food and bioproducts processing 8 9 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 340–345

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food and Bioproducts Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fbp

Solvent extraction and quantification of capsaicinoids from

Capsicum chinense

Mari S. Chinn, Ratna R. Sharma-Shivappa ∗ , Jacqueline L. Cotter

Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Campus Box 7625, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA

a b s t r a c t

Capsaicinoid extraction from peppers is typically performed using organic solvents, however, the extraction efficien-
cies can vary with peppers, their parts and pre-extraction processing. In the absence of in depth information on
capsaicinoid extraction from habañero peppers, this work was undertaken to examine the processing parameters
for solvent extraction of capsaicinoids from whole habañero peppers (Capsicum chinense) and their various parts. The
effects of solvent type (ethanol, acetone and acetonitrile), pepper part(s) (seeds, shells), tissue preparation (freeze
and oven drying), and time on capsaicinoid recovery (capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin) were evaluated. Across all
solvents, capsaicin yields were on average 16, 5 and 8 mg/g dry pepper part for seeds, shells and whole peppers,
respectively. Dihydrocapsaicin yield ranged from 0.65 to 9.17 mg/g dry pepper depending on interaction between
parts and preparation. Overall, higher yields of capsacinoids were obtained from oven-dried peppers using acetone
as the solvent.
© 2010 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Habanero peppers; Capsaicin; Dihydrocapsaicin; Extraction; Ethanol; Acetone; Acetonitrile

1. Introduction tating constituent of hot peppers (Xing et al., 2006). Pure

Chili peppers have been extensively used over the years as a
preservative and a spice to add flavor to food preparations.
They are grown worldwide, with Asia producing the most,
followed by Mexico and the United States. In 2008, 159,660
metric tons (3.52 million cwt) of chilies were harvested in
the US (NASS, 2009) with New Mexico leading the domestic
production at approximately 86,183 metric tons (1.9 million
cwt) (Huntrods, 2008). However, since popularity of chili pep-
pers in the US has been rising over the years, about 255,375
metric tons (5.63 million cwt) of chili peppers had to be
imported into the country in 2007 to meet the growing demand
(Huntrods, 2008). Although the primary use of chilies is in food,
extractable compounds such as oleoresins from peppers are
used in food colorings and dyes for cosmetics and clothing
(Santamaria et al., 2000; Huntrods, 2008).
Chili peppers, like the habanero (Capsicum chinense), are
also a rich source of a valuable phytochemical, capsaicin. Cap-
saicin (trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide), an alkaloid
or capsaicinoid constituted by a vanilloid, an amide and a
hydrophobic side chain, is the principal pungent and irri-
capsaicin has a Scoville heat value (SHV) rating of approx-
imately 16,000,000 compared to 150,000 SHV in habanero
peppers (Batchelor and Jones, 2000) and is a high value chem-
ical priced at $325 per gram for 97% pure capsaicin (Huntrods,
2007). Although excessive exposure to capsaicin can be toxic
causing irritation on the contact area or respiratory problems
as well as some types of cancers due to ingestion of high quan-
tities, capsaicin has been extensively studied via experimental
and clinical investigations, for its prominent pharmaceutical,
neurological and antioxidant properties (Long and Medeiros,
2001; Rosa et al., 2002; Zeyrek and Oguz, 2005). A common use
of capsaicin is in topical anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory
ointments. Clinical trials have shown that capsaicin may have
potential value in the management of rheumatoid arthritis
and cluster headaches by causing the release of a sensory neu-
rotransmitter, resulting in insensitivity to pain (Cordell and
Araujo, 1993). Capsaicin also possesses antimicrobial proper-
ties which open doors for exploring its potential as a natural
inhibitor of pathogenic microorganisms in food (Dorantes et
al., 2000; Kurita et al., 2002; Xing et al., 2006; Jones et al., 1997).
Additionally, it has use as a bird, animal and insect repellent as

∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 919 515 6746; fax: +1 919 515 7760.
E-mail address: ratna sharma@ncsu.edu (R.R. Sharma-Shivappa).
Received 12 June 2009; Received in revised form 29 July 2010; Accepted 16 August 2010
0960-3085/$ – see front matter © 2010 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fbp.2010.08.003
 food and bioproducts processing 8 9 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 340–345
well as a biochemical pesticide (EPA, 1992). Utilization of cap-
saicin in pharmaceutical and other high purity applications
requires development of efficient extraction from select chili
peppers while maintaining pungency.
Capsaicinoid content in peppers increases with matur-
ing and climacteric ripening of the fruit (Gnayfeed et al.,
2001; Estrada et al., 2002) and quality of the extracted com-
pounds as well as their antioxidant activity is affected by
processing parameters such as separation, steam blanch-
ing, extraction temperature and drying (Ramesh et al., 2001).
Solid–liquid extraction with solvents such as hexane, chloro-
form, and ethanol is the most commonly employed method
for capsaicin recovery (Tapia et al., 1993; Catchpole et al.,
2003). Attuquayefio and Buckle (Attuquayefio and Buckle, 1987)
examined capsaicin extraction yields from Capsicum annuum
(cayenne pepper) using acetone, chloroform, methanol, acid-
ified methanol, and acetonitrile and found that acetone gave
the highest yield. Kurian and Starks (2002) extracted undried
and dried capsaicin from C. chinense (orange habanero pep-
pers) using methanol and reported yields of 1.25 mg/g pepper
(8840 ppm). It is believed that C. chinense (Orange habanero
peppers) contains the highest concentrations of capsaicinoids
compared to other varieties and therefore may show more
promise as a source of valuable capsaicinoids.
Although researchers have investigated the extraction of
capsaicin in Capsicum spp. by organic solvents using tra-
ditional extraction techniques, studies on development of
improved extraction processes for habanero peppers are lim-
ited. There is especially a need to examine the effects of
pre-extraction processing and pepper part on capsaicinoid
recovery from habanero peppers to assist in development
of an efficient value-added product capture approach. It has
been reported that drying conditions and temperature profiles
impact diffusion of moisture from peppers (Tunde-Akintunde
et al., 2005) as well as retention/degradation of vitamins,
carotenoids (Ndawula et al., 2004) and potentially capsaici-
noids in vegetables. Hence, this study was undertaken to
examine the effects of preparation methods (fresh vs. dry)
prior to extraction and type of organic solvent on capsaicin
and dihydrocapsaicin yields from C. chinense.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Pepper and preparation
Peppers used in the study were obtained from Bailey Farms,
Inc. (Oxford, NC) and Cunningham Research Station (Kintson,
NC). Habanero pepper samples were dissected and separated
into seeds and shells. Moisture was analyzed for whole pep-
pers, shells and seeds using an oven drying method (65 ◦ C,
until constant weight was achieved). Temperature was main-
tained slightly lower than the 70 ◦ C recommended in the AOAC
official method of analysis for fruits and vegetables to mini-
mize loss of capsaicinoids through volatilization. In addition
to affecting recovery, such vapors can be an irritant to per-
sonnel working in the area. Whole peppers and their parts
were processed as fresh, oven-dried and freeze-dried sam-
ples. Oven-dried preparations were dried in a convection oven
at 65 ◦ C for 24 h to maintain quality (Lease and Lease, 1962;
Pordesimo et al., 2004). Freeze-dried preparations were placed
in a freeze dryer (Model FFD-40-WS, The Virtis Company Inc.,
Gardiner, NY) for 4 days with a condenser refrigeration tem-
perature of −80 ◦ F, shelf temperature of +80 ◦ F and chamber
341
pressure of 500 atm. Fresh preparations were processed within
24 h of delivery.
2.2. Experimental design and statistical analysis
The effects of pepper part (whole, seeds, shells), tissue
preparation (fresh, freeze-dried, oven-dried), solvent (ethanol,
acetone and acetonitrile), and contact time (0, 20, 40 and
60 min) on capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin extraction were
evaluated. The experiments were conducted in a 3 × 4 split
plot design. The whole plot units were a combination of three
factors: part, preparation, and farm. The split plot factors
were solvent and time and three replications were completed
within each subplot. The response variables were capsaicin
and dihydrocapsaicin concentrations recovered in the solvent.
Statistical analyses to evaluate whole plot and split plot effects
and fixed effects by part were completed using of the PROC
MIXED function of SAS® (Cary, NC). The least square means
procedure was used to make t-test comparisons between dif-
ferent treatment combinations. The PROC CORR function was
used to define correlations within capsaicin and dihydrocap-
saicin by part and by solvent.
2.3. Extraction
Fresh, oven-dried and freeze-dried preparations (0.5 g dry
weight) were extracted using a biomass:solvent loading of 15%
(w/v) based on the initial moisture content of the pepper sam-
ples/parts. Sample and solvent mixtures were homogenized in
50 ml conical glass tubes and placed in a shaking water bath
(50 ◦ C). Samples were taken every 20 min for a period of 1 h.
Preliminary studies indicated that capsaicin and dihydrocap-
saicin yields were not significantly different at times beyond
1–24 h. Samples were processed by vacuum filtration (What-
man GF/A glass fiber filters, 1.6 ␮m) and stored at −20 ◦ C (2 ml
aliquots) until HPLC analysis.
2.4. Capsaicinoid analysis
The capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin content of the samples
was quantified using reversed phase HPLC using a Discovery®
H C18 Column (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA) on a Dionex HPLC
(Dionex Corp., Sunnyvale, CA) equipped with an automated
sampler, a gradient pump, and a UV/vis detector. Capsaicin
and dihydrocapsaicin standards were obtained from Sigma
Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO) and diluted to concentrations of
10, 30, and 50 mg/L to prepare the calibration curve. Samples
were eluted at a flow rate of 1 ml/min with a mobile phase
of 40% acetonitrile and 60% deionized water adjusted to pH 3
with acetic acid at 30 ◦ C (Ahmed et al., 2002). A UV/vis detec-
tor at a wavelength of 280 nm (AOAC 995.03, 2000; Ahmed et
al., 2002) was used to quantify samples at retention times
of 7.84 min for capsaicin and 10.20 min for dihydrocapsaicin
(Estrada et al., 2002).
3. Results
3.1. Capsaicin
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results describing the overall
fixed effects of the whole plot and split plot factors on cap-
saicin yields are shown in Table 1. The whole plot effects of
preparation, farm and part were not statistically significant.
The split plot effects indicated that time and interaction of
342 food and bioproducts processing 8 9 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 340–345

