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GENERAL CHEMISTRY – Q1

I.MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

- HETEROGENOUS MIXTURES:
Decantation
• Setting particles through gravity
• Imagine separating these two substances: oil and water. You can separate them physically
using decantation, simply pouring the top layer of the mixture into another container.
Ex. Washing rice, clear water from muddy water, red wine
Mechanical Separation
• Uses aid of tools in separating a polyphase mixture.
Observe how the following examples use a series of tools:
Ex. Gravel and sand into a wire screen
• Filtering algae from water
• Dirt from pool
Filtration
• Separate insoluble solid particles from a liquid using a filter
Ex. Coffee grounds from brewed coffee
• Sand, clay, and dust particles from water
Magnetic Separation
• Magnetically susceptible material using a magnetic force
Ex. Separating iron from iron and sulfur
• Recycling such as iron and steel from domestic waste
• Mining iron
Centrifugation
• Speeds up the setting of the precipitate (Basically it’s how larger particles in a mixture lower
over time). Centrifuge is a motor driven apparatus
• For a simple idea, some mixtures separate into their different components when you spin
them at a rapid speed, when you spin a certain mixture, heavier particles get separated from
lighter particles.
• Ex. Blood components
• Skim milk from whole milk
• Water from clothes (washing machine)

Sublimation
• Mixture contains solids which are volatile (evaporates at room temperature)
• Separating volatile substances from a mixture
• Basically turns some solids into gas while leaving the other parts of the mixture.

- HOMOGENOUS MIXTURES:
Evaporation
• To obtain a soluble solid from a solution by heating the solution to remove water
Ex. Recovering salt from saltwater
Distillation
1. Simple
• Is used to separate a pure solvent (liquid) from a solution
2. Fractional
• Is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids with different boiling points

Ex. Fermented products with a high alcohol content

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• Transforming crude oil into fuels
• Purifying water
• More detailed idea: Imagine separating acetone from water. Acetone has a lower
boiling point, using this knowledge you can evaporate it without evaporating the
water, cooling evaporated gas through condensation will allow you to obtain liquid
acetone.

Chromatography
• Separating two or more components that dissolve in the same solvent
Ex. Dyes in ink, pigments in plants, amino acids from proteins
• Identify (traces of banned substances in food)
• Poisons, pesticides and drugs
• Sample is pure
• Lets say you have a piece of paper and you place a dot on it using a permanent marker.
Place bottom of said paper in a beaker of water, as the water travels up the paper some
components of the marker’s ink travels further up than others, resulting in multiple “dots”.

Extraction
• Separate solids with different solubilities in a given solvent
• Separation process consisting in the separation of a substance from a matrix
Ex. Separation of fragrance oils
• Separation of plant extracts
• Imagine a mixture with two components of two different densities. The heavier one stays
at the bottom, so if you drain the bottom portion into a flask leaving the top portion,
you’ve now performed extraction.

Kinetic Particle Theory

• States that a substance’s state of matter depends on the motion of its particles (atoms).
• Non-Newtonian fluids don’t exactly follow this rule.
• The more motion in a substance’s particles, the more energy they have.
States of Matter
1. Solid - Fixed volume and shape
2. Liquid - Assumes the part of its container which it occupies
3. Gas - Assumes the shape and volume of its container
4. Plasma - Super heated gas in which electrons don’t stick to atomic nuclei but rather flow alongside them.
5. Bose - Einstein Condensate - Group of atoms cooled to near absolute zero. The atoms hardly move
relative to each other; they almost have no energy to do so. They become identical, from a physical point
of view, and the whole group starts behaving as though it were a single atom.
Phase Changes of Matter:

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Physical Properties
• Can be observed without changing the identity of a substance
• Phase, Color, Solubility, Density, Melting Point, Volatility, Viscosity, Conductivity, Boiling Point
Chemical Properties
• Can be observed with an accompanying change in the chemical composition of a substance
• Flammability, Reactivity, Stability, Acidity

Extensive Properties
• Depends on the amount of substance
• Mass, Length, Size, Volume

Intensive Properties
• Amount of substance doesn’t affect these properties
• Density, Color, Physical State, Thermal Conductivity, Melting Point, Boiling Point, Freezing Point

CHANGES IN MATTER

Physical Change
• Composition of substance remain unchanged
Chemical Change
• New substance with new properties
• Evolution of heat and light, evolution of gas, formation of precipitate, production of mechanical energy
and electrical energy, change in color and taste.

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER

Pure Substances Mixtures

• Characterized by an unchanging or specific • Two or more substances that are only
composition. physically combined.

