
the eolian unit passing up into conti-
nental deposits (Figure 2.43a; Benan
and Kocurek, 2000). Preserved dune
Vubi
remnants have relief of up to 35 m and
Fousbeb are buried by onlapping, subaqueous,
Upejmup evof!tboet
Mblf largely structureless sandstones. The
latter are derived by mass wasting of
the upper portions of the dunes as re-
411!ln Hzqtvn!mjnju gional water levels rose. Eolian sands
Mjnftupof!mjnju
were redeposited as sediment-gravity
flows, which infilled depressions be-
Figure 2.43. A) Outcrop drawing showing preserved dune palaeorelief with onlapping
tween the dunes. Preservation of dune
structureless sandstones and overlying limestones of the Todilto Formation. The Entrada
Sandstone underlying the preserved relief consists of interbedded dune sets and palaeotopography beneath mass-flow
evaporitic mudflat (sabkha) deposits (after Benan and Kocurek, 2000). B) Approxi- deposits argues that flooding of the
mate Late Callovian-Oxfordian(?) palaeogeography of the Four Corners area after Entrada dune field was geologically
partial marine transgression of the Entrada. Extent of the Todilto Formation shown with
rapid and energetically gentle.
concentric limits of limestone and gypsum within the unit, with surrounding eolian units
(after Lucas and Anderson, 1994).
Flooding heralded the onset of a
sabkha and interdunal successions (Figure 2.42; Havholm restricted density-stratified brine
and Kocurek, 1994). Sand accumulation in the Page was lake/seaway, which deposited the evaporitic Todilto Formation.
episodic and punctuated by the formation of supersurfaces This seaway was a marine-seepage fed drawdown depression
tied to substantial lowerings of the regional water table. This within what was the lowest part of the erg. This type of seepage
created both Stokes surfaces and megapolygonal fissures. encroachment converting the erg to a lake meant there was no
Sabkhas and interdunes aggraded as the water table rose until transgression of a high energy marine coastline across the top
sedimentation surfaces sat above the top of the capillary zone. of the sand sea (Figure 2.43b). Rather, aggradation of the saline
Then vadose sedimentation, typically eolian crossbedded dunes water table was a relatively gentle process, with preservation
sands, dominated once more. Thus the Page Sandstone is a of dune topography beneath lacustrine laminites perhaps aided
collection of desert dune-interdune successions preserved in by the formation of ephemeral capillary-fed salcretes. Salcretes
accommodation space created by an overall rise in the water precipitate where the capillary zone intersects the eolian land-
table (basin subsidence). The smaller scale sequence packaging scape in any arid zone transition from an erg to a brine lake. A
(dune alternating with wet interdune) reflects periodic rises similar preserved dune palaeotopography, also with ephemeral
in the water table, tied to shorter-term variations in climate, salcretes, formed atop the Permian Rotliegend/Wiessliegend
tectonics (subsidence) and changes in the strandline positions sands of the North Sea and heralded the onset of evaporite
of nearby seaways or lakes. deposition in the saline giant that deposited the Zechstein salts
(Glennie and Buller, 1983).
%5,1((92/87,21 

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Physiographically, the Abu Dhabi sabkha is characterized
by billiard table flatness, a direct reflection of its control by
capillary wicking fed from the underlying water table. The
sabkha surface is a Stokes surface (Figure 3.4a). In general, the
water table control to any sabkha gives them one of the flattest
forms of any arid landscape feature. Below this flat surface the
Abu Dhabi sabkha preserves an evaporitic mixed-carbonate-
siliciclastic stratigraphy (Evans et al., 1969; Kinsman, 1969;
Kirkham, 1997). Deposition began some 7,000 years ago when
CHAPTER 3
a rapid transgression flooded interdunal (eolianite) depressions
with a veneer of marine-reworked, predominantly quartzose
sediments. About 4,000 years ago the Arabian Gulf shoreline
reached its maximum Holocene strandline and the edge of this
flooding event is defined by a line of well preserved beach-
ridge sediment sometimes called the “Evans line.” This was
followed by pulsed progradation of the sabkha sequence to its
present configuration.
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siliciclastics, not carbonates. The dry windy setting means there
is an absence of healthy laminated cyanobacterial mat along
much of the intertidal sabkha strandline. It is simply too dry,
so laminated cyanobacterial mat is mostly confined to small
moister areas on the floor and the immediate vicinity of tidal
channels. The mud-size fraction in the Kadmah sabkha (§5% of
sediment volume) is dominated by carbonate minerals, but this
carbonate is detritus from the north, not diagenetic or marine
supplied material from the bay (Saleh et al., 1999; Al-Bakri
et al., 1984). Much of it is low-Mg calcite washed in from the
surrounding plain where capillary calcretes (gatch) are com-
monplace. Similarly, almost all of the dolomite in the northern
Arabian Gulf, including that on the floor of Kadmah Bay is
detrital and derived either from longshore transport from the
Shatt el Arab delta or is blown in by the Shamal as it scours
the desert plains of Iraq (Al-Bakri et al., 1984). Numerous
primary sheet flood and eolian structures are preserved beneath
the prograding supratidal flat, with only minor disruption to
these structures caused by local growth of intra-sedimentary
gypsum. Gypsum and other capillary salts never dominate
mineral proportions in the supratidal zone of Kadmah Bay
(Figure 3.18).
CHAPTER 3
The windblown and deltaic siliciclastic coastline of Kadmah
Bay has been prograding into the bay for 3,000 years at a rate
of 1.5 to 2 km per 1000 years. More landward, the preceding
“Early Holocene” transgressive coastal sediments are made up
of patchily distributed, autochthonous carbonates (aragonitic
oolites, pellets and micrite), similar to the early Holocene beach
ridge carbonates of the At Taf coastal strip. The Mid-Holocene
transition to a siliciclastic matrix along the north coast of
Kadmah Bay indicates the time when longshore currents flooded
the northern bay with reworked muddy fluviodeltaics from the
prograding Budyah channel (see Shatt al Arab sabkha).
Al-Khiran Sabkha
To the south, near the Kuwaiti border with Saudi Arabia, Late
Pleistocene and Holocene sediments are exposed in and about
the sea-margin sabkhas in the Al-Khiran area (Figures 3.2a, 3.19;
Gunatilaka et al., 1987; Al-Sarawi et al., 1993). The Al-Khiran
sabkha is a carbonate-hosted lagoonal system some 60 km2 in
area. It lies behind a chenier belt of four oolitic beach-dune
ridges where large parts of the inter-ridge sabkha depressions
are no longer subject to marine flooding. The oldest and most
landward exposed beach ridge is older than the Flandrian
transgression. The four younger, accreted ridges, mapped by
Al-Sarawi et al. (1993), were dated at 6,800, 5,800, 3,000 and
2,000 years BP.
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224 CHAPTER 4

1990). Most work in the region

Holocene beach/dune barrier grainstones
concentrated on salinas that
Holocene lake sediment Salt
Salt Creek
Creek contained dolomite, but there are
Holocene interlake sediment filled corridor many salinas, probably the ma-
Holocene accreted beach/berm grainstone 1. jority, where the fill is dominated
Pleistocene calcreted beach/dune by carbonate mineral phases
grainstones
2. other than dolomite (Warren,

Ma
3.

Co
Highway

Yo loce cea
1990). Fills include low and

So
(Ho rn O
un

i nl a
oro
uth
y

gh ne c
high Mg-calcite, magnesite,
River
Murra

ng

nd
e

usb oa

La
Adelaide hydromagnesite, aragonite,

an tal

go
d P du
4.

on
Marion lake and less commonly gypsum

s
n
complex

en nes
(Figure 4.3). Von der Borch

ins )
Th

ula
eC

Salt Creek (1976) observed that Holocene

oo

Southern
ro

Ocean
dolomite occurs in areas of the
ng

50 Kingston
0
coastal plain where rainfall is
A. km 1 km
less than 700 mm, encompass-
ing the area between Kingston
Massive Unit: and Salt Creek (Figure 4.4a). He
up to 4-5 m of dolomite in this region. Uncommon

Indistinctly layered pelleted mudstone/packstone

Type A dolomite is a common precipitate in lake

suggested that south of the 700

makes up the laminated unit in lakes filled with
centres in more arid regions. Ocassionally also

up to 1 m thick. Yoghurt-like texture when freshly

deposited. Sedimentary structures indicate periodic
subaerial exposure - extrusion tepees, laminar domal mm isohyet, reduced evapora-
stromatolites, desiccation cracks tion rates and higher rainfall
Pelletal laminated Unit: prevented the concentration of
Cm-mm layering. In carbonate lakes it is a
mudstone to packstone, while in salt lakes it is a lake waters to salinities where
laminated gypsarenite
dolomite could precipitate. Re-
Other than laminae, contains only rare sedimentary gional sampling of lakes across
in more humid regions
Type B dolomite typically occurs as cement in the basal unit

structures - thin breccia bands, indistinct ripples

the area tied to climate confirms
and in the massive unit about the edges of some lakes.

the more humid portions of the Coorong coastal plain.

his postulate and shows that the

PELLET WACKESTONE- MUDSTONE
more magnesian-rich dolomites
the typical dolomite in smaller lakes and lakes in
Ocassionally occurs in the lake centre. It is also

PELLET MUDSTONE tend to occur in the more arid

northwestern portion of the
ORGANIC-RICH UNIT MUDSTONE
Coorong coastal plain, centred
SKELETAL PACKSTONE on lakes in the vicinity of Salt
Creek, while Mg-calcite and
QUARTZARENITE
calcite filled salinas are increas-
ingly common in the cooler
Organic-rich unit: moister parts to the southeast
Dark brown to black mudstone up to 80 cm
thick.Organics mostly degraded algae & higher plants. (Warren, 1988, 1990).
0.5-1m

Rare dwarf fossils; pelecypods and gastropods

Basal unit:
Carbonate-siliciclastic grainstone to wackestone with Textures in carbonate salinas are
ocassional articulated marine macrofauna. Bed is < 1m largely independent of mineral-
thick beneath lakes and up to 4 m in interlake corridors
B. ogy and can be related to salinity,
brine depth and permanence
Figure 4.4. Coorong Lakes, South Australia. A) Locality and map of the Coorong region.
Geological plan of the Salt Creek region shows how three of the four major lakes are (Figure 4.4b; Warren, 1990;
joined by an interdunal corridor and were connected to the Coorong lagoon earlier in the 1991). If the salina possessed
Holocene. Milne Lake, the best dolomite accumulator in the Coorong coastal plain, never an early Holocene connection to
had a surface connection with the Coorong Lagoon. Mineralogies: Lake 1 = Milne Lake
the marine waters of the Coorong
(dolomite + magnesite), Lake 2 = Halite Lake (gypsum + aragonite overlain by hydromagnesite
+ aragonite in massive unit and currently covered by ephemeral halite crust), Lake 3 = Lagoon, then the lowermost
Pellet Lake (dolomite + hydromagnesite + aragonite), Lake 4 = North Stromatolite Lake Holocene unit is a marine/
(hydromagnesite + aragonite; minor dolomite in basal unit and about lake edge) (after estuarine skeletal grainstone/
Warren, 1990). B) Typical vertical sequence in Holocene evaporitic lakes of the Coorong
coastal plain. (after Warren, 1990; 2000a).
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in stromatolites (Figure 4.19b; Eardley, 1938; Halley, 1977).
Older algal reef mounds are located further out in the lake and
are now buried by lake muds; they grew earlier in the Holocene
when lake water levels were lower than today (Colman et al.,
2002). Oolite shoals today form sand waves that define the
lake strandzone (Figure 4.19b). Individual ooids are aragonite
with a radial crystal structure. When and how the individual
ooids grew is not well understood, but halobacteria and organic
matrices are though to play a role (Sandberg, 1975; Pedone
and Folk, 1996; Reitner et al., 1997).
241
Laminated mudstones, in large part composed of the faecal pel-
lets of brine shrimp, are currently accumulating further out in
the lake (Eardley, 1938). The pellets are a mixture of aragonite
and detrital matter, mostly quartz, clays and organics. The brine
shrimp Artemia gracilis thrives in the lake, it is a filter feeder
that flourishes in spring and summer. It supplies a seasonal rain
of faecal pellets to the lake bottom and its droppings represent a
sampling of the mineral matter suspended in the water column.
This implies aragonite is a seasonal precipitate within the upper
part of the meromictic water column (see Chapter 9 for biology
and feeding styles of brine shrimp and other halozoa).
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pinnacles of calcium carbonate frequently define