Table 1 – Whole and split plot effects analysis of variance (ANOVA) based on Satterthwaite method for capsaicin and
dihydrocapsaicin yields.
Effect DFa Capsaicin Dihydrocapsaicin

F value p value F value p value

Preparation 2 0.14 0.8754 1.82 0.4645

Farm (preparation) 1 0.24 0.6717 0.13 0.0490
Part 2 10.17 0.0890 19.20 0.7522
Preparation × part 4 0.72 0.6498 2.28 0.3263
Solvent 2 2.07 0.1357 8.64 0.0006
Time 3 12.08 <0.0001 13.51 <0.0001
Solvent × time 6 0.68 0.6698 0.76 0.6013
Preparation × solvent 4 8.83 <0.0001 12.59 <0.0001
Solvent × part 4 4.31 0.0053 2.88 0.0411
Preparation × solvent × part 8 4.44 0.0006 6.72 <0.0001
Preparation × time 6 2.21 0.0563 1.98 0.0851
Part × time 6 4.87 0.0008 6.57 0.0002
Preparation × part × time 12 1.30 0.2531 2.26 0.0375
Preparation × solvent × time 12 0.87 0.5811 1.35 0.2196
Solvent × part × time 12 0.70 0.7386 1.60 0.1479
Prep × solvent × part × time 24 0.77 0.7452 1.16 0.3503

a
Degrees of freedom.