• Types: • A material consisting of two or more kinds

1. Elements of matter, each of which retains its own
- One kind of atom. characteristic properties in no fixed
- Simplest form of matter proportion or varying concentrations
- Examples
o H (Hydrogen) • Types:
o C (Carbon) 1. Homogeneous
o O (Oxygen) - Substances mixed throughout the
sample but are not necessarily
- A fundamental or an elementary constant from sample to sample.
substance that cannot be broken
down by chemical means to simpler
substances. - Solution
- A mixture of two or more
2. Compounds substances that is identical
throughout.
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- Substances made up of two or more - Composed of:
elements which are chemically - Solute
combined Something dissolved in a solvent to
- They are pure substances containing make solution.
two or more elements chemically - Solvent
combined in definite proportions of Medium, usually a liquid into which
mass. a solute is dissolved to make a
- Examples: solution.
o Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
o Iron (III) Chloride (FeCl3) 2. Heterogeneous
o Water (H2O) - It does not have uniform properties
and has two or more phases.

- Types:
1. Colloids
o The particles are bigger than
that of true solution particle
but smaller than the particles
of a suspension.
o Like solutions, colloids do
not settle at the bottom.
2. Suspension
o Very little molecules are
dissolved and the particles
are dispersed as huge
molecules.
o The molecules settle at the
bottom.

II. MEASUREMENTS

Accuracy - Measurement vs. True Value

Precision - Closeness within set of gathered data
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒅 ,𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Error: 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
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Accepted Value - True or correct value; basis
Experimental Value - Determined in experiment

Significant Figures
• No. of digits on measuring tool plus one estimated digit
Rules in finding the no. of Significant Figures:
1. All non-zero numbers are SIGNIFICANT
2. Zero is significant BETWEEN two non-zero digits
3. Zero is significant AFTER decimal point
4. Zero is NOT significant if before the 1st non-zero digit
5. Zero is NOT significant if after non-decimal digit
Operations including Significant Figures
• Addition and Subtraction - Answer must have same no. of decimal places as given with LEAST no. of
decimal places
• Multiplication and Division - Answer must have same no. of significant figures as given with LEAST no.
of significant figures

Dimensional Analysis – the conversion of one unit to another by using conversion factor
*refer to index card or given for conversion factors*

Length – a measured dimension of an object

1. Convert 2.5 meters to millimeters
1 mm
2.5 m x = 2500 mm or 2.5 x 103 mm
10-3 m
2. Convert 31.5 centimeter to kilometers
10-2 m 1 km
31.5 cm x x = 3.15 x 10-4 km
1cm 103 m
- If the unit1 is bigger or smaller than the base unit (for length, it is meters or m), convert the unit first to
the unit base before converting to the asked unit
Mass – a measurement of the amount of matter in an object
1. Convert 45 decigrams to grams
10-1 g
45 dg x = 4.5 g
1 dg
2. An atom of hydrogen weighs 1.674 x 10-24 grams, convert to ounce
1 oz
1.674 x 10-24 g x = 5.904 x 10-26 oz
28.35 g
Volume - a measure of the occupied three-dimensional space of an object
1. Convert 4.61 x 102 microliters to milliliters
10-6 L 1 mL
4.61 x 102 µL x x = 0.461 µm or 4.61 x 10-1 µm
1µL 10-3 L

2. Convert 45.6 cm3 to dam3

10-2 m 1 dam
45.6 cm3 x x
1cm 10 m
3
10 -2
m 1 dam 3
45.6 cm3 x ( ) x ( )
1 cm 10 m
10-6 m3 1 dam 3
45.6 cm3 x x = 4.56 x 10-8 dam3
1 cm3 103 m3
- When the unit is raised to three or cubed, make sure that the conversion factor/s is/are also cube before
finding the final answer
Heat
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- motion of small particles; average kinetic energy of particles
- refers to the quantity of the energy associated with the system
- the system is the entity that is being heated up or cooled down
Temperature
- the measure of the intensity of heat
- heat always flow from hot areas to cold ones
The 3 Temperature Scales:
°F - 32
- Celsius: °C =
1.8°
- Fahrenheit: °F = 1.8° x °C + 32
- Kelvin: K = °C + 273.15
Density - the ratio of a mass per volume

III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

Fundamental Laws of Chemistry
1. Conservation of Mass - Mass of reactants = Mass of substance produced
2. Definite Composition - Chemical compounds are formed of constant and defined ratios of elements as
determined by mass.
3. Multiple Proportion - When elements form compounds, the proportions of the elements in those chemical
compounds can be expressed in small whole number ratios. Extension of the Law of Definite Composition
Dalton’s Atomic Theory - (* some statements already disproven*)
• Atoms are indestructible
• Atoms are the smallest particles *
• Atoms of a given element are identical *
• Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed
• Atoms react in whole number ratios
Electron
• Charge = -1
• Mass = 0.00055 amu
Proton
• Charge = +1
• Mass = 1.0073 amu
Neutron
• Charge = 0
• Mass = 1.0087 amu
Isotopic Symbols:

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Naming and Writing Chemical Compounds
Binary Ionic Compounds = Metal + Non-Metal