10
linear trends that are the seepage expression of A.
underlying faults and joints (Figure 4.23). Col- Concentration
umns are surrounded by soft bottom sediments 1980

Concentration (wt%)
and many columns are rooted in massive domal

Elevation (m)
buildups of calcite. Dominant growth orienta- ?
tion is vertical and defines the rapid upward rise 5
of less saline CO2-rich waters. Branching of
1960
lithoid columns is rare and “pseudo-branches”
easily explained by the collapse of one or two ? Elevation
adjacent columns imply much of the precipita-
tion mechanism is via inorganic degassing of
groundwater on reaching the lake floor. Microbial 1940 0
biofilms coat active tufa surfaces beneath the 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
lake waters and create characteristic knobbly Years (bp)
grumous microtextures in the reef mounds
and pinnacles as they capture the precipitated B. Extended hydrographic
Lake Russell Basin
carbonate (Figure 4.23b).

In today's lake waters calcite and aragonite are Mono Lake

the carbonate minerals with long-term stability 1982AD (1942m)
and they dominate the non-siliciclastic fraction
Lake Russell (2180 m)
accumulating in the lake (Benson et al., 2003).
But during the colder Tioga glacial period of 3500 bp (1981 m)
the Late Wisconsian (12 to 9 ka), and during the
present day winter season, ikaite (CaCO3.6H2O), Paoha Island
was the dominant carbonate precipitate (Whiticar Mono Lake North
Hydrographic Basin
and Suess, 1998). Ikaite is a metastable cryogenic
carbonate and the low temperatures needed for 0 10 km
Mono Craters
ikaite stability are obvious in winter in Mono
Lake. In the winter of 1985 ikaite crystals were Figure 4.22. Mono Lake, California. A) Hydrological conditions for the
visible as coatings on the subaqueous surfaces last 4,000 years (after Stine, 1990). B) Map outlining different lake areas
of active spring seep tufas about the shallow related to changing water elevations through time (after Rogers and Driese,
1995a, b).
lake edge (pers obs.). If these small ikaite
crystals were removed from the icy cold winter nates the western side of the basin is composed of fluviodeltaic
waters of the lake and held in an ungloved hand, the increase sediment and it controls the modern discharge at many points
in ambient temperature caused the ikaite to deliquesce, so that about the current lake shoreline (Figure 4.23a, c). Currently
in a few minutes it disappeared leaving behind a pool of milky active diffuse low flow rate seeps are dispersed across the
water. Council and Bennett (1993) and Bischoff et al. (1993) strandzone, and extend from § 200m above the present lake
argued that during winter, calcite precipitation in Mono Lake is shore to around 1 metre below the present lake water surface
inhibited by low temperatures and high concentrations of phos- (Figure 4.20). Diffuse outflows are geologically defined by flat
phates and organic carbon. The same factors allow metastable beachrock-like zones of encrusting tufa and tufa flowers, and
ikaite to form. Ikaite decomposes into calcite during the spring most active about the present lake strandline.
warming, occasionally leaving pseudomorphs of the primary
precipitate in the calcitic tufa. Further offshore, where the aquifer is largely confined by lake
muds, CO2-saturated groundwaters discharge through fault
At a broader scale Council and Bennett (1993) demonstrated and fracture focused conduits. The associated tufa mounds
a strong hydrological control on the position of many of the precipitate along linear trends tied to positions where faults
larger lithoid tufa mounds. The unconfined aquifer that domi- transect the confining clays to intersect the lake floor. Other
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250 CHAPTER 4

Because present lake waters are supersaturated with respect Salda Lake, Turkey
to alkaline earth carbonates, carbonate precipitation is most
Saldagolu is another highly alkaline (pH >9) saline lake in
obvious in the lake at positions of calcium input where fresher
southern Turkey, located in a collision belt at an elevation of
waters mix with more saline lake waters. This can be at the
1139 m asl. It is bowl-shaped and occupies the lowest part of a
mouths of rivers, where whitings have been documented,
fluvial and seepage-fed endorheic depression at the foot of the
or it can occur on the shallow lake floor down to depths of
Esler Mountains. Lake waters are up to 184 metres deep and
120 metres, where the degassing of resurging calcium-rich
cover an area of 43.7 km2 (Figure 4.29). Lake levels rise about
groundwaters escaping into the lake waters creates tufa tow-
50-70 cm each spring, but longterm levels are falling and have
ers or pinnacles, up to 40m high. These structures constitute
been doing so for decades exposing widespread beach-rock like
some of the largest active microbialite buildups in the world
terraces and stromatolites of hydromagnesite and aragonite.
today (Kempe et al., 1991). Lake Van does suffer from severe
Inflow waters to Salda Golu are enriched in magnesium and
winters, but these aragonite/calcite tufa samples described by
carbonate and when compared to Lake Van are much fresher,
Kempe et al. (1991) were collected in the summer. The pos-
they are even capable of supporting the local livestock.
sibility of primary ikaite was not considered. So, it not known
if some of the initial tufa in Lake Van was once ikaite, which
The lake drainage is rimmed on three sides by serpentinites
then converted to CaCO3. A textural comparison with similar
(ophiolites) and on the fourth by a downfaulted block of Up-
structures in Mono Lake suggests this may be so, especially
per Cretaceous limestone. Hazburgite is the dominant country
in older colder stages in the lake history.
rock, though in places it has been metamorphosed to lizardite
(Mg3Si2O5(OH)4) and subsidiary dunite, all Mg-rich phases.
The current condition of Vangolu is a useful analog for the
All the rivers draining into the lake follow faults, flow across
Pleistocene freshwater stages in many of the world's soda lakes
peridotites, and under the lowered water levels of today are
that are currently in a hypersaline (trona) stage and for many
losing streams. Waters typically seeping into fan deltas or into
pre-Quaternary alkaline lakes. It serves as a useful analog for
the lake surrounds before ever reaching the strandzone of Salda
the laminites of High Magadi Beds of the Lake Magadi and
Golu (Russell et al., 1999).
Lake Natron and for the oil shales of the Eocene Green River
Fm, USA.

Accumulation Detrital sediment

A. Age
(yr BP)
B. Water content
(wt %)
(mm yr-1) SDR (nonchemical)
0.5 1.0 1.5 (kg m3 yr-1) 30
CH2O (wt%)
45 60 Opal (wt%) 5 10 15 CaCO3 (wt%)
60 70 80 0.1 0.3 0.5
0 12 22 32 24 36 48
Brown laminite 602 0
mudstone 1070

1960
Dark brown 2
laminite mudstone 2607 2
2820
Brown laminite
mudstone 3600
(2.2-2.7 m lamina 4
indistinct) 4
Age (varve kyr BP)

4530
Age (varve kyr BP)

Grey laminite
mudstone 5160
(3.2-2.7 m lamina 6
6
Depth (m)

indistinct)
6110
Greenish-grey 6888
laminite
mudstone 7192 8
8
Brownish-grey 8240
laminite
mudstone
10060 10
Lt.-grey lam. mdst.
10590
10
Grey laminite
mudstone
11730
12840 12
Lt.-bwn,. lam. mdst. 12
Grey lam. mdst.
lam. indinstinct
with depth 14
Top sandy
14570 14
Grey mdst.

Figure 4.28. Lake Van Core K10 (see figure 4.25 for location. A) Laminite lithology plotted against depth and varve-determined
ages. B) Core properties plotted against varve determined time. SDR = rate of sediment deposition. Opal is dominantly from
diatom tests and CaCO3 is mostly from aragonite with lesser calcite (after Landmann et al., 1996).
6$/,1$6$1'/$.(6 

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276 CHAPTER 4

in Lake Lisan time when lake waters were fresher and lake Each delta lobe is made up of several successive fan sequences,
levels were up to 200 m higher. Size of the fan deltas vary, withwith facies changing from dominantly conglomerates at the head
the Nahal Zeelim delta being the largest of the active deltas of the fan to sands and muds at the foot (Figure 4.50). In the
located along the western margin of the depression (Sneh, proximal parts of a Dead Sea fan delta lobe, units of crudely
1979). In terms of the morphometry of fan deltas worldwide, stratified conglomerate alternate with coarse to medium sands
Nahal Zeelim is relatively small (§ 6 km2), its slope is steep that show cut and fill textures, along with abundant trough and
(2.5°), and its catchment (235 km2) is quite large for the size planar cross beds. In the sand-dominated medial parts, structures
of the sediment lobe. Its morphometry reflects its arid setting, range from unstratified or poorly layered sandy beds, through
water supply is low and pulsed with resupply during times of granule and mud-ball layers, into trough and planar crossbedded
short intense storm floods. sands. Many of the finer sands in this zone preserve ripple
cross laminae. Further into the
basin, the more distal parts of
the fan lobes are composed of
interlayered sand/mud facies
Aragonite and Mudflat Spring intercalated with carbonate
gypsum crusts Jordan River
delta laminites. Alternations of coarse
to medium sand with layers
N of very fine sand characterise
North
distal fan sediments, as do thin
2-3 cm thick layers of mm-lay-
Halite ered aragonitic laminite. Rapid
(holomictic) deposition of fan sediments
atop water-saturated laminites
Basement Sand and Aragonite and
gravel detrital mud creates numerous examples of
laminite convolute bedding that formed
(meromictic)
as rapidly deposited sands
loaded brine-soaked muds.
Bedrock

Alluvial fan In strandzones away from the

direct influence of active fan del-
“Gilbert-style” delta (Jordan R.) tas, the grain size of sediments
tend to indicate distance of the
Deep perennial saline lake
strandline from the base of the
Shallow perennial saline lake cliffed escarpment that defines
the edge of the present Dead
Fan delta Sea basin. Where the present
Saline pan shoreline of the Dead Sea is a
long distance from the fan-lined
Saline mudflat border escarpment, sediments
tend to be muddy laminites,
10 km Perennial river (Jordan R.)
deposited during times of rela-
tively higher water (meromictic)
during the last few centuries
Figure 4.51. Geology of the Dead Sea basin showing the distribution of the various depositional
and including blocks derived by
settings in plan view and as a block diagram of the Northern Dead Sea basin. The River
Jordan forms a fluviodeltaic wedge in the northern part of the basin. Active transtension reworking of Lisan marls (Figure
faulting and block rotation has exposed older lake deposits of the Lisan Formation at higher 4.49c, d). In strandlines closer
elevations as well as an apron of alluvial fan sediments with a number of “hung” fan deltas to the escarpment the shores are
tied to older higher water levels in the lake. The saline pan in the southern basin is dominated
moderately steep with beaches
by halite, artificial pans fed with deep brines have been constructed in this area to produce
sylvite and other potash products (see Chapter 11). and bars of sand and gravel
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SALINAS AND LAKES 281