time and pepper part were significant (p < 0.05). In addition,
the interactions of solvent with preparation and pepper part,
individually and combined, were significant (p < 0.05).
The fixed effects of preparation, solvent, and time on cap-
saicin yield were examined by part. For the seeds, the main
effects of time and preparation were statistically significant
(p < 0.05). The main and interaction effects were not signifi-
cant for the shells; however, the interaction of preparation and
solvent was significant for the whole peppers (p < 0.05).
Capsaicin recovery from the different pepper parts over
time was greatest and significant for seed extractions (Fig. 1a).
Times 20, 40 and 60 min all showed statistically greater cap-
saicin yields than time zero, yet they were not statistically
different than each other. For shells and whole peppers, time
beyond zero was not statistically different. The pepper seeds
and placental tissue contained majority of the capsaicin com-
pound as evidenced by the larger mass of capsaicin present
per unit of dry matter processed. Approximately 16 mg cap-
saicin/dry g was recovered from the seeds across all solvents
investigated. Recovery from whole peppers was 8 mg cap-
saicin/dry g, followed by 5 mg/dry g from the pepper shells.
Solvent and preparation interactions were statistically sig-
nificant for whole peppers and illustrated noticeable trends
for the seed and shell parts (Fig. 2). Among the fresh seed
samples, capsaicin recovery using acetonitrile and ethanol
was 27% greater than recovery using acetone (p < 0.05, Fig. 2a).
Fresh sample extractions with ethanol and acetonitrile were
also 23–29% greater than extractions with those solvents on
freeze-dried and oven-dried seeds (p < 0.05). Significantly more
capsaicin (39%) was recovered from oven-dried seeds than
freeze-dried seeds using acetone (p < 0.05), yet statistically
similar amounts were extracted from fresh and oven-dried
preparations. Capsaicin recovered from the shells across time
was approximately three times less than that from seeds per
dry gram of part. Yet on average, more capsaicin was recov-
ered from freeze-dried and oven-dried preparations than fresh
preparations for all solvents (Fig. 2b). Among the dried sam-
ples, on average acetone seemed to be a more effective solvent,
yielding 8–10% more capsaicin within the freeze-dried sam-
ples and 2–12% more within the oven-dried samples.
Among the fresh whole pepper samples, capsaicin recov-
ery using acetonitrile and ethanol was approximately 30%
greater than recovery using acetone (p < 0.05, Fig. 2c). Freeze-
dried whole pepper extractions using ethanol resulted in 55%
greater recovery than oven-dried extraction using ethanol
(p < 0.05). Significantly more capsaicin was recovered from
oven-dried whole peppers using acetone as opposed to
ethanol, indicating again that acetone was a better solvent
for dried pepper parts. In addition, acetone performed best
on freeze-dried whole peppers, which resulted in 66% more
capsaicin than fresh whole pepper samples (p < 0.05).

