QBB 2033

SEISMIC METHODS
Lecture 08: Seismic Refraction Method (Part 1)

Abdul Halim Abdul Latiff

Center for Subsurface Seismic Imaging,
Geosciences Department, UTP
 Objectives
 At the end of the lecture, student should able to grasp the
following knowledge in seismic refraction technique:

 Deriving travel-time equation.

 Deriving bed thickness.
 Determine crossover distance
 Determine critical distance.
 Analysis of single and multi-layers
 Differences between flat and dipping layers
 Recap
 In multi-channel system:

More than 1 geophone

Source

Reflector @ Refractor
 Recap
 Critical Angle θrfr = 90˚ → θic = θrfl

Incident Reflected

θic θrfl
V1

V2 Refracted
θrfr
θic θic
V1  Ray are confined to V1, so
Snell’s Law reduce to:
V2

sin θic = sin θrfl

→ θic = θrfl
 Total reflection
 Refraction along the boundary
 Recap

 Huygens’ Principle
 Fermat’s Principle
θic θic
V1

V2
 Refracted Ray Path

Source

θic θic θic θic θic θic

equal time
 Wave Spreading in Homogeneous Media

Direct wave:
 Start or original at axis (0,0)
 Travel at speed of medium
Wave Spreading in Homogeneous Media

Horizontal distance from shot point

Wave Spreading in Homogeneous Media

t
1st derivative,
with respect to x

Horizontal distance from shot point

 Single Spreading Interface
X

E A B G

h1 θic θic
V1

M N

V2
V2 > V1
 Single Spreading Interface
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation:

 Time taken from E – G:

 Distance from E-G:

E A

θic
h1

Also,
M
 Single Spreading Interface
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation:

 By replacing,

 Into,

 We can get the total

travel time for a
critically refracted ray
at single interface.
 Single Spreading Interface
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation:
 If we know h1, V1, and V2, we can compute the travel time for any distance
x, from energy source to receiver by using the total travel time for a
critically refracted ray at single interface.

rearrange
terms  by utilizing:
 Single Spreading Interface
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation:

 From:

by
consolidating

by utilizing
 Single Spreading Interface
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation:

 From:

simplify
 Single Spreading Interface
 Analysis of Arrival Times:

Critical distance
Crossover distance

 The travel-time equation for the

critically refracted ray is an
equation of a straight line with a
slope 1/V2.
 Since V2 > V1, a slope of 1/V2
must be less than a slope of 1/V1.
 Single Spreading Interface
 Analysis of Arrival Times:

V1=1400 m/s

V2=4500 m/s

V2>V1
 Single Spreading Interface
 Analysis of Arrival Times:
 A few snapshots of the
seismic waves as they
propagate away from the
source at times of 65, 80, and
110 ms.
 Determining Thickness
 Since we know that:

 Intercept time, tI:

at x=0, our travel-time:

 Thickness of the material above the interface:

 Crossover Distance, Xco
 Intersection point between the straight lines for direct wave and
refracted wave.

Crossover distance

 at x = xco , time direct wave = time refracted wave

 Crossover Distance, Xco
 Since time direct wave = time refracted wave , therefore:

 By rearrange terms, we get:

 And:

 Thickness of the material above the interface.

 Crossover Distance, Xco
 From:

 We can manage to get more simple equation by:

V1V2 terms cancel

Simplify, by using:

 Thickness of the material above the interface.