Ghoubbet al SE
NW Lake Asal Kadda Kharab
depression Soma
Ocean
0m
halite gypsum
marine
Oued Doubié seepage 200m
0 10km
hydrothermal
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t
us
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t e
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ke
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m lake
o u z 17,000 years b.p. (silts, clays,
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s e
yp baq diatomites and travertines)
G u Oued Dafarré
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early Holocene

Spring inflow of seawater from

Sea of Ghoubbet
North A5
Oued Kalou Current flow in gypsum precipitating
Kadda perennial portion Lake Asal
Soma
A4
A3 Dominant wind direction
A6

0 5 km

Figure 4.56. Holocene sediment distribution in Lake Asal, Republic of Djibouti (surface geology after Stieljes, 1973).
Marine inflow is via fractured basalts of the Kodda Soma. A3-6 indicate positions of geothermal test wells - A1 and A2
lie further to the southwest. The inset is an idealised cross section from the ocean to the lake depression (Landsat image
courtesy of NASA).
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ANCIENT EVAPORITES 321

Figure 5.21. Permian reef com- NW SE

plex of the Guadalupe Mountains,
west Texas. A) Schematic cross Yates Tansill
section of the Permian carbonate Seven Rivers
Capitan
platform based on outcrops in the Queen
Grayburg
Guadalupe Mountains of Texas and San Andres
Bell Canyon
New Mexico. Note the initial strongly U. Victorio Peak
progradational ramp-like profile in Cherry
the San Andres Formation and its Canyo
n

New Mex.
Texas
evolution to a reef-rimmed shelf with Cut Off
Brus
1km Canyhy
a well defined slope break, along with Guadalupe
Mountains
on a
steep shelf margin that was several Northern
Shelf
5km
NW Shelf
hundred metres high. The platform inte-
rior is dominated by saltern evaporites Midland
(white) that pass seaward through Basin Evaporite-dominated platform
Central
pisolitic island shoal/strandzone Delaware
Basin Platform margin/upper slope carbonate
Basin
facies into the deep-rim reef of the
Platform Lower slope/basin carbonate
Capitan Formation (after Kerans et
al., 1993; Kerans and Fitchen, 1996).
Apache
Mountains
Basin sandstones (mostly lowstand)
Southern
The basinward slope of the evaporite A.
Glass
Mountains
Shelf

sequence is based on the current

configuration of the basin margin Inner shelf Shelf crest
and probably does not reflect the Outer shelf
original slope. It is created by post
depositional regional tilting. Map inset
shows major physiographic provinces
of the Permian Basin in west Texas and
New Mexico. B) Detailed facies and
dolomitisation relationships based on 1 km Dolomite
measured sections in the Yates/Tansill
Limestone (calcite) Tepee
30 m

Formation showing the position of

the shelf crest landward of the reefs Quartz sand Pisolite
of the Capitan limestone (after Mutti B.
and Simo, 1993). C) Dolomitisation
of the Capitan shelf strata and reef Shelf Basin
by dense mesohaline fluids that origi- Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
basinward flow of dolomitizing capture of basinward flow dolomitization of tepee-pisolite
nated in the near back reef evaporitic fluids along aquifers of dolomitizing fluids facies - majority of basinward flow
shelf-lagoon (Hunt et al., 2002). by faults of dolomitizing fluids captured by faults
T
Basinward flow of the dolomitising Y
fluids was along aquifer units within SR
the shelf—the sandstones resting on 150 m
sequence boundaries. The basinward
tilting of the back reef strata between outcrop
window
the shelf crest and the Capitan may
have helped promote a basinward
flow of the dolomitising fluids, but the
main hydrological gradient came from
natural brine reflux. In areas updip
of the faults (zone 1, the basinward Major flow-paths of density driven dolomitizing fluids 1 km
flow of the dolomitising fluids would Capitan Reef and its dolomitization (Dark = high, light=low)
have primarily been along aquifers Syndepositional faults
and downward through the reef Importance of dolomitzation of Capitan foreslope (After Melim, 1991)
and forereef (both areas here are C. Reef crest
extensively dolomitised). The flow of
fluids through the forereef followed
bedding, and dolomitisation decreases downward through these strata (Melim and Scholle, 2002). Further downdip in the cross-
section (zone 2), much of the basinward flow of the dolomitising fluids would have been captured by the syndepositional faults and
related fracture systems that reach high into the platform stratigraphy. Here, the sandstone-dominated fill of the faults and fractures
provided vertical conduits for the dense dolomitising fluids through the platform. Capture of the flow of the dolomitising fluids by
the fault zones in updip locations (zone 2) may have acted to inhibit the extensive dolomitisation of the middle and upper Capitan
reef further downdip (zone 3). Here, dolomitisation is mostly limited to tepee–pisolite facies. Hunt et al.s model is a logical exten-
sion of that developed by Melim (1991) and they argue dolomitisation was likely a discontinuous process typical of TST and HST
times, while fracture-controlled dissolution prevailed during lowstands.
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360 CHAPTER 5

base of the Zanclean (Early Pliocene)

deposits of four main horizons of
palaeosols interbedded with carbon-
ates and conglomerates. Palaeosols
indicate periods of subaerial exposure
in the marginward basins of Cyprus
that were long enough to permit
pedogenesis during the transition to
less evaporitic conditions. Interca-
lated conglomerates indicate intense
erosion of the Troodos Massif and its
sedimentary cover. In contrast, shal-
low oligohaline conditions persisted in
the deeper parts of the Mediterranean
basin, as indicated at ODP Site 968.
Both in the Pissouri Basin of Cyprus
and on the flank of the Erathostenes
Seamount in the Mediterranean the
late Messinian sediments are directly
overlain by the lowermost Pliocene
sediments deposited in well-oxygen-
ated deep marine conditions. This
drastic change of water depth that
typifies the basinwide end to the
salinity crisis shows that as in the
earlier evaporite stages, water levels
of the latest Messinian “Lago Mare”
were still far below that of the world
ocean, by at least more than several
hundred metres.

Moreover, the study of the Polemi

sections shows that oligohaline con-
ditions had already started during
the deposition of the upper gypsum
sub-unit. Typical brackish and fresh
water assemblages are present in the
last two gypsum layers and inter-
gypsum beds (Rouchy et al., 2001).
This indicates that freshwater dilu-
tion, i.e. the Lago-Mare conditions,
resulted from a progressive change
of the hydrological budget, which had
started during deposition of the upper
evaporites and climaxed after the
deposition of the uppermost gypsum
layer (classic Lago-Mare facies). This
basinwide evolution is interpreted as
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evaporite bed causes its overlying brine

Tidal flat level to rise (autocyclic hydrologic
Algal tidal flat feedback).
Lagoon - Algal
laminated shoal
Most Zechstein interpretations assume
Grainy shoal
a surface connection to the ocean at all

Energy
Ooid shoal - times and that there were direct marine
ZSB4 ooid bar
eustatic responses in brine base level.
Intraclast shoal We have already discussed the likely
Upper slope errors inherent in this assumption. In
(mudstones) the marine realm we are talking about
eustatic sealevel amplitudes of no more
than a hundred or so metres in icehouse
Werra (A1) periods and less than decametres in
Anhydrite greenhouse periods. There is an inher-
A. ent assumption in classic sequence
stratigraphy that in greenhouse and
Salina (pure anhydrite) icehouse times the prime locus of sedi-
mentation is near a shoreline, either on
A2

Sabkha (dolomite/
pacman anhydrite) the shelf or just basinward of the shelf
A2-salina
(TST) Tidal flat break (Type 2 and Type 1 boundaries).
ZSB4 Algal tidal flat In an evaporite basin that is undergoing
A2-sabkha
(LST) Lagoon - Algal drawdown we are discussing an initial
laminated shoal
Ca2

hydrographic isolation (mesohaline

HST Grainy shoal carbonates are considered to indicate
PSB6
Ooid shoal - the mfs by the sequence stratigraphers)
ooid bar quickly followed by a water level fall
of more than 500-1,000 metres and
the onset of widespread evaporite pre-
cipitation. Any strandline in the system
Werra (A1)
Anhydrite will likely have migrated hundreds of
B. kilometres and be situated well out on
the old continental slope at the onset of
Figure 5.50. Facies associations in Ca2 carbonate platform, Zechstein Basin, northwest evaporite accumulation. Once again,
Germany (after Leyrer et al., 2001). A) Slope position (HST of ZS3 to TST of ZS4). B) marine eustatic models do not apply.
Platform position (HST of ZS3 to TST of ZS4).

In reality, each of the evaporite cycles is made up of a highly
complicated stack of parasequences that sequence stratigraphers
argue represent higher order sea-level fluctuations. In my
opinion, climate-related intrabasinal autocyclicity is a more
likely driving mechanism at the scale of the parasequences. The
contradiction underlies the difficulties in sequence stratigraphic
analysis of evaporite deposits using models derived from
geometries and 3rd order eustatic responses of marine systems.
The terms highstand systems tract and lowstand systems tract
are largely defined by whether the shelf of the basin that is
under consideration is covered by water. There is no concept
as yet in the sequence stratigraphic literature that an aggrading
At hydrologic equilibrium (inflow=loss)
the whole marine highstand shelf and slope, as well as part of the
basin floor, is exposed. Water levels even in the deepest parts of
the basin are mostly less than a few tens of metres and no more
than one or two hundred metres. In this scenario the locus of
maximum deposition is not tied to sediment supply from outside
the basin (siliciclastics) or to any need for shallow waters atop
a carbonate platform. The maximum locus of evaporite deposi-
tion is in the lowest part of the isolated depression in many
drawdown basins with no surface connection to the ocean. This
area is assumed to be deep water by sequence stratigraphers, but
textures from the salts accumulating there are typically saltern
or salt pan with local deeper water cumulates.
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386 CHAPTER 6

younger part of this salt stock is now 250 m

WNW ESE
Riedel Mine Oil wells (800 ft) higher than the adjacent flat-topped
Quat Quat mass, which is also overlain by a cap rock
Tert. Tertiary
Maes. (Figure 6.9c). The boundary separating the
Campan. spine from the less active portion of the crest
is finer-grained and shale rich and it formed
a limit to the former salt mining of the pure
salt within the spine. Shale-rich shear zones
L. C.
s m k Santon
Turon. - Jur. at the edges of active spines are sometimes
Sant. Cenom
Lower called “black salt” by the miners and can
Trias Cretac.
Alb.
0 500m
show a greater propensity to leak water into
Apt. a mine. The spine and its boundary shear are
Neoc. also seen in the Jefferson landscape, with a
Jur.
solution lake defining the zone of shallower
salt created by the active spine. Shear zones
Subhorizontal
fold axis within diapirs are potential problem zones
A. if the crestal portions of domes are utilised
for any type of fluid storage without an
W E understanding of the significance of “black
grey carnallitite
salt” (Figure 12.26).

In a benchmark paper on the internal

complexity of salt structures in Europe
2m
Subvertical
Richter-Bernburg (1980) made a number
red carnallitite halite
B. fold axis of interesting observations:
0
• Salt deposits are not, or have not always
C. Spine 2 been, in mechanical equilibrium with their
ambient environment and deformations
caused by salt flow have to be expected in
500 all subsurface situations
• Isoclinal and overturned folds can occur
Spine 1 in simple salt ridges so that stratigraphi-
Feet

Cap rock
cally older members of a formation can dip
Shear zone

800 level into the local area from above a particular

horizon.
1000
1000 level • By the diapir stage, possibilities are open
SALT for building folds of all imaginable - or even
unimaginable - features and shapes (includ-
1300 level ing migmatitic and boudinage styles). Axes
0 1000 ft of curtain folds in a diapir are not simply
1500
vertical, they may be inclined in all - math-
Figure 6.9. Internal structures of salt diapirs, A) Reidel diapir, Germany. The ematically! - possible directions.
stratigraphically older part of the diapir (grey) of the structure sits atop the
younger salt (white). Inset is a three dimensional diagram of the folds outlined
He concludes that any prognosis about the
by potash beds (ore horizon) in younger salt showing how axes of folds pass
from a vertical orientation to a subhorizontal with depth. B) Halite bed (black) interior structure of a halokinetic salt body
defines sheath folds and shear planes floating in deformed carnallitic matrix in -even if it is scarcely diapiric- is not possible
a potassic ore zone in the Krügershall Mine near Halle/Saale, Germany (after without seeing it from the inside.
Richter-Bernburg, 1980). C) Cross section through the Jefferson Island Salt dome,
Louisiana, showing a wide boundary shear separating an active salt spine from
a less active caprock-capped part of the structural crest. North is to the left and This mesoscale complexity reflects defor-
the 800, 1000 and 1300 ft working levels of the mine are shown (after Kupfer, mation textures that are occurring on the
1976).
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Figure 6.24. Schematic profiles of diapir drag zones (after Alsop et al., 2000). A) Broad drag zone within homogenous
competent overburden. B) narrow drag zone with incompetent inhomogeneous overburden. C) Broad segmented drag zone
within homogenous incompetent overburden. D) narrow segmented drag zone within heterogenous incompetent overburden
with marked internal competency contrasts. C) and D) also illustrate the process of lateral diapiric accretion where fault-bound
material moves upward with the flanks of the diapir relative to sediments further out in the rim syncline.

that lie subparallel to the walls of the salt diapir (Schultz-Ela,
2003; Alsop et al., 2000). Rotations can be as steep as 90° and
can even overturn beds. Deformation is driven by a variety of
processes including downbuilding, differential compaction,
grain boundary sliding, microfracturing, larger-scale faulting
and pressure solution. The abutment of an inclined drag zone
against a near-diapir fault can form a large number of stacked
and compartmentalised oil and gas reservoir sands (Figure
10.45a).
Drag zones develop sequentially; initial salt pillow uplift creates
broad gentle overburden flexure that increases in intensity as
the structure evolves into a diapir (Figure 6.23). By the diapir
stage the width of a drag zone is approximately equivalent to
the width of the diapir at the diapiric base and decreases to
25% of the diapir width toward the diapir crest. Vertical relief
of the upturn in a bed also decreases upward (Figure 6.23;
Davison et al., 2000b). Vertical relief is some 5% of the diapir
height near the crest and increases to 30% near the diapir base,
a consequence of the greater relative movement across the pre-
movement and early syn-movement layers situated near the
base of the diapir stem. The width of the drag zone increases
proportionally with increasing diapir size and diapir height,
while the total amount of bed upturn increases proportionally
with the width of the drag zone.
In one of the few outcrop studies of the characteristics of diapir
drag zones Alsop et al. (2000) relate variation across the zone
to overburden competence (Figure 6.24). Their work focused
on an outcropping diapiric province in Cape Breton Island,
Nova Scotia, where five Visean-age salt diapirs penetrate
Upper Carboniferous (Namurian-Stephanian) conglomerates,
sandstones, shales and coal seams. The width of diapiric drag
zones varies from 70 metres up to 500 metres. Narrow drag
zones are a response to the low mean competence of shales and
siltstones, which were probably shallowly buried and poorly
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418 CHAPTER 6

Key Salt weld and windows consists of domi-

in continuous salt
20o
nantly siliciclastic
Oil and gas fields
Continuous salt; sediments, with
Volcanics and extension and pillows

Extension
locally significant

sion
Com+ diapirs
volcaniclastics
on salt Continuous salt;
carbonates. Most

s
lt
extension and diapirs

pres
ow
f sa

eld
Salt deformation front of these deposits

Pill
Continuous salt;

lt w
it o
compression and diapirs
Tear fault in detached are located on the

l lim

Sa
salt deformation system
Continuous salt; Tea current platform,

na
compression and anhydrite r Fa
ult

s io
pinching out sea-

ws n
llo io
Ero
North

on
pi ns
ward into con-

irs ssi
+ xte
0 150 km t

ap e
en

E
densed sections,

di pr
m

+ om
a ch indicating a long-
et

C
ld
l td l t we s alt s term highstand
sa Sa us ir
m
it n uo d iap during the Late
li nt i +
n al f co s i on Cretaceous. The
os
io
ws it o xte
n
r l l o L im E 25o Malembo Group
E P i ion
r e ss Compression (Oligocene to the
ld p
l t we om (sparse data)
t present day) cor-
Sa C
fron
Compression a t ion responds to a large,
n anhydrite form
n sio rs a l t de prograding clastic
te pi S
Ex dia
Te

+ wedge. The salt has

arf

Tea
au

r fa Oceanic crust acted as a décol-

lt

ult
lement allowing
Volcanic ridge 45o 40o
updip extension
Figure 6.37. Map showing relationships between the various salt-detached basins in the Santos and Campos and downdip com-
basins of offshore Brazil. Oil and gas fields only occur updip of the limit of continuous salt in suprasalt pression. The ex-
turbidite reservoirs that are sourced from sub salt lacustrine sediments (after Meisling et al., 2001). tensional domain
is characterised by
reflects the high seal integrity of continuous salt sheets, which
oceanward-sealed tectonic blocks, rollovers and diapirs, while
prevent hydrocarbons generated in the mature subsalt salt source
the downdip compressional terrain is characterised by growth
from reaching the suprasalt turbidite reservoirs (Meisling et al.,
folds, squeezed diapirs and thrusts (Figure 6.38).
2001). It is a very positive indicator of the possible presence
of large subsalt traps some distance further offshore where
The compressional zone is divisible into; 1) an inner more
halokinetic salt sheets constitute more continuous layers.
upslope subdomain characterised by formation of contrac-
tional diapirs by the compression of former extensional diapirs
At the broad scale of salt flow in passive margin sediments along
(squeezed diapirs) and 2) an outer more downdip subdomain
the edge of a widening ocean basin there is also the process of
characterised by growth folds and thrusts. The upper subdomain
increasing shelf edge to ridge distance to be considered. Over
indicates the expansion of the compressional domain in a more
time this will create an increasingly broad compressional zone
upslope direction as formerly extensional suprasalt sediments
in the zone of transitional crust at the foot of the continental
slides and piles at the foot of slope. The ductile diapir salt is
slope. This is clearly illustrated in the expanding compressional
trapped and pinched in anticlinal cores, leading to the forma-
belt down dip of the zone of raft tectonic in the seaward margin
tion of contractional diapirs that typically do not necessarily
of the Kwanza Basin, Angola (Figure 6.37; Fort et al., 2004). A
extrude at the surface but are stopped and sealed by further
thick sequence of Cretaceous (Aptian) salt was laid down atop
sedimentation. This type of updip extension and downdip
lacustrine sediments in the opening rift, followed by a transi-
compression indicates an initial salt geometry that wedged or
tion into marine sediments the passive margin. Three groups
thinned in both seaward and landward directions at the end of the
of sediments make up this marine wedge; The Pinda Group
margin-rifting stage (Aptian; Figure 6.38a). Postrifting cooling
(Albian to Late Cretaceous), consists of a carbonate platform
of the lithosphere then induced a seaward tilt in the margin and
followed by sedimentation increasingly dominated by marls and
the development of gravitational instability, creating a seaward
clays. The Iabe-Landana Group (Late Cretaceous to Eocene)
spreading-gliding system with an extensional upper end and a
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422 CHAPTER 6

Inverted basins
Varying degrees of inversion are com-
mon in many intracratonic basins, TUBHF!2
which tend to evolve into a compres-
sional regime some time after subsid-
ence of the initial extensional rift/sag
has ceased (Figures 6.34c, 6.41). Salt-
floored inverted basins typically pass TUBHF!3
laterally into a thin-skinned thrusted
terrain. By the time inversion occurs B/
much of the sediment atop the primary
salt interval is indurated and the basin
is laterally confined. Examples of
salt-entraining inverted basins include
TUBHF!2
the relatively mild effects of Tertiary
shortening of Palaeozoic and Meso-
zoic sediments in the southern and
central North Sea Basins (Hooper et
al., 1995; Stewart and Coward, 1995;
Eggink et al., 1996) through to more TUBHF!3
extreme basin overprints as seen in
the Cretaceous shortening of Triassic C/
basins in the Atlas fold belt of north
Africa (Vially et al., 1994), the Pal-
aeozoic shortening of Neoproterozoic
basins in the Flinders Ranges and the TUBHF!2
Amadeus Basin in central Australia
(Stewart et al., 1991), and the Eocene-
Miocene shortening of Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic basins in the Zagros
of central Iran (Jackson et al., 1990).
Under a regional shortening event that TUBHF!3
is orthogonal or oblique to preexist-
ing structures, the inversion typically
squeezes hanging wall blocks upward,
D/
as the original extensional normal Figure 6.41. Structural evolution of an inverted basement graben varies according to
faults become compressional (Figure structures present in preexisting graben (salt is grey). A) Folds and short-cut faults de-
6.41). Basement, salt and overlying velop in homogeneous strata above inverted basement faults. Fold hinges in the graben
are perpendicular to the regional compression. B) Thrusts and folds are localised by
sediments are all shortened with pre-
preexisting salt structures. C) Thrusts and folds are localised by reactivation of base-
existing salt structures (pillows, diapirs ment faults (after Letouzey et al., 1995).
and walls) frequently taking up much
of the initial compression. originate at the crest of the upthrown basement block, and so
passively transport the former high-angle normal fault planes
Where the horizontal compressive stresses are near orthogonal (Figure 6.41). This initiates short-cut thrust geometries. If the
to preexisting extensional structures and where these are bound horizontal compression is oblique to the former normal fault,
by high angle normal faults, much of the inversion above the salt a strike-slip component is induced that can reactivate former
layer is accommodated by forced folding rather than slip along high angle normal faults. In addition to conventional inversion
the former faults (Letouzey et al., 1990). New low-angle reverse features, such as forced folds and short cuts over basement
faults are firmly rooted in the décollement salt and typically faults, strike slip will also form en echelon synthetic faults in
6$/77(&721,&6 