3.2. Dihydrocapsaicin

Overall fixed effects of whole and split plot factors indicated

Fig. 1 – Capsaicinoid recovery from the seeds, shells and that dihydrocapsaicin (DC) yields from solvent extraction of
whole peppers of Capsicum chinense across preparation and habanero peppers and their parts, prepared under different
solvent over time (a) capsaicin and (b) dihydrocapsaicin. drying conditions, were not significantly affected by prepara-
 food and bioproducts processing 8 9 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 340–345
Fig. 2 – The effects of preparation and solvent on capsaicin
recovery from the (a) seeds, (b) shells and (c) whole peppers
of Capsicum chinense.
tion and farm (p > 0.05, Table 1). However, pepper parts and
extraction time had a significant effect on DC yield. Extrac-
tion of dihydrocapsaicin from seeds, shells and whole peppers
was significantly affected by preparation method when fixed
effects of pepper parts were examined (p < 0.05). Interactions
between preparation and solvent type observed only had
statistically significant effects on DC extraction from whole
peppers.
The estimated DC yields from extraction of fresh, freeze-
dried and oven-dried whole and part samples, across the
various solvents and time, are presented in Table 2. As
with capsaicin, seeds had the highest DC recovery estimates
(p < 0.05). Fresh seeds gave the highest yield of 9.17 mg/g of dry
seeds compared to oven and freeze-dried samples. Conversely,
Fig. 3 – Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin recovery correlations across preparation from Capsicum chinense by (a) part and (b)
solvent.
343
Table 2 – The effects of preparation method (across the
various solvents and times) on dihydrocapsaicin yield
from seeds, shells and whole peppers of Capsicum
chinense.
Dihydrocapsaicin (mg/g dry pepper part)a
Seeds Shells Whole pepper
Freeze-dried 4.21 ± 0.46 1.88 ± 0.27 2.41 ± 0.18
Fresh 9.17 ± 0.46 0.65 ± 0.27 2.95 ± 0.18
Oven-dried 5.22 ± 0.32 1.30 ± 0.19 2.05 ± 0.13
a
The associated error is the standard error of the estimates.
compared to oven-dried and freeze-dried preparations, fresh
shell samples resulted in significantly lower (at least 50%) DC
yields. Whole peppers resulted in DC yields intermediate to
seeds and shells with yields being significantly higher in fresh
samples (p < 0.05).
Analysis of the differences in least square means by part
and extraction time, across preparation and solvent, indicated
that dihydrocapsaicin yields from seeds ranged between 5.05
and 7.14 mg/dry g and were not significantly different with
increases in time (p > 0.05; Fig. 1b). However, compared to
yields at time zero, significantly higher (p < 0.05) recovery was
achieved at 60 min. DC yields of 1.22–1.32 mg/dry g of shells
were also not statistically different over time (p > 0.05; Fig. 1b).
Considering the impact of solvent and preparation on
whole peppers, fresh whole peppers extracted with ace-
tonitrile resulted in significantly higher recovery levels
(3.46 mg/dry g of whole peppers) compared to freeze-dried
and oven-dried whole peppers extracted with ethanol, ace-
tone or acetonitrile (p < 0.05). Additionally, acetonitrile had a
significantly higher extraction efficiency of DC compared to
ethanol and acetone during extraction of fresh whole peppers
(p < 0.05). Oven-dried samples extracted with acetone resulted
in significantly higher estimated DC yields of 2.47 mg/g of dry
whole pepper compared to ethanol extracted samples.
Correlations between capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin
examined by part (seed, shells, whole peppers) and solvent
(acetone, acetonitrile, ethanol) (Fig. 3) were found to be posi-
tive for both factors. It was observed that by part, nearly equal
increases in the amounts of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin
recovered could be achieved in the shells. For the seeds and
whole peppers, more capsaicin was recovered. A unit increase
in capsaicin resulted in a 0.76 and 0.64 increase in dihydro-
capsaicin for the seeds and whole peppers, respectively. By
solvent, increases in capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin recovery
seemed to be more highly correlated with ethanol (90%) than
acetone (85%).
344 food and bioproducts processing 8 9 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 340–345
4. Discussion
The effects of factors like pepper preparation, pepper part,
extraction solvent, extraction time, and their interaction
on capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin recovery from orange
habanero peppers were investigated in this study. ANOVA indi-
cated that whole and split plot factors that were examined
had variable effects on capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin yields.
Though the main effect of part alone on capsaicin yields
was not statistically significant, DC yields were significantly
affected by pepper part. Supalkova et al. (2007) reported the
highest concentrations of capsaicin could be recovered from
the ovaries when they examined capsaicin content in different
pepper fruit parts including the ovary, lower flesh, upper flesh
and seeds using methanol extraction for 15 min. They also
found that capsaicin was not evenly distributed in the fruit,
with the lowest capsaicin content recovered in the seeds. In
contrast, results from this work showed that the concentration
of capsaicinoids was highest in seeds. This is most likely due to