Charges:
IA - IIIA = Cations; charge of a cation is its group no. with a + sign
VA-VIIA = Anions; charge of an anion is 8 minus its group no. with a - sign
Group B = can exist at variety of charges, refer to index card or given
Naming and Writing with Group A elements only:
Li (Group IA) = Li + Mg (Group IIA) = Mg2+ Al (Group IIIA) = Al3+
N (Group VA) = N8-5 = N3- Cl (Group VIIA) = Cl8-7 = Cl -
Naming: Cation then Anion w/ -ide
Sodium Oxide is from Sodium (Cation) then Oxygen (Anion) / -ide
• To write the chemical formula, CROSS the charges of the two elements
• If the two charges are divisible, simplify or cancel out

1. Sodium Oxide is Na and O

Na + O2- = Na2O
2. Magnesium Nitride
Mg2+ N 3- = Mg3N2
3. Magnesium Oxide
Mg 2+ O2- = MgO

Determining Charge of Group B elements

Classical Naming:
- Group B elements can exist in 2 charges, one smaller or larger than the other.
- We add suffixes to the element name to determine which one we have
- We use a suffix - ous if it has the smaller possible charge (Fe2+ is Ferrous)
- We use a suffix - ic if it has the larger possible charge (Fe3+ is Ferric)
-
Stock Naming:
- We put the element and the charge it has in this format. We use Roman Numerals for the Charge.
Iron (II) for Ferrous
Iron (III) for Ferric
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Naming and Writing with Group B Elements
- We follow the same rules but as with Group A elements but we add the rules for naming Group B
elements
1. Plumbous Oxide vs. Plumbic Oxide
Pb 2+ O2- = PbO vs. Pb4+ O2- = PbO2
Binary Covalent Compounds = Non-metal + Non- Metal
- Add Greek Prefixes per element
Greek Prefixes:
Di - 2 Hexa - 6 Deca - 10
Tri - 3 Hepta - 7 Mono - 1
Tetra - 4 Octa - 8
Penta - 5 Nona - 9
H2O is Dihydrogen Monoxide because there are 2 Hydrogen atoms and 1 Oxygen atom in the
compound
CO2 is Carbon Dioxide
SO3 is Sulfur Trioxide
N2O4 is Dinitrogen Tetroxide
Acids derived from Binary Compounds:
Binary Inorganic Acid = H+ + Anion
Naming: Hydro + Anion/-ic Acid
If we take HCl (Hydro Chloride) and make it a binary inorganic acid thru hydrogen ions (H+) ions in
water, we get HCl aq. (Hydrochloric Acid)
HI (Hydrogen Iodide) gives us HI aq. (Hydroiodic Acid)
H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide) gives us H2S aq. (Hydrosulfuric Acid)
Ternary Compounds:
Polyatomic Ions - 2 or more atoms with charge; they are added to a compound as a whole. *refer to index
card for list*
Oxyanions - Polyatomic ions that contain Oxygen
Ternary Compounds - Compound with 3 or more elements
Polyatomic Ions and with either -ate or -ite with the possibility of also having a per- or a hypo- in the
beginning. These affixes determine the no. of oxygen atoms of an Oxyanion.

hypo- < -ite < -ate < per-

ClO- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-
Hypochlorite Chlorite Chlorate Perchlorate
Not every Oxyanion has the same no. of oxygen for each affix. Manganate (MnO42-) for example has 4 oxygen
atoms compared to Chlorate’s 3 oxygen atoms despite having the same affix.
Hypo- has the least no. of oxygen while per- has the most no. of oxygen
Note: OH- , CN-, HS-, and O22- don’t follow the -ate -ite system. They end with -ide

Naming and Writing Ternary Compounds with Polyatomic Ions:

- You treat the Polyatomic Ion as a single element and do the steps for Binary Ionic Compounds.
- Cross the charges and simplify if needed like in Binary Ionic Compounds
Sodium and Carbonate
Na + CO32- = Na2CO3 = Sodium Carbonate
Magnesium and Nitrite
Mg2+ NO2- = Mg (NO2)2 = Magnesium Nitrite
We write a parenthesis on the Polyatomic Ion (NO2) because it receives the charge of the other element
as a whole.
Aluminum and Molybdate

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Al3+ MoO42- = Al2 (MoO4)3 = Aluminum Molybdate

Ternary Acids: H+ + Polyatomic Anion

- If it ends with -ite, we write it as Hydro + Anion/-ous Acid
- If it end with -ate, we write it as Hydro + Anion/-ic Acid
- If it ends with -ide, we write it as Hydro + Anion/-ic Acid
H+ + PO33- (Phosphite) aq. = H3PO3 (aq) = Hydrophosphorous Acid
H+ + PO43- (Phosphate) aq. = H3PO4 (aq) = Hydrophosphoric Acid
H+ + CN - (Cyanide) aq. = HCN (aq) = Hydrocyanic Acid

J Goodluck! - eds
Hope Committee 11 - STEM 2

GEN CHEM (Q1) | 12S2