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424
West East
Dowsing
Graben North Dogger
System Sole Pit fault zone
Trough
5 3 1 Many extensional half-grabens were subsequently tightened or
Dowsing 1. Thin-skinned extension
fault zone
BASEMENT 2. (Thick-skinned extension)
EXTENSION 3. Thin-skinned compression
4. Thick-skinned compression
5. Thin- and thick-skinned extension
4 1 6 6. Thin- and thick-skinned compression
Dowsing
fault zone BASEMENT
COMPRESSION
Figure 6.43. Driving mechanisms for the evolution of suprasalt
features atop the Zechstein salt in the western part of the southern
North Sea Basin. All listed mechanisms, except thick-skinned
extension, played a role. Salt structures evolved as the basin tec-
tonics evolved from extension (upper diagram) to compression
(lower diagram) and there is always an element of detachment
tectonics, such as buckle folding, in the current distribution of
the salt layer (after Coward and Stewart, 1995).
Central North Sea Graben, the Horn Graben and the Glückstadt
Graben, while in onshore Germany this same orientation defines
the Ens Low and the Weser Depression. Further south, exten-
sion was accommodated by transtensional slip in a northwest
direction. Not only are the orientation of salt ridges and fault
trends related across the domains, but so is the timing of salt
movement and faulting. Salt piercement and basement fault
movement is dominantly Triassic in the northern part of North
Germany, while in the south a Jurassic age prevails. Piercement
is mostly Late Jurassic in the Central North Sea Graben, as is
the main tectonic phase.
Many diapirs in the southern North Sea Basin were initiated
along extensional faults that defined half-graben edges in Trias-
sic to Jurassic times (Figures 6.43, 6.44a). The lack of primary
rim synclines indicates that many of the structures became
diapiric without going through a pillow phase immediately
atop the Zechstein salt. In extension the diapirs grew mainly
by asymmetric downbuilding with salt rise focused on the
upthrown block adjacent to the fault, probably with sporadic
periods of bathymetric relief created at diapir crests (Figure
6.43, 6.44a). The associated hanging wall tilt drove gravity
gliding of the post-salt section, with resultant low-angle ex-
tensional faulting upslope and salt-cored buckling downslope
CHAPTER 6
with structural trends following basement grain (Thomas and
Coward, 1996).
compressed by a phase of thin-skinned inversion, associated
with back-steepening of the margin fault system and a result-
ing reactivation of the extensional detachment system. The
effects of this inversion have been noted in many parts of the
northern North Sea so that post Early Cretaceous and Tertiary
history of the southern North Sea Basin is compressional, not
extensional. This is expressed as changes in basin tilt and in
reverse slip on individual faults so that parts of the North Sea
basin now tilt to the northeast, a reversal of the original Jurassic
tilt direction in the UK section of the southern North Sea Basin
(Figure 6.43; Steward and Coward, 1995). This is especially
obvious in thrust faults and structures that fringe the Broad
Forties basin (Hayward and Graham, 1989 but is seen across
the North Sea Graben (Thomas and Coward, 1996) and much
of the southern North Sea Basin (Remmelts, 1996; Stewart et
al., 1997). Within the South Viking Graben, shortening esti-
mates vary between 14 and 18% and are expressed on seismic
data by localized hanging wall folds and the back-steepening
of faults along the fault complex of the western margin of the
graben, together with out-of-graben thrusting up the hanging
wall dip-slope.
In order to fully explain the elongate salt walls and pillows
of the southern North Sea Basin the effects of both extension
and inversion must be considered in the final analysis of the
salt structure geometry. Recognition of significant inversion
can change the interpretation of some elongate salt-cored
anticlines from salt pillows/swells to compressional buckle
folds and squeezing of earlier extensional structures (Figure
6.47). Clearly, any precontractional salt tectonics strongly
influences the location of subsequent thrusts and folds (Figure
6.41; Letouzey et al., 1995).
During contraction and inversion, folds and thrusts are initi-
ated where thickness variations in the salt were already present
in the overburden (Figure 6.44a; Vendeville and Jackson,
1992a,b; Nalpas and Brun, 1993). Erosional thinning of the
overburden over salt ridges or salt walls also localises thrusts
and folds, even when they are not related to basement normal
faults (Figure 6.44b). Décollement atop the compressed salt
also induces normal-fault offsets on the top of salt that then
localise thrusting and facilitate subsequent reactive diapirism
(Figure 6.44b).
SALT TECTONICS
A. 0 5km
Triassic
Basement fault
block
Cretaceous
Triassic
B.
1. Limbs begin to rise above regional elevation
regional datum
cover
salt
basement
2. Faults form with gravity gliding, some may sole
into intracover detachment horizon
arbitrary erosion surface
intracover detachment
Shortening
3. Reactive diapirism establishes conduit to surface
(can then evolve into passive diapir)
limb collapse
into salt pillow
Figure 6.44. Extension and conversion structures, North Sea.
A) Evolution of the Step Graben in the North Sea. Triassic
extension focused the formation of salt structures atop normal
faults in Sub-Zechstein basement. Early block faulting and
accompanying rotation causes bedding plane parallel salt
flow and pillowing atop the fault plane. This is followed by
compression (shortening and inversion), tied to the Cretaceous
unconformity and deposition of overlying sealing shales. Short-
ening drove oversteepening and flow reactivation during the
Cretaceous-Tertiary inversion (after Remmelts, 1996). B) Buckle
fold evolution with crestal erosion culminating in diapirism (after
Coward and Stewart, 1995). See also Figure 6.47.
425
Can extrusion indicate extreme shortening?
With enough time, a sedimentary basin evolves from ex-
tensional to compressional or re-activated diapirs (Wilson
Cycle), or a gentle salt anticline can evolve from a pillow
created by gravity-driven downslope compressional folding
(with an upslope extensional regime) into a compressional
buckle fold via inversion (Figure 10.47). Salt can breakout
out from anticlinal crests in either scenario and if it escapes
onto the landsurface or seafloor it can initiate a new phase of
passive diapirism.
Lateral shortening via buckling encourages thickening of salt
in the anticlinal core, while the associated folding and crestal
erosion can create the structural relief necessary for buoyancy
and possible salt emergence, as can pinch-off from the mother
salt layer. Such buckled salt-cored anticlines constitute the
source to salt in the active namakiers of the Zagros Fold Belt of
Iran (Figure 6.45). Once salt is extruded the original salt-cored
anticline is subject to collapse and erosion (Figure 7.14).
But physical modelling of salt under compression creates a
quandary as to whether the buckling and the thickening of
a salt anticline alone can build sufficient pressure to initiate
active diapirism, especially if the salt in the buckle-fold core
is still connected to the mother salt layer. Physical models of
a buckling compressional system using brittle overburden
and a viscous salt-analogue silicone gel layer do not show
breakout at the thickening anticlinal crests (Vendeville and
Jackson, 1992b; Letouzey et al., 1995; Koyi, 1998). The
Time silicone gel initially thickens in the rising anticlinal cores,
then is squeezed out back down into the mother salt layer (the
squeezed salt/gel takes the path of least resistance compared
with breaking through the brittle overburden), or the gel is
dragged along thrust planes. In all cases it stays in normal
stratigraphic contact with the overlying thrust sheet. Only when
there is a pre-existing diapir stem, or there is crestal erosion,
or if the salt core is pinched off from the original mother salt
level, is salt extruded. Extrusion in physical models with brittle
overburden tends to occur whenever the stem is cut off from
the mother bed and then the extrusion event is short lived (aka
“popping the pimple”).
Yet, 300-metre high glaciers of Neoproterozoic salt are flowing
today across the landscape in the eastern foldbelt of the Zagros
Mountains, Iran. The ubiquity of salt glaciers (namakiers) in
this part of the Zagros foldbelt clearly shows salt can breach
anticlines within regionally compressed terrains (Figures 6.45a,
b, 6.46a). Zagros folds in this area are elongated symmetric
whalebacks or box-shaped anticlines trending in a generally
NW-SE direction, with the main thrust detachment at the level
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h_C^[^e=aZggZ!bgiZkmZ_m^kDbkdaZf%*220"'Ghm^maZml^ZpZk]^qm^glbhgh_Z\mbo^k^^_lZg]h__lahk^hhebm^[Zkmab\dlZk^
[hma\hgmkhee^][rma^ihlbmbhgh_ma^]bZibk'
440 CHAPTER 6

lised the underlying salt sheet (Figure

South Stromatolitic buildups 6.58a). During the proximal deltaic
phase, salt continued to withdraw from
Enorama Shale beneath the minibasin, and lowstand
shelf margin deltas remained focused
(unconformable bases)

at a regional growth fault zone on

Debris aprons

Enorama diapir
the northern margin of the minibasin
(Figure 6.58b). Sediment accumula-
tion and fault slip rates were high,
100 m
as thick sequences of deltaic sands
1 km were deposited adjacent to the fault
system. During the final fluvial phase,
salt withdrawal waned; consequently,
the creation of accommodation space
calcareous
sand and grit within the minibasin ceased (Figure
Enorama Shale 6.58c). The basin filled and, during
stromatolitic reef
lowstands, deltaic systems prograded
basalt block
southward. Unconformities devel-
Enorama Diapir oped in the minibasin during these
50m lowstands. During transgressions,
contorted red shale
thick packages of shallow-water
100m
deltaic and fluvial sands (capped by
Figure 6.57. Palinspastic reconstruction of part of the western Neoproterozoic margin shales) were deposited on top of the
of the Enorama diapir, Flinders Ranges, Australia Lower figure shows detail of contact unconformities.
of reef with diapiric breccia. (after Lemon, 2000).
On a salt-floored continental margin
In summary, the reefs grew during a time of sea level rise and
that is being loaded by fluvio-deltaic wedges, the transition
show a close relationship with rises in the Enorama Diapir,
from deep water, when the floor of the minibasin first begins
with each deepening upward reef succession being a response
to subside as it is loaded, into a shelf and deltaic system is a
to a pulse of diapir growth. The diapir provided an area of
natural evolution. The sedimentation model documented by
shallow water around an island at a time when deeper water
Alexander and Flemings (1995) has a wider application to
shale was being deposited in the rest of the basin. The mound
other salt-floored passive margins. Some authors in the Gulf
to reef transition shows ¶catch up· and ¶keep up· growth habit
of Mexico prefer to divide minibasin sedimentation into shelf-
but the sudden demise of each individual reef appears related
loaded and slope-load subcategories, but recognise it is all part
to a subsequent pulse of salt movement on the diapir, not to
of a feedback between basinward salt flow of the allochthon
broader eustacy.
sheet and sediment loading (Figures 6.31, 10.52). Once the
salt is evacuated from beneath a minibasin the basin can no
longer subside and the depositional locus shifts basinward
Sediments tied to salt basin evolution into the next minibasin atop the next tier of the allochthon.
In the case of the Eugene Island minibasin this did not occur
Suprasalt clastic sedimentation
until the basin was filling with shelf sediments. In other basins
Alexander and Flemings (1995) documented the spatial and
this can happen while turbidites are still accumulating in the
temporal distribution of siliciclastic sand within an evolving
withdrawal sink. In this case the basin no longer accumulates
Pliocene-Pleistocene salt-withdrawal shelf minibasin in the
turbidites, which now bypass the basin on their way downslope
Gulf of Mexico; the Eugene Island Block 330 field. Part of it
to the next active depopod.
is a giant oil and gas field in offshore Louisiana and is located
immediately landward of the deeper water Green Canyon area.
Turbidite fill in Gulf of Mexico minibasins of the northern
The minibasin evolved through three phases: prodelta, proximal
Green Canyon and Ewing Bank areas has been modeled by
deltaic, and fluvial (Figures 6.58, 8.16). In the prodelta phase,
Rowan and Weimer (1998). They found that at the highest
bathyal and outer neritic shales and turbidites loaded and mobi-
6$/77(&721,&6 

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442 CHAPTER 6

Explanation
Kp 100o 45 W
Carroza Formation (Tc)
Viento Formation (Tv)
26o 15 N
Adjuntas Formation (Ta) Kpl
Kpl
Upper Potrerillos Formation (Tpu) Tpu
Limestone lentil Kp
Delgado Sandstone Tongue (TKpd)
Tv
Lower Potrerillos Formation (Kpl) La Popa
diapir
Limestone lentil La Popa
Cuchilla Sandstone Tongue (Kpc) lentil
Tc Je
San Jose
P
Muerto Formation (Km)
lentil
Parras Shale (Kp)
Kl
Limestone lentil 35
La Popa 89
Lower Cretaceous limestone (Kl) Tv 45
weld
Jurassic evaporite (Je) 49
30 61
Km 76
10
Kl 34 TKpd El Papalote
diapir 88
Kpl 33 El Toro
30 X 23 lentil
P 45
20
El Gordo 20 10 Je 27
anticline 38 60
Kp 70 X
Kpl 35 28
TKpd 40 Tpu
83
70
El Gordo
El Gordo Je lentil Kpl
diapir 15
Ta Tv 23 68 26o 00 N
27 Km
32
Tpu km
34
0 5
Figure 6.59. Geologic map of the La Popa Basin, Mexico. Anticlinal fold axes indicate structures attributed to the Hildagoan
(Laramide) shortening (after Giles and Lawton, 2002). P-P' and X-X' are the locations of cross sections in Figures 6.60 and
6.61.

the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary in what was a dominantly
fine-grained siliciclastic shelfal environment.
The La Popa structure is interpreted as a 25 km long salt weld
with parallel flanking synclines, previously it was considered
to be a reverse fault (Figure 6.60a, b; Giles and Lawton, 1999).
The displacement surface is convex to the southwest and dips
south to southwest. Stratigraphic displacement at the surface
is zero at either end and increases to § 5 km halfway along
the trace of the structure. The structure is the result of hang-
ingwall subsidence during evacuation of Jurassic salt along
a former diapiric salt wall. Sedimentation patterns on either
side of the weld indicate the La Popa structure experienced
a two-phase history in Late Cretaceous to Eocene time: 1) A
diapiric phase marked by rise of an elongate, arcuate salt wall
that was symmetrically flanked by withdrawal synclines; 2) a
subsequent evacuation phase recorded by substantially increased
subsidence of the hanging wall relative to the footwall and the
stratigraphic “welding” of footwall and hanging wall along a
steep planar discontinuity (salt weld) created as salt withdrew
from the former diapir.
Superb exposures (over 10km along strike) of the largest reef
complexes along the northern side of the La Popa Weld show
that during the diapir stage these Paleocene lentils initially
accreted as coral, sponge, red algal reef and oyster biostrome
SALT TECTONICS 443

complexes atop and immediately adjacent to the La Popa salt dominated, eastward-prograding deltaic depositional system.
wall (Figure 6.60c). Large, steep (200m relief over 0.5km) for- Typical parasequences in the siliciclastic section comprise
ereef clinoforms indicate northward (downwind) progradation offshore shales overlain by lower to upper shoreface sandstone.
of the La Popa lentil away from seafloor high created by the The Delgado Sandstone contains a lower, progradational
La Popa salt wall. With a probable lowering of the local rate parasequence set; it is part of a highstand system tract that is
of salt induced uplift near this part of the salt wall, this reefal in turn part of the underlying Middle Siltstone Member of the
system was subsequently truncated, onlapped and possibly Potrerillos Formation. It also contains an upper retrogradational
overlapped by a southward prograding grainstone bar complex. set, which is part of a transgressive system tract that persisted
This shoal was derived from a separate source to the north, into the Upper Mudstone Member. The two system tracts are
perhaps from another salt-related bathymetric high tied to the separated by an erosional sequence boundary that incises up
La Popa Diapir. To the north and west of the La Popa diapir the to 10 m of underlying strata and locally preserves a lowstand
two carbonate complexes coalesced through time to generate a system tract within the incised valleys.
continuous carbonate sheet that now defines the La Popa lentil.
It extended more than 5 km within what was at edge of a low During growth of the salt wall in the Early Tertiary, thick
created by a salt withdrawal/contractional syncline as salt was prodeltaic and tidally-influenced shoreface siliciclastics periodi-
evacuated into the rising salt wall (Figure 6.60c). cally accumulated in the adjacent withdrawal syncline. Flute
marks on bases of turbidite beds and channel axis orientations
Carbonate strata thin and become siliciclastic away from indicate a dominant palaeoflow along synclinal axes, with a
the La Popa salt wall and are intercalated with siliciclastics component of flow away from the salt wall. Siliciclastic units
in the footwall syncline. The Delgado Sandstone Tongue of thin and fine toward the salt wall, near which they are upturned
the Potrerillos Formation is a shelfal sandstone/siltstone that and contain numerous synkinematic angular unconformities.
was deposited during salt wall growth as a complex, wave- During evacuation the volume of the wall declined, causing the

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Figure 6.60. The La Popa salt weld. A) Stratigraphy of the La Popa Basin during the time when salt flow occurred ( L = Lower;
M = Middle; U = Upper). B) Cross section of the La Popa weld (see Figure 6.59 for position). C) Interpreted evolution of the
La Popa structure (after Giles and Lawton, 1999).
444 CHAPTER 6

El Papalote diapir is
Y Y
6!ln located on a major
XOX FTF
Z Z fold limb and has
2611 7
Ub experienced approxi-
Fmfwbujpo!)n*

Tbmu!Gmbsf
2111 5 mately 100 m of net
Lqt 7 Uqtt
2 shortening, whereas
2 5
611 Fm!Qbqbmpuf 4 Uqnv
ejbqjs Uqm 3 El Gordo is located
Lqm2 Lqm2 Uqe
Lqnm along the axis of the
1 Lqnm Lqt
same fold and has
accommodated over
Z Z
2!ln 2 km of shortening
XOX FTF (Rowan et al., 2001).
IBMPLJOFUJD!TFRVFODF!2 3 4 5 6 7
Lqm2
Uqm7 The corresponding
Lqm2 Uqm4 Uqm5 Uqm6
Uqe Uqm halo of diapir-related
Fm!Qbqbmpuf 3
ejbqjs drape folding, which
Pwfsuvsofe!cfet is at most 800 m
Kf wide at El Papalote,
is up to 2 km wide at
El Gordo. Carbonate
Nfub.jhofpvt!dmbtu Cmbdl!tibmf Hzqtvn lentils, which formed
Mjnftupof!dpohmpnfsbuf
over the bathymetric
Pztufs!boe!sfe!bmhbm Tjmutupof!boe
cjptuspnf gjof.hsbjofe!tboetupof highs associated with
both diapirs, are over-
Figure 6.61. Cross sections X-X' and Y-Y' through the El Papalote diapir (after Giles and Lawton, 2002). all shallower, thicker,
Locality of cross section X-X is shown on Figure 6.59.
broader and record
synclinal hinge of the hanging wall to migrate laterally toward fewer halokinetic se-
the developing weld. Hangingwall strata deposited during the quences at El Gordo than at El Papalote. Sandstone units start
evacuation phase thicken, rather than thin, toward the weld. thinning within 300-800 m of the edge of El Papalote but within
They define the weld syncline where sand-rich fluvial channels 1000-1500 m at El Gordo. Differences in style and distribution
are concentrated directly adjacent to the weld. of halokinetic strata about the two diapirs imply that the uplift
histories of the two features were different and that the buildup
To the south of the La Popa salt weld are the El Papalote and atop the El Gordo structure more closely approached sealevel
El Gordo diapirs, they have similar dimensions and are located (Rowan et al., 2003).
5 km apart (Figure 6.59). The at-surface diapiric material
in both diapirs and portions of the weld is today a complex Sediments flanking the El Papalote diapir have been studied in
mixture of gypsum, anhydrite and salt-transported exotic more detail than the other two structures with a view to defin-
blocks of metamorphosed mafic intermediate igneous rocks ing typical successions in an ancient withdrawal sink and to
and Jurassic carbonates (Garrison and McMillan, 1999). The test if such successions are amenable to sequence stratigraphic
gypsum is created by rehydration of the anhydrite caprock atop analysis (Figures 6.61, 6.62; Giles and Lawton, 2002). At
the Jurassic salt of the diapir core. Petrology and geochemistry the time sediments were accumulating, diapir-flanking strata
of the meta-igneous blocks indicate derivation from partial thinned toward the diapir and were characterised by abrupt
mantle melting during Jurassic rifting with greenschist facies lateral facies changes and intense local deformation. Strata can
metamorphism dated at 146 Ma (40Ar/39Ar dating of biotite be broken out into a series of “halokinetic sequences,” which
and potassium in meta-plutonic blocks). This date is younger are defined as unconformity-bounded strata, genetically related
than that of the hosting Minas Viejas evaporite beds suggest- to halokinetic processes.
ing high heat flow from the basement continued into the latest
Jurassic. The various sedimentary and volcanic blocks were Each halokinetic sequence contains a basal debris-flow bed
likely intercalated in bedded salt prior to halokinesis, while overlying an unconformity, which is angular directly adjacent
the plutonics were intruded into the syn-rift fill and all were to the diapir and becomes disconformable to conformable
fragmented by extensional tectonics and salt flow. with increasing distance from the diapir. Debris-flow or mass
SALT TECTONICS 445

wasting beds contain polymict clasts

81n
derived from the diapir and material
that mantled the diapir (Figure 6.62).
Bohvmbs!vodpogpsnjuz
At the various times these beds were Cmbdl!tibmf!xjui!gjof.hsbjofe Pvufs!Tifmg
forming the diapir crest was exposed 71n tboetupof!uvscjejuft
at the sediment-water interface and
Cvsspxfe!boe!dsptt.cfeefe Mpxfs!up
shedding carapace debris into the gjof!up!nfejvn.hsbjofe vqqfs
surrounding sediments. These mass tboetupof tipsfgbdf
wasting deposits are dominated by 61n

carbonate clasts. They are interlay-

ered with autocthonous reefal and
biostromal strata and together con-

Ibmpljofujd!tfrvfodf
51n
stitute the lentils mentioned earlier. Mpxfs
Hence, debris and mass wasting beds Ivnnpdlz!dsptt.tusbujgjfe tipsfgbdf
gjof.hsbjofe!tboetupof
grade upsection into oyster- and red
algal-rich carbonate banks. This 41n Tboetupof!uvscjejuft
xjuijo!tjmutupoft Uvscjejuft!po
carbonate section is then onlapped tmpqf
by black basinal shales and capped by
upward-shallowing and coarsening, Pvufs!tifmg
31n up!tmpqf
lower shoreface siliciclastic strata, Cmbdl!tibmf!xjui!gjof.hsbjofe
which lack diapir-derived detritus tboetupof!uvscjejuft

(Figure 6.62). This lack of diapir Cjpdmbtujdt

Cjpdmbtujd!xbdlftupof.
qbdltupof!xjui!ejbcbtf!dmbtut boe
detritus indicates that the diapir crest 21n pztufs!cbolt
Dpohmpnfsbuf!xjui!dmbtut

Mfoujm
was no longer at the surface or had pg!ejbcbtf-!tjmjdmbtujdt Efcsjt!tmpqf
insufficient seafloor relief to act as dbscpobuft!boe!pztufst boe!tmvnq
a sediment source. Lower shoreface Mpdbmmz!diboofmjtfe
deposits are abruptly overlain by outer 1 Bohvmbs!vodpogpsnjuz
shelf shales that in turn underlie the
angular unconformity of the next Ibmpljofujd!tfrvfodf!cpvoebsjft
Mfoujm!3 )bohvmbs!vodpogpsnjujft*
halokinetic sequence.

Each halokinetic sequence was gener-

ated by the waxing and waning of an
episode of salt fountaining and salt Ejbqjs Ibmp
sjtf tfr ljofujd UTU
glacier flow (Figures 6.60c, 6.62; vfo
df ITU TC
Giles and Lawton, 2002). Periods
of salt rise and salt glacier advance Mfoujm!2
UTU
followed by retreat create uncon-
formities near the salt structure. They TC

correspond to times of slow sedimen-

tation and regional black shales in
interdiapir withdrawal sinks. These
black shales perhaps reflect basin
deposition during deepening (maxi-
mum flooding events). Advances of
glaciers over diapir-flanking beds
provided a mechanism of deforming
and overturning strata that under-
went subsequent local truncation
Mjnftupof!dpohmpnfsbuf Hsfz!tibmf
xjui!nfub.jhofpvt!dmbtut Tjmutupof!boe
gjof.hsbjofe!tboetupof
Pztufs!boe!sfe!bmhbm Cmbdl!tibmf
cjptuspnf
Figure 6.62. Halokinetic sequence in a marine shelf setting, based on the stratigraphy of
the lentil and associated sediments in the vicinity of the El Papalote diapir. Lower figure
also shows the interpreted relationships between sediments and angular unconformities
tied to diapir rise and to the sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the surrounding
shelf and slope sediments. SB = sequence boundary; TST - transgressive system tract;
HST = highstand system tract (after Giles and Lawton, 1999).
 &+$37(5

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EVAPORITE KARST AND INDICATORS 529

A. 125° 50'
126° 00'
B. CADJEBUT MINE
AND PROXIMAL AREA
CD113 & CD114
DISTAL TO CADJEBUT MINE
N
PERMIA PHD 4
Carolyn Formation

DEVONIAN
Gogo Formation
15
Sadler Limestone

LENS 1
Pillara Limestone
Reef PVD 2 PVD 17
Pillara Limestone 18° 40' CA
Platform DJ

Thickness of lower dolomite unit (m)

EB PVD 19
PI UT
NN
ORDOVICIAN AC FA
LE ULT
FA CD 20 CD 113
Emanuel Formation U LT
CD 100
CADJEBUT 10
Drill core with evaporite MIN CD 114
dissolution breccias

Drill core with

preserved evaporites 0 5 km

C. Rhythmically
N Type A Type B S
banded ore ore-matrix ore-matrix
breccia breccia 5

Oncolite marker LENS 2

r
lomite marke
Mid face do 0
1m
Dolomitic Dolomitic Rhythmically Breccia ore Dolomitic Dolomitic Banded Fine rock Evaporite
wackestone siltstone banded ore cavity fill wackestones/ siltstone ore matrix (anhydrite)
packstones breccias

Figure 7.50. Cadjebut evaporites and mineralisation. A) Regional mine geology showing cored wells with and without evaporites.
B) Correlation of ore lenses to solution breccias to evaporites in more distal positions from mine. C) Mapped ore face showing
the different styles of ore texture in the mine. This ore horizon is laterally equivalent to an evaporite dissolution breccia, which
in turn passes into equivalent anhydrite beds (after Warren and Kempton, 1997).

Cadjebut Mine had pre-mining reserves of 3.8 million tonnes two throughout lens 2 and two in the northern part of lens
of 17% combined zinc and lead. Ore grade mineralization 1. Rhythmically banded baryte and/or rhythmically banded
(Zn-Pb) occurs as two stratabound lenses, referred to as “lens marcasite form a halo around the orebody and are associated
1” and “lens 2” (Figure 7.50b), ranging in thickness from with the rhythmically banded zinc-rich ore.
4 to 6 metres. The width of the orebody varies from 50 to
150 m, as defined by a cut off grade of 7% lead-zinc, and is There is a one-to-one correlation of sulphide-mineralised
flanked to the north and south by hypogene alteration haloes horizons in the Cadjebut Mine with evaporite dissolution
of marcasite, calcite and baryte (Tompkins et al., 1994). The breccia horizons in the immediate area around the mine, and
contact between ore grade mineralization (>7% Zn+Pb) and with remnant bedded anhydrite units well away from the mine
the alteration halo is usually abrupt over a distance of a few (Figure 7.50b). Evaporite beds were the precursor lithology
metres. In section, the ore-bearing lenses are stacked vertically to the sulphide ore lenses at Cadjebut. The stratabound linear
above one another and separated by about 5 to 6m of barren nature of the Cadjebut deposit reflects a time when upwelling
or weakly mineralized dolostone (Figure 7.50b). In plan view, metalliferous basinal fluids interacted with bedded stratiform
both ore lenses have a broad sinusoidal shape and display the nodular anhydrite beds and trapped hydrocarbons to precipitate
same geometrical congruence. lead and zinc sulphides. Current structure in the mine region
still preserves a gentle drape anticline, which Warren and
Two dominant ore types are present (Figure 7.50c): (a) Kempton (1997) interpret as a partial artifact of the minerali-
stratiform, rhythmically banded zinc-rich ore; and (b) stratiform sation structure, enhanced by the sequential loss of the sur-
to stratabound, lead-rich breccia-hosted cavity-fill ore. The rounding evaporites, after ore had locally replaced a bedded
rhythmically banded ore occurs as four stratiform horizons, anhydrite precursor. The linear nature of the anticlinal structure
 &+$37(5

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572 CHAPTER 8

ongoing burial dissolution of evaporites,

A. Dev. Carb. Perm. Tr. Jur. Cret. Tert.
mixing with less saline thermobaric waters
0 100 200 300 400 escaping from nearby shale and so precipitat-
ing later dolomite cements (type 2). These
Early Burial Time (m.y.).
Lithification type 2 dolomites are much less voluminous
White Dolomite than type 1 and precipitated at temperatures
(1 and 2) Slave Pt. Presqu’ile dolomite § 130°C during the Late Devonian-Car-
White Dolospar Dolomite 1 and Dolomite 2
boniferous. Later lower salinity brines that
(2) Keg River
precipitated late calcite cements and some
Bitumen
latest type 2 dolomite may have interacted
White Vug-
filling Calcite ? with connate fluids of marine origin or,
Quartz less likely, with meteoric fluids (Morrow
?
et al., 2002).
Stylolitization ?
Sulphide
Mineralization ? ? The importance of a buried, slowly dissolv-
ing, salt mass in focusing thermobaric fluid
B. Presqu’le Dolomite - Late Devonian
flow throughout much of a basin·s burial
to Early Carboniferous history was also illustrated by Wolfgramm
North South
and Mumm (2000). They used fluid inclu-
Muskwa-Fort Simpsom sion analyses to reconstruct the spatial and
temporal variation of fluid composition and
Otter Park High Ø, k Slave Point Watt Mt. thermal properties within sediments beneath
Shale the Zechstein salt in northeast Germany.
High Ø, k Sulphur Pt. Precipitates from early thermobaric fluids,
Low Ø, k
Basinal Slave Pt. Dense NaCl migrating in the deeper parts of the basin,
CaCl2-MgCl2 Keg River
Klua shale were characterised by complex salinities,
-H2O brines
Low Brine with sulphur contents that increased toward
Ø, k flowpaths the contact with the Zechstein. This sug-
Cambrian to Chinchaga gests a partial exchange with the overlying
evaporites. Inclusions of coexisting fluids
? ? Precambrian dominated by NaCl, CaCl2 and KCl are
largely restricted to authigenic minerals
in the Upper Carboniferous sediments and
Rotliegende volcanics located in juxtaposi-
Presqu’ile tion to the overlying evaporites. Younger,
Basement fault control Dolomite secondary fluid inclusions, sometimes
on Cordova embayment
containing gas phases, show increasing tem-
Figure 8.4. A) Chart of diagenetic events for the Keg River to Slave Point strata. peratures related to further burial. Thermal
Presquile dolomitization (dolomite 1 and dolomite 2) precedes the thermal properties of all fluid inclusions indicate
maturation of organic material and the emplacement of reservoir bitumen. steep thermal gradients below the base of
Calcite cementation coincides approximately with the onset of gas generation
the Zechstein and Rotliegende sediments.
followed by minor quartz and sulphide (sphalerite and galena) cementation. B)
Schematic reconstruction of time of dominant Presquile dolomitization around This documents convective or advective heat
the Cordova embayment. Dense residual Elk Point brines flowed downdip and and associated focused subsalt fluid flow in
northwestward by gravity displacement of less dense subsurface fluids. This flow the deeper thermobaric parts of the basin.
was confined beneath the Watt Mountain Formation shale. The absence of this
Throughout its burial history the Zechstein
confining layer allowed upward flow of brines into the overlying porous Slave
Point Formation, where downdip brine flow may have been deflected upward salt mass acts as the seal to a widespread
against the low permeability basin fill of shaly units of the Cordova embayment. convective system until its continuity is
Initially, dolomitization occurred at temperatures below 50°C, but an increase broken by salt withdrawal and thinning.
in basal heat flow and ongoing burial caused dolomite precipitation to continue
at 130°C (after Morrow et al., 2002).
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BURIAL HYDROLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 587

inherent mechanism in al-

T Ufohj{ Lpspmfwtlbzb Lbsbupo O most all autochthonous and
allochthonous salt masses
(Chapter 6). It explains
Efqui!)n*

5 unexpected pressure rises

6
when drilling through thick
sequences of salt on the
7
way to testing subsalt hy-
8
drocarbon traps or creating
1 21 31 purpose built salt storage
cavities (Chapters 10 and
B/ dbscpobuf tibmf tbmu ln
12 respectively). Porous
Gpsnbujpo!qsfttvsf!)NQb* Tbmjojuz!)nh0m* blocks intersected in drill-
Hfpmphz ing halokinetic salt can be
31 51 71 91 61 261 361
isolated or clustered (Figure
8.15). Common practice is
to bleed them down, since
Dsfubd/

2 they usually have limited

extent within the salt mass.
At the well site the observed
3 rate of depletion should give
Kvs/

some idea of how long the

Efqui!)ln*

process may take. In the

Qfsn/ Usjbt

4 worst case scenario one raft

will “blow-out” into another
leaving the rig operator to
5 Ufohj{ wait until equilibrium is
Tvqsbtbmu!gpsnbujpot established. Generally, no
Dbsc/

Lbsbupo pressure transitions are ob-

Tvctbmu!xbufs
6 served prior to drilling into a
Tvctbmu!pjm
C/
Figure 8.14. Tengiz oil field, Karzakstan. A) East west cross section showing how the evaporite
seals the oil in a number of carbonate buildup traps. When the salt is breached at the Karaton
structure the oil has escaped and the structure is water filled. B) Measured pressure plotted
against depth, clearly shows the base of the evaporite (shaded grey) is the top of the overpressure
(after Anissimov et al., 2000).
If hydrofracturing occurs with associated pressure release,
growth-pulsed fibrous cements of halite, gypsum and carbonate
may precipitate in new fracture nets immediately beneath the
evaporite seal. But in systems where the evaporites are subse-
quently dissolved only carbonate vein fills and their fracture
nets will remain as brittle sediment indicators beneath a layer
of dissolution breccia or insoluble residues.
Salt's impervious nature and its ability to flow, while intrasalt
beds fracture, leads to interesting pressure scenarios wherever
rafts are caught up in masses of halokinetic salt. Fractur-
ing of intrasalt beds and encasement in flowing salt is an
raft, reflecting their isolated
nature within the salt.
In the Zechstein, for exam-
ple, the Z3 bioclastic layer
of dolomite, Plattendolomit,
is deposited on top of the
Z2 Stassfurt halite (Figure
5.48). A CaSO4 layer was precipitated as gypsum, followed
by the Z3 evaporites and the Leine halite (Finnie et al., 2001).
Water from the gypsum was expelled as the sulphate dewatered
and transformed into anhydrite. The overlying halite did not
permit the upward movement of this water and so it forced
into the adjacent porous platy dolomites. The Plattendolomite,
already contained fluid and so excess fluid was accommodated
in part by pressure-driven leaching.
When the Zechstein's most mobile salt layer, the Z2 Stassfurt
halite, begins to move, it carries with it the overlying Platten/
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OIL AND GAS 717

A. Gamma PEF Nø Dø Core ø B. Compensated

Metres neutron density log
Mountain

Gunton Mbr.
Stony

Fm.

Gunn Mbr. Stony Mountain Shaly limestone

Fm. fossiliferous
Hataven Mbr. 0
Top Red River Fm.
Herald Fm.

Redvers Mbr. Bedded to

2550 Upper A-limestone burrowed, local fossils
Coronach Mbr. A-dolomite Laminated
Lake Alma Bedded to
Mbr. Lower A-limestone
burrowed, local fossils
Upper Ordovician

20 B-anhydrite Bedded to enterolithic

B-laminated dolo Laminated,ostrocodes
B-burrowed
RED RIVER
Yeoman Fm.

Core
Fossiliferous
limestone

2600 C-anhydrite Bedded to enterolithic

40
C-laminated Limestone and
dolomite, laminated
member to bedded

60 Limestone and/or
C-burrowed dolomite, highly
member burrowed,
2650 Ød common fossils
Øn
Mid Ordovician

Winnipeg Fm.

Argillaceous limestone
80
Anhydrite
Shale with silty sandy 30 20 10 0 -10
Dolomite interbeds Porosity (%)
Dolomitic limestone Sandstone with silty
shaly interbeds

Shading Dolomite
D. 25
C. indicates
evaporitic
as % of
carbonate C
C
Gamma Neutron supratidal fraction
Top Red River Neutron Ø
8600 8600 8600 20
Density Ø CC
CC JJ
U2 A zone top core
Wireline porosity (%)

A cycle
U3
U4 C C C
C J
U4-U6
C C C C
zone
B cycle U5
B zone 15 C
C
CC C
C CJ CJ J JJ
JJ
8700 U6 8700 8700
J C JJ J CJ
10 JJ
J
U6-U7 C zone JJ JJC JJCJJJJJ JJ
C cycle zone
J J C J JC C
JJ
U7
C J J C
JJC
5 C C
CCJ C C
D zone 8800 C
D cycle 8800 8800 CC
C
0
0 5 10 15 20
Base Core Porosity (%)
of Core

Figure 10.6. Evaporitic mudflat (peritidal) style of deposition in the Ordovician Red River Dolomite, North Americas. A) Red
River stratigraphy with wireline data from well 7-3-7-11W2 in Midale area, Saskatchewan (after Pu and Qing, 2003). B) Typi-
cal section showing detailed sedimentary character of the main cycles (after Longman et al., 1983). C) Core section in the
Cabin Creek Field, shows the close relationship between dolomite occurrence and evaporite beds (after Clement 1985) D)
Relationship between core porosity, neutron log and density log porosity in well 14-16-7-11W2 in Midale area Saskatchewan
(after Pu and Qing, 2003).

“Burrowed Member,” which is around 9 m thick in the B zone Subtidal lithologies in each cycle are classic Zone X sediments
and up to 90 m thick in the C zone; 2) irregularly laminated composed of partially dolomitized burrowed biomicrite
carbonate mudstones that constitute a 3-12 m-thick “Laminated wackestones with fragments of echinoids, brachiopods,
Member;” and 3) an impure 3-6 m capping anhydrite show- bryozoans, trilobites, molluscs, ostrocodes, and gastropods,
ing nodular-mosaic, nodular, or enterolithic textures (Figure and lesser amounts of solitary corals and stromatoporoids
10.6c). All members thin toward the edge of the basin where (Figure 5.16). These subtidal dolomitic units are poorly bedded
the anhydrites disappear completely. and heavily bioturbated and were laid down in a quiet-water
epeiric platform setting.
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with some porosity enhancement

of partially dolomitised intervals Qmbo!Wjfx
occurring during later burial by
partial dissolution of residual
calcite matrix. The initial for- Z
mation of dolomite may well
have been bacterially mediated Y
and focused along organic-rich
Z
linings of the burrows (Gingras
et al., 2004). The mechanism Y
was perhaps similar to that of
the sulphate-reducing bacteria
forming modern dolomites
in the mesohaline salinas of
Brazil (Figure 4.16). Dolo-
mite-lined burrow meshworks Qpmzhpobm
Ujmufe!tfdujpo dsbdl!tztufn
acted as a focus for subsequent
dolomitisation. Ipmft Y Z

There is general agreement that sjuf

oize sjuf
Y D.B Z oize
dolomites of the mottled Red D.B
River C member are genetically
related to Mg-rich brines seep-
ing through restricted marine
muddy carbonates. These dense
hypersaline basin waters were B/ C/
depleted of their calcium and
sulphate, either through attend- Ujhiu-!dszqupdsztubmmjof!epmpnjuf
ant deposition of aragonite and Qpspvt!epmpnjuf
gypsum, or perhaps by ongoing
bacterial sulphate reduction. Ujhiu!mjnftupof
What is not agreed is whether 41!n
Pjm
the dolomitising brines were de- 2!ln
scending or ascending at the time Gmpx!qbui!pg!epmpnjujtjoh
of widespread dolomitisation. gmvjet!qsjps!up!ujmujoh
Longman et al. (1983) argued Figure 10.8. Models explaining the occurrence of patchy diagenetic dolomite that character-
that brine migration was local- ises much of the reservoir in the various fields in the Red River Formation. A) The descend-
ised by “holes” in the anhydrite ing hole model of Longman et al., 1983. B) the ascending megapolygon model of Kendall
mudflat seal (Figure 10.8a). (1983). See text for discussion.
Fracturing, minor faulting, or Perkins (1991) agreed with the brine reflux model for the
early expulsion of subsurface waters from the carbonate host widespread mimetic dolomite fabric but went on to argue
probably formed the “holes.” When the descending Mg-rich that following further burial, limestones tended to chemically
hypersaline brines first entered the underlying carbonate compact through pressure solution, whereas late stage fractures
sediments beneath the “holes” they were oversaturated and pre- were localized in the more brittle dolomitised portions of the
cipitated cryptocrystalline dolomite (overdolomitisation), but as Red River Formation. These fractures served as conduits for
they migrated away from the holes they lost their potency and late stage leaching fluids, possibly associated with hydrocar-
produced rhombs floating in a dissolving calcitic matrix. This bon generation, which locally enhanced porosity in dolomite
calcite may have been precipitated as an early diagenetic phase intervals adjacent to active fractures through the removal of
or left as unreplaced vestiges of original calcite (or aragonite associated calcite. On the scale of individual burrows, late-
subsequently altered to calcite) during dolomitization. stage leaching is reflected in “overly porous” dolomite haloes
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726 CHAPTER 10

D overall. The top of the Arab-D carbonate is

Qpsptjuz!)&* Dpsf!Qfsnfbcjmjuz!)ne*

Efqui!)n*
Hsbjotj{f characterized by a thinner unit of dolomitised
Mjuipmphz

[poft Mph
Dpsf carbonate mudstone (Zone 1), capped by an
1 21 31 41 51 /12 /2 2 21 213 214 215 evaporite seal.

By far the most abundant reservoir rock texture

[pof!2 in the Arab-D is packstone; likewise, the most
7611
abundant reservoir lithofacies is skeletal-oolitic
3B)J* (SO; Tables 10.3, 10.4; Cantrell and Hagerty,
2003). The other significant lithofacies in the
[pof 3B)JJ* Ghawar reservoir are; Cladocoropsis (a charac-
3B
teristic finger-shaped and sized stromatoporoid)
3B)JJJ* lithofacies (CLADO), stromatoporoid-red
algae-coral lithofacies (SRAC), bivalve-coated
3C)J* grain-intraclast lithofacies (BCGI), micritic
lithofacies (MIC) and dolomite lithofacies
(DOLO), all of which are described in detail by
Mitchell et al. (1988). Similar, if not identical,
[pof
3C lithofacies make up Arab D reservoirs in other
7711
3C)JJ* fields in Saudi Arabia and the western United
Arab Emirates. In a detailed petrographic and
petrophysical characterisation of the Ghawar
Arab D reservoir Cantrell and Hagerty (2003)
defined seven related limestone reservoir rock
types based on the values of: (1) the amount of
cement, (2) the amount of matrix (lime mud), (3)
[pof!4B the grain sorting/grain packing, (4) the dominant
pore type, and (5) the size of the largest moulds
(Tables 10.4, 10.5; Figure 10.15).

At the broadest scale of reservoir classification

7811
the Arab D reservoirs are either limestone or
dolomite (Table 10.5) In terms of porosity and
[pof!4C permeability in the limestones, the amount of
matrix is the most important of these five pa-
rameters and breaks down into three reservoir
types (1-III). Cantrell and Hagerty (op cit.) break
our two broad families, A and B in each of the
Hsbjotupof Xbdlftupof Epmpnjuf three reservoir types (Table 10.5), Family, A,
Qbdltupof Mjnf!nvetupof Epmpnjujd!mjnftupof is relatively coarse-grained and poorly sorted
rock with relatively large moulds. Family, B, is
Figure 10.14. Reservoir zonation, porosity and permeability in the Arab D
Formation in Uthmaniyah Field, which is an operational area within the much a generally fine to medium-grained, well-sorted
larger Ghawar Field, Saudi Arabia. (after Saner and Sahin, 1999). rock with few or small moulds. Together this
constitute 6 families of reservoir rock in the
Arab D. Reservoir rock type IV is a seventh
in dolomitized portions of the reservoir. Each of the major
limestone family in Ghawar. Type IV limestones contains more
upward-shoaling cycles that make up the Arab D was initiated
than 10 percent cement, this modifies pore size distribution
in deeper subtidal water that shoaled to near sea-level. The
enough to warrant a separate limestone reservoir family (Figure
proportion of skeletal grainstones and packstones, along with
10.15). Each of the seven limestone types are characterized
ooid grainstones, increase within each cycle and within the Arab
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