the close proximity of seeds to the placental tissue/cross walls
in which capsaicinoids are produced (Rowland et al., 1983;
Estrada et al., 2002). Accordingly, Govindrajan (1986) found that
the amount of pungency causing capsaicinoids are up to 20
times higher in the placenta and dissepiments than in the
outer pericarp. Contact between the placenta and surrounding
tissues including the seeds can lead to increased capsaicinoid
absorption by pepper parts that do not actively produce cap-
sacinoids. The high fat content in the seeds (9–16%) may also
contribute to their ability to retain higher capsacinoid concen-
trations during crude processing.
Examining the fixed effects of part, it was found that prepa-
ration method significantly affected capsaicinoid yields. Dried
seeds resulted in lower capsaicinoid concentrations than fresh
seeds possibly due to thermal and oxidative degradation of
the surface capsaicinoids during drying (Ahmed et al., 2002;
Pordesimo et al., 2004). Conversely, capsaicinoid yields from
dried pepper shells were higher than from fresh shells. Fresh
pepper shells have a waxy protective coating which can hinder
solvent diffusion into the shell and dissolution of compounds.
On the other hand, during drying shells have been stripped of
moisture and their waxy coating is susceptible to degradation.
Hence the cells are shrunken/collapsed and may have a higher
potential for absorption of moisture/solvent with increased
tendency to swell and improved extraction capacity. Dried,
especially freeze-dried, whole peppers resulted in higher cap-
saicin levels while dihydrocapsaicin yields were higher from
fresh whole peppers indicating that the loss of capsaicinoids
may vary by type of capsaicinoids and preprocessing condi-
tions as has been observed with other extractable compounds
in pepper such as carotenoids (Govindrajan, 1986). It may be
noted that although the seeds per unit dry matter possessed
more capsaicinoids than whole peppers and shells, whole pep-
pers would likely serve as a more viable processing choice for
capsaicinoid extraction.
Capsaicinoid yields from the various pepper samples were
significantly affected by extraction time in this study. Extrac-
tion of the available capsaicinoids occurred within 20 min of
contact time, indicating that the rate of capsaicin solubility
was relatively high for the three solvents examined. In a study
on microwave assisted extraction of capsaicin from Capsicum
frutescens L. with acetone, Nazari et al. (2007) also observed
that the extraction efficiency remained nearly constant in the
time span lower than 10 min. The optimum extraction condi-
tions reported by them for air dried C. frutescens were 120 ◦ C at
150 W, for 15 min with acetone. Given conditions that enhance
surface area and slurry homogeneity, the solvent contact time
for effective extraction yield and product quality will most
likely occur within the first 20 min of processing; however, it
will be important to identify suitable conditions based on the
chosen pepper fruit, preparation, solvent and scale of opera-
tion (Supalkova et al., 2007; Barbero et al., 2008).
Another factor affecting capsaicinoid yields was type of
solvent. Although the main effect of solvent was not sig-
nificant on capsaicin but significant on DC, interaction of
preparation and solvent significantly affected yields of both
capsaicinoids. Ethanol and acetonitrile were better solvents
for capsaicin extraction from fresh samples while acetone was
better for dried pepper parts. DC yields from fresh samples
were also typically higher with acetonitrile and ethanol. It has
been reported that the polarity of solvents effects capsaicinoid
extraction efficiencies (Peusch et al., 1997). Attuquayefio and
Buckle (1987) in their study on capsaicinoid extraction from
capsicum fruits and oleoresins using solvents such as acetone,
chloroform, methanol, acidified methanol and acetonitrile
observed that acetone resulted in the highest capsaicinoid
yields from dehydrated ground capsicum. It may be inferred
that the presence of water during extraction impacts the
hydrophilic properties of solvents and interactions with the
capsaicionoid compounds, resulting in varying solubility of
capsaicin (Rostagno et al., 2003; Barbero et al., 2008). Solvent
choice should be reflective of pepper preparation and take into
consideration the solubility of pigments which can impact
subsequent purification steps.
The manners, in which peppers are handled and pre-
served post-harvest and solvents employed, are significant
factors to consider during the use of solid–liquid extraction
methods. The interaction of solvent and preparation was sig-
nificant to the capsaicinoid yields observed in this study. In
extraction process development, it is important to examine
capsaicionoid yields from various pepper parts in effort to
better understand factors such as composition and structural
heterogeneity of the Capsicum fruits that contribute to suc-
cessful product recovery. Nevertheless from the perspective
of large scale processing and economics, whole peppers are
more practical to use for capsaicinoid production.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Michael Boyette for help
in obtaining the peppers and Dr. Ye Chen for assistance with
capsaicinoid analysis. Funding for this project was provided
by the GoldenLeaf Foundation through a grant provided by the
North Carolina Specialty Crops Program.
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