Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
CE 443 – 02656
July 1, 2019
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
The success and final outcome of this written report required a lot of guidance and assistance.
We were extremely privileged to have the people who helped us in the process of completing this
written report. These people contributed a lot to our written report, we would not be able to
complete this without their aid and we are extremely thankful.
First and foremost, we would like to thank our God Almighty for blessing us with good health,
knowledge, and wisdom that we needed for this subject.
We would like to thank our families, especially our parents, who never stopped showing their
support for us and provided us with everything we needed.
Lastly, we would like to thank our professor, Engr. Jose Condonar Jr., for guiding us throughout
this subject. He taught us the lessons we needed for this subject and also responsibility, which is
one thing he has always enforced to his students. We are grateful to have you as our professor.
WATER BALANCE METHOD AND ENERGY BALANCE
METHOD
By: Jovel D. Cero
Water balance is the base of management and policy making in some critical
matters related to water resources management such as design of water supply
systems, flood estimation, water allocation and use, management of stormwater
and wastewater in urban areas, aquatic ecosystems management, water trading
and virtual water.
Example Problem: A swimming pool having dimensions 20x20x5 ft. has a leak
in its wall where 11.5 inches of water seeped out. If the change in storage is -
8.0 in., and precipitation is 7.0 in, Calculate the volume of its evaporation for a
certain time interval.
Solution:
IN – OUT = ΔS
P – (E+L) = ΔS
Rn Rn
Er = =
ρw lv L
Where:
Er = evaporation rate
𝜌w = density of water
L = latent heat factor given in Table 1 (product of water density and latent heat)
In the energy balance method, only the transfer of heat as sensible heat flux is
considered, and evapotranspiration (latent heat flux) is calculated as the residual term
in the general energy balance equation.
Example Problem: On the 24TH of January, 2013, in the Upper Brushy Creek
Watershed, the net radiation averaged over the day from the National Land Data
Assimilation System, is 52 W/m^2. The average air temperature through the day is 15
degree Celsius. Compute the corresponding potential evaporation rate using the
energy balance method.
Solution:
E = Rn/L
E = 52/28.91*
*L=28.91 is obtained from Latent Heat Factor Table corresponding to 15 deg. Celsius
in any textbook.
PENMAN EQUATION
where:
The net radiation is the as used in the energy budget (Eq.(3.8)) and is
estimated by the following equation.
Where:
Example:
Calculate the potential evapotranspiration from an area near New Delhi in the
month of November by Penman’s formula. The following data are available
Latitude : 28˚4’N
By Interpolation: Nov.
20˚ 11.2
17.5 ⁰C 15 mmHg 30˚ 9.1
20 ⁰C 17.54 mmHg
X Y Ha = 9.506 mm of water/day
ew(19 ⁰C) = 16.524 mmHg 17.5 15
20 17.54 Mean observed sunshine hours = 9
h
A:
17.5 ⁰C 0.95 mm/⁰C (Table 3.5)
20 ⁰C 1.05 mm/⁰C 20˚ 11.2
30˚ 10.6
+ AC + Shift 1 +
A(19 ⁰C ) = 1.01 mm/⁰C 5+5 𝑛 9
N =10.716 h ; 𝑁
= 10.716
𝑛
= 0.840
𝑁
19ŷ = 16.524
RH = 75% ; RH = 𝑒 𝑎
𝑒 Ta = ⁰C + 273
𝑤
= 19 + 273
ea = 16.524(.75) Ta = 292 K
ea = 12.40 mm Hg
4 -9 4
σ(Ta) = 2.01x10 (292)
4
a = constant dependent upon the latitude σ(Ta) = 14.613
a = 0.29 cosø
= 0.29 cos(28˚4’) Nature of surface area:
a = 0.256 close-ground green crop
r = 0.25
85
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 0.35 (1 + 160) (16.524 - 12.40)
-9
= 2.01x10 mm/day Ea = 2.210 mm/day
-9
σ = 2.01x10 mm/day
𝑛 4 𝑛
Hn = Ha(1 – r) (a + b ) – σ(Ta) (0.56 – 0.092√𝑒𝑎) (0.10 + 0.90 )
𝑁 𝑁
= 9.506(1 – 0.25) (0.256 + 0.52(0.840)) – 14.613(0.56 – 0.092√12.40)
(0.10 + 0.90(0.840))
= 4.9393176 – 2.952492232
Hn = 1.987 mm of water/day
• Using evaporimeters
• Using empirical equations
• By analytical methods
Evaporimeter
These are pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of
water by evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daily).