 Critical Distance, Xcrit
 First point at which refracted energy
Xcrit
can be received.
Xcrit/2

 Critical distance
h1 θic

V1

V2 > V1 V2

 distance where:
reflection signal = refraction signal
 Critical Distance, Xcrit
 From the diagram:

since, we know that

simplify

 by using trigonometric identities of:

𝑥
tan (sin−1 𝑥) =
1 − 𝑥2
 Depth Solution
 For single interface:
Determine the velocities
of both layers

Determine the crossover Determine the time

distance intercept for layer 2

Determine the depth to layer 2 using

both refraction equations
(internal check)
 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces
X

E A B G

h1 θi θi V1

C D
P Q

h2 θr θic θic V2

R S

V3

V3>V2>V1
 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation in 3-layer case:

 Time taken from E – G:

 We know that:

 From the diagram:

 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation in 3-layer case:
 Therefore, time taken from E – G:

by utilizing

2
3
 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time Equation in 3-layer case:
 From:

by utilizing
 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces
 Determining thickness in 3-layer case:
 Since we know that:

 Intercept time, ti:

• Since V3 > V2 > V1, a slope of 1/V3

must be less than a slope of 1/V2
at x=0, our travel-time.

Thickness of the material above the interface:

 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces
 Determining thickness in 3-layer case:
 From:

 In order to calculate the thickness of h2, Stripping Technique

we need to calculate h1 first using ti1

 Thickness also can be calculated by using Critical distance, Xcrit:

Critical distance

 A bit difficult to predict from seismogram.

 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces
 Since we know that:

2 layers @ 1 interface

3 layers @ 2 interfaces

 By letting the letter n represent the number of the layers (thus the number of
interface is n-1), so the travel-time for a wave that is critically refracted at the n-1
interface:

e.g. n=4 :
 Multiple Horizontal Interfaces

h1, V1, t1

h2, V2, t2

h3, V3, t3

hn, Vn, tn
 Dipping Interfaces

(down-dip)
Horizontal interface

Dipping interface (down-dip)

(up-dip)

Dipping interface (up-dip)

 Dipping Interfaces

•E.g. up-dip:
 Dipping Interfaces
 Some consideration:

 Data from survey:

• Depth → ok?
(down-dip) • Layers → horizontal @ dipping?
• Apparent velocity

How to confirm this?

 By doing 2 shot at both end:

(up-dip)
(forward & reverse shot)
→ check for consistency of the data
 Dipping Interfaces
 E.g. Forward & reverse shots:
 Dipping Interfaces
 Forward & reverse shots for horizontal interface:

 tF = tR → equivalence,
known as reciprocity

 Reciprocal times
must be equal

 Intercept times
must be equal
 Dipping Interfaces
 Forward & reverse shots for horizontal interface:

Therefore:
 Travel time are not symmetrical.

 V1 for forward and reverse must

agree.

 Reciprocal times must equal.

 Inverse of slopes for the head wave

arrivals do not give V2.

 Average V2F and V2R →

approximates V2.

 Intercept time → dip direction can

be determine.
 Dipping Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time equation:

 Time taken from E – G:

 Distance from E-G: S G

E
θic ju
jd
θic
N
A M
 Dipping Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time equation:

 Distance from E-G (cont.):

x
E G
β

 Therefore, the travel-time from E-G:

 Dipping Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time equation:
 From:

 By using trigonometric identities:

 We get:
up-dip shooting

 By doing the same practice for timeu, then we get:

down-dip shooting
 Dipping Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time equation:

 From we can determine V2 if we know θic → How to determine θic ?

 Dipping Interfaces
 Derivation of Travel-time equation:
 We know that:
1 1
and

 By rearrange this equation:

and

 Therefore, we get:

 Similarly, we get:
 Dipping Interfaces
 Determining Thickness:
 Dipping Interfaces
 Determining Thickness:

 In order to find hd and hu:

Multiple Dipping Interfaces

 Based on equation
developed by Adachi (1954):
 5-Minutes In-Class Assessment
 To gauge your understanding, on a piece of paper, answer the following
questions:
1. Explain the differences between Dynamite source and Vibroseis source in Oil
and Gas Exploration. (4 Marks)

2. From Figure 1 below, re-draw and indicate the Critical Distance and
Crossover Distance for both Forward and Reverse Refraction Shots. (4 Marks)

3. From Figure 1, determine

the dip direction of the
reflector. (2 Marks)

(Do not forget to write your name & matrix ID before leaving the lecture room)