Meteorological data such as humidity, wind velocity, air and water temperatures, and
precipitation are also measured and noted along with evaporation.
USGS Class A Evaporation Pan
Measuring Evapotranspiration
EMPIRICAL EQUATION
Most of the available empirical equations for estimating lake evaporation are a
Dalton Type of equation of the general form
where:
𝑬𝑳 = lake evaporation (mm / day)
K= coefficient
Meyer’s Formula
𝒖𝟗
𝑬𝑳 = 𝒌𝑴 (𝒆𝒘 -𝒆𝒂 ) (1 + )
𝟏𝟔
where:
𝒆𝒂 = actual vapour pressure of the overlying air at a specified height (mm of mercury)
𝒖𝟗 = monthly mean wind velocity (Km ph) at height of 9m above the ground
𝒌𝑴 = coefficient accounting for other factors (0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small
shallow lakes)
Wind Velocity
In the lower part of the atmosphere, up to a height of about 500m above the
ground level, wind velocity follows the one-seventh power law as
𝑢ℎ = C h^1/7
C = constant
EMPIRICAL EXAMPLE::
A reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares had the following average values of
parameters during a week : water temperature = 20 degree celsius, relative humidity =
40 % wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground = 16 km/h. Estimate the average daily
evaporation from the lake and volume of water evaporated from the lake during that
one week.
Solution:
𝑒𝑤 = 17.54 mm of Hg
𝑢1 = 16 km/h 𝑢9 = ?
uh = C (h) ^1/7
𝑢9 / 𝑢1 = ( ( 9 )^1/7) / C ( (1)^1/7 )
𝑢9 = 𝑢1 (9) ^1/7
= 16 (9) ^1/7
= 21.9km/h
By Meyer’s formula
E = 0.36 ( 17.54 – 7.02 ) ( 1 + 21.9 / 16 )
= 8.97 mm/day
= 157,000 𝑚3
TRANSPIRATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the aerial parts (roots, leaves, and
stem) of a plant.
Types of Transpirations:
1. Stomatal Transpiration
It is the loss of water through specialized pores in the leaves. It accounts for around
80 to 90% of the total water loss from the plants. As the name suggests, the process
involves the participation of the stomata.
Stomata are tiny openings or pores in plant tissue that allow for gas exchange.
2. Cuticular Transpiration
This type of transpiration is responsible for the loss of water in plants via the cuticle.
Cuticle is an impermeable covering present on the leaves and stem. It causes only
around 20% transpiration in plants. It is further reduced due to a thicker cuticle in
xerophytes.
3. Lenticular Transpiration
This type of transpiration occurs at a plant’s lenticels. Lenticels are the tiny openings
present on the woody bark through which transpiration occurs.
It is the amount of water vapor in the air compared to the amount of water vapor that
air could hold at a given temperature.
Temperature
It greatly influences the magnitude of the driving force for water movement out of a
plant rather than having a direct effect on stomata.
Soil Water
The source of water for transpiration out of the plant comes from the soil. Plants with
adequate soil moisture will normally transpire at high rates because the soil provides
the water to move through the plant.
Light
Stomata are triggered to open in the light so that carbon dioxide is available for the
light-dependent process of photosynthesis.
Wind
Wind can alter rates of transpiration by removing the boundary layer, that still layer of
water vapor hugging the surface of leaves.
The more energy available, the greater the rate of evapotranspiration. It takes about
600 calories of heat energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into a gas
The rate and quantity of water vapor entering into the atmosphere both become higher
in drier air
Water availability
DEPRESSION STORAGE
Water retained in puddles, ditches, and other depressions in the surface of the
ground.
The quantity of storm water that is lost as a result of minor surface depressions
in the ground.
The volume, in inches (mm), that must be filled prior to the occurrence of run
off.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Rainfall hyetograph
where,
Dp = Depression storage , inch.
S = Catchment slope, percent.
If the soil surface has a low infiltration capacity and low hydraulic
conductivity, and if the topography allows for surface storage, then water may be
stored at the surface in small pools or depressions. These water-filled depressions,
called vernal pools, are often seasonal features
that form because of perched water tables.
The factors that affects the depression storage are: landform, soil
characteristics, topography, rain fall index and land use.
Example:
A small, 2-ha, mostly impervious urban catchment has an average slope of 1.5% and
the following average Horton infiltration parameter: f0 = 4mm/hr, fc = 1mm/hr k =
2.2hr-1 (infiltration occurs through cracks in the paving).Determine the depression
storage using Figure 2.
Solution,
Dp= 0.0303x1.5-0.49
=0.02484 in
=0.630945 mm
0.630945 mm
Using the precipitation input of Figure 5.2 of your text, estimate the volume of
depression storage for a 3.0-acre paved drainage area. State the volume in ft 3 and m
3. Convert it to an equivalent depth over the area in inches and centimeters.
=2.25 ft3/sec-acre
=(405.0)(1728)(16.3871)(10-6)m3
=11.468 m3
Thus:
𝑉 135.0 𝑓𝑡3 12 𝑖𝑛
d= 𝐴 = 43,560 𝑓𝑡2 = 3.099 x 10-3 ft ( )
𝑓𝑡
2.54 𝑐𝑚
= 0.0372 in x ( )
𝑖𝑛
= 0.0945 cm
WHAT IS RUNOFF?
The portion of rainfall, snowmelt, and/or irrigation water that runs over the soil
surface toward the stream rather than infiltrating into the soil- sometimes called
surface runoff.
“Runoff” is sometimes used to refer to both surface runoff (overland flow) and
subsurface runoff (inflow).
Surface runoff is water from rain, snow melting, or other sources that flows over the
land surface, and is a major component of the water cycle.
There are two types of surface runoff that occur during rainfall or snowmelt.
Interflow, also known as subsurface runoff is relatively rapid flow toward the stream
channel that occurs below the surface. It occurs more rapidly than baseflow, but
typically more slowly than surface runoff.
PERCOLATION
INFILTRATION CAPACITY
INFILTRATION RATE
- is the amount of water able to enter the soil in a specified time period. It is
expressed as depth per time; for example, 10 millimeters per hour.
BASIC SLOPE
ROUGHNESS
URBANIZATION
STREAM DENSITy
SOIL PROPERTIES
SOIL COMPOSITION
SOIL PROFILE
SURFACE PROPERTIES
Surface Runoff or also known as overland flow, is the flow of water that occurs when
excess stormwater, meltwater, or other sources flows over the Earth's surface. This
might occur because soil is saturated to full capacity, because rain arrives more
quickly than soil can absorb it, or because impervious areas (roofs and pavement)
send their runoff to surrounding soil that cannot absorb all of it. Subsurface Runoff is
the water that infiltrates in the vadose zone (unsaturated zone), from rain, snowmelt,
or other sources, and moves laterally towards the streams.
Rainfall-Runoff processes:
• When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by the leaves and
stems of the vegetation. This is usually referred to as interception storage.
• As the rain continues, water reaching the ground surface infiltrates into the
soil until it reaches a stage where the rate of rainfall (intensity) exceeds the
infiltration capacity of the soil. Thereafter, surface puddles, ditches, and other
depressions are filled (depression storage), after which runoff is generated.
• The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture and structure, as
well as on the antecedent soil moisture content (previous rainfall or dry
season). The initial capacity (of a dry soil) is high but, as the storm continues,
it decreases.
In this figure, it depicts a cross section through a hillslope that exposes in more detail
the pathways infiltrated water may follow. Infiltrated water may flow through the
matrix of the soil in the inter-granular pores and small structural voids. Infiltrated
water may also flow through larger voids referred to as macropores. Macropores
include pipes that are open passageways in the soil caused by decaying roots and
burrowing animals. Macropores also include larger structural voids within the soil
matrix that serve as preferential pathways for subsurface flow. The permeability of
the soil matrix may differ between soil horizons and this may lead to the build up of a
saturated wedge above a soil horizon interface. Water in these saturated wedges may
flow laterally through the soil matrix, or enter macropores and be carried rapidly to
the stream as subsurface stormflow in the form of interflow.
MECHANISM:
In the Figure below, the infiltration excess overland flow mechanism is illustrated.
There is a maximum limiting rate at which a soil in a given condition can absorb
surface water input.
• This was referred to by Robert E. Horton (1933), one of the founding fathers
of quantitative hydrology, as the infiltration capacity of the soil, and hence this
mechanism is also called Horton overland flow.
• With continued surface water input, the depression storage capacity is filled,
and water spills over to run down slope as an irregular sheet or to converge
into rivulets (small stream) of overland flow. The amount of water stored on
the hillside in the process of flowing down slope is called surface detention.
The transition from depression storage to surface detention and overland flow
is not sharp, because some depressions may fill and contribute to overland
flow before others.
• Infiltration Excess Overland Flow occurs when water enters a soil system
than the soil can absorb or move it, such as when precipitation exceeds the
infiltration capacity of the soil.
• Saturation excess Overland Flow occurs when the soil becomes saturated,
and any additional precipitation or irrigation causes runoff.
CYCLE:
The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the
ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds.
Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation.
Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may occur; 1) some of the
water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the water may penetrate the
surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans,
rivers, and streams, or is released back into the atmosphere through transpiration. The
balance of water that remains on the earth's surface is runoff, which empties into
lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins
again.
STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS
By: Jevero, Mary Ann Joy
Stage-Discharge Relationships
Stage-discharge relation
- may be simple or complex depending on the river reach and flow regime
Costly
Time consuming
Several methods have been proposed to improve data fitting, but generally
they have not adequately assessed the fundamentals of stage-discharge ratings
based on fluid mechanics (Giovanni Braca, 2008).
Stage-Discharge Controls
Station Control
Channel Control
- the one governing the relationship between stage and discharge at medium
and high discharges; section controls are completely submerged
- the set of all physical features of the channel that dictate the river stage at a
given point for a given flow rate. Features include:
Size
Slope
Roughness
Alignment
Constrictions and Expansions
Channel Shape
The channel reach that functions as a control may lengthen as the discharge
increases, introducing new features in the stage discharge relationship.
The development of the rating curve when there is more than one control effective
and when data are limited, requires judgment in both interpolation and extrapolation of
the data. This situation is partially aggravated when the controls are not permanent; the
various discharge measurements are then representative of changes in the positioning of
the segments of the rating curve.
For example, consider the case where a river stage is increasing at a dangerous rate, and it
is occurring at a stage that is near the top of the portion of the rating under the main channel
section control. It can be concluded from the rating curve that the rate of rise will likely
moderate even if the rain and flow rate remain constant. From Figure 6.6, it can be seen that
significant increases in flow are required for only moderate increases in stage once the stage
reaches a level that is under the influence of the flood plain channel control portion of the
rating.
Figure 6.7 relates this concept to the channel characteristics. Once the flow leaves the
main channel, the horizontal component of the cross sectional area increases dramatically
compared to the main channel. Correspondingly, the vertical component (or stage) of the cross
sectional area does not increase significantly for increases in flow. For these reasons, ratings
plotted logarithmically provide useful insight into the behavior of a river reach at moderate to
high flow.
FLOOD PREDICTION
By: Baldad, Lea Angelica
Good predictions and warnings save lives. With only a few minutes’ notice of a tornado of
flash flood, people can act to protect themselves from injury and death. Predictions and
warnings can also reduce damage and economic losses. When notice of an impending disaster
can be issued well in advance, as it can for some riverine floods, wildfires, and hurricanes,
property and natural resources can be protected.
Flood forecasting is the use of forecasted precipitation and stream flow data in rainfall-
runoff and stream flow routing models to forecast flow rates and water levels for periods
ranging from a few hours to days ahead, depending on the size of the watershed or river basin.
Flood forecasting can also make use of forecasts of precipitation in an attempt to extend the
lead-time available.
Flood forecasting is an important component of flood warning, where the distinction between
the two is that the outcome of flood forecasting is a set of forecast time-profiles of channel
flows or river levels at various locations, while "flood warning" is the task of making use of
these forecasts to tell decisions on warnings of floods.
Real-time flood forecasting at regional area can be done within seconds by using the
technology of artificial neural network. Effective real-time flood forecasting models could be
useful for early warning and disaster prevention.
Predicting floods is notoriously tricky. They depend on a complex mixture of rainfall, soil
moisture, the recent history of precipitation, and much more. Snowmelt and storm surges can
also contribute to unexpected flooding.
Flood predictions require several types of data:
Rain Gauges
-A rather simple device, the rain gauge acts like a measuring cup to measure the amount of
precipitation in a certain area. Using a rain gauge allows meteorologists to know exactly
how much rain has fallen, allowing them to gauge exactly how much moisture is within
the soil.
- provide the most accurate method of measuring rainfall at a single geographic point. To
have operational value, the rain gauge report must be available in real time, and automated
reporting networks are increasing.
Satellites
- On November 2, 2009, the European Space Agency launched the Soil Moisture and
Salinity (SMOS) satellite. It measures moisture levels of the soil, rate of plant growth and
salt levels in the ocean over the entire planet. It sends the gathered measurements back to
Earth where scientists use the data to predict possible flooding or extreme dry conditions.
NASA is also using the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) to measure the
amount of moisture within the Earth's soil.
- Estimates of rainfall from satellite data are less direct and less accurate than either gauges or
radar, but have the advantage of high resolution and complete coverage over oceans,
mountainous regions, and sparsely populated areas where other sources of rainfall data are
not available.
Airborne Lasers
In the Queenstown Lakes district in New Zealand, meteorologists are scanning targeted
areas with lasers in order to predict flash floods. The LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
laser scanner is secured to an aircraft. As the aircraft flies over, the laser gathers
information about the area below including changes in the shoreline. The U.S. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and NASA are using the data to determine these
changes and predict possible flooding.
WSR-88D radars
Graphically display detected precipitation on a map. Radar can show the location of the
intense rainfall cores, and estimate the duration of rainfall. Radar can also track the evolution
of storm systems over time.
A study of annual hydrograph of streams enables one to clarify streams into three classes;
1. PERENNIAL STREAM – is on which always carries some flow. There is considerable
amount of groundwater flow throughout the year. Even during dry seasons the water will be
above the bed of stream.
2. INTERMITTENT STREAM – has limited contribution from the groundwater, during the
wet season the water table is above the stream bed and there is a contribution of the base flow
to the stream flow. However, during dry season the water table drops to level lower than that
of the stream bed and the stream dries up. Excepting for an occasional storm which can produce
a short duration flow, the stream remains dry for the most part of the dry month.
3. EPHEMERA STREAM- is one which does not have any base flow contribution. The annual
hydrograph of such arrives shows series of short duration spikes marking flash flows s response
to storms. The stream becomes dry soon after the storm flow.
Typically, an ephemeral stream does not have any well-defined channel. Most of the rivers
in arid zone area of ephemeral kind.
HYDROGRAPH
A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically. Depending on the
unit of time involved, we have:
Annual hydrographs showing the variation of daily or weekly or 10 daily mean flows
over a year.
Monthly hydrographs showing the variation of daily mean flows over a month.
Seasonal hydrographs depicting the variation of the discharge in a particular season
such as the monsoon season or dry season.
Flood hydrographs representing stream flow due to a storm over a catchment.
PURPOSES OF HYDROGRAPHS
1. watershed evaluation
2. design of structure works
3. flood plan management
4. emergency action plan
5. design of flood ponds
6. channel design
7. grade stabilization structures
UNIT HYDROGRAPH
By: Alcebar, Raisan
The problem of predicting the flood hydrograph resulting from a known storm in a catchment
has received considerable attention. A large number of methods are proposed to solve this
problem and of them probably the most popular and widely used method is the unit-hydrograph
method. This method was first suggested by Sherman in 1932 and has undergone many
refinements since then.
A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit depth
(1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for a specified
duration (D hours). The term unit here refers to a unit depth of rainfall excess which is usually
taken as 1 cm. The duration, being a very important characteristic, is used as a prefix to a
specific unit hydrograph. Thus, one has a 6-h unit hydrograph, 12-h unit hydrograph, etc. and
in general a D-h unit hydrograph applicable to a given catchment. The definition of a unit
hydrograph implies the following:
The unit hydrograph represents the lumped response of the catchment to a unit rainfall
excess of D-h duration to produce a direct-runoff hydrograph. It relates only the direct
runoff to the rainfall excess. Hence the volume of water contained in the unit
hydrograph must be equal to the rainfall excess. As 1 cm depth of rainfall excess is
considered the area of the unit hydrograph is equal to a volume given by 1 cm over the
catchment.
The rainfall is considered to have an average intensity of excess rainfall (ER) of 1/D
cm/h for the duration D-h of the storm.
The distribution of the storm is considered to be uniform all over the catchment.
Figure 6.9 shows a typical 6-h unit hydrograph. Here the duration of the rainfall excess is 6 h.
Two basic assumptions constitute the foundations for the unit-hydrograph theory. These are:
(i) the time invariance and (ii) the linear response.
Time Invariance
This first basic assumption is that the direct-runoff response to a given effective rain- fall in a
catchment is time-invariant. This implies that the DRH for a given ER in a catchment is always
the same irrespective of when it occurs.
Linear Response
The direct-runoff response to the rainfall excess is assumed to be linear. This is the most
important assumption of the unit-hydrograph theory. Linear response means that if an input
x₁(t) causes an output y₁(t) and an input x₂(t) causes an output y₂(t), then an input x₁(t) + x₂(t)
gives an output y₁(t) + y₂(t). Consequently, if x₂(t) = r x₁(t), then y₂(t) = r y₁(t). Thus, if the
rainfall excess in a duration D is r times the unit depth, the resulting DRH will have ordinates
bearing ratio r to those of the corresponding D-h unit hydrograph. Since the area of the resulting
DRH should increase by the ratio r, the base of the DRH will be the same as that of the unit
hydrograph.
The unit-hydrograph concept discussed in the preceding sections considered a D-h unit
hydrograph. For a given catchment a number of unit hydrographs of different durations are
possible. The shape of these different unit hydrographs depend upon the value of D. Figure
6.23 shows a typical variation of the shape of unit hydrographs for different values of D. As D
is reduced, the intensity of rainfall excess being equal to 1/D increases and the unit hydrograph
becomes more skewed. A finite unit hydrograph is indicated as the duration D → 0. The
limiting case of a unit hydrograph of zero duration is known as instantaneous unit hydrograph
(IUH). Thus, IUH is a fictitious, conceptual unit hydrograph which represents the surface
runoff from the catchment due to an instantaneous precipitation of the rainfall excess volume
of 1 cm. IUH is designated as u(t) or sometimes as u (0, t). It is a single-peaked hydrograph
with a finite base width and its important properties can be listed as below:
Consider an effective rainfall I(τ) of duration t₀ applied to a catchment as in Fig. 6.24. Each
infinitesimal element of this ERH will operate on the IUH to produce a DRH whose discharge
at time t is given by:
Equation (6.25) is called the convolution integral or Duhamel integral. The integral of Eq.
(6.25) is essentially the same as the arithmetical computation of Eq. (6.5).
The main advantage of IUH is that it is independent of the duration of ERH and thus
has one parameter less than a D-h unit hydrograph. This fact and the definition of IUH make it
eminently suitable for theoretical analysis of rainfall excess-runoff relationship of a catchment.
For a given catchment IUH, being independent of rainfall characteristics, is indicative of the
catchment storage characteristics.
SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH
By: Rival, Ronnel
A synthetic unit hydrograph retains all the features of the unit hydrograph, but does not
require rainfall-runoff data. A synthetic unit hydrograph is derived from theory and
experience, and its purpose is to simulate basin diffusion by estimating the basin lag based on
a certain formula or procedure.
A number of methods for developing synthetic- unit hydrographs are reported in literature. It
should, however, be remembered that these methods being based on empirical correlations
are applicable only to the specific regions in which they were developed and should not be
considered as general relationships for use in all regions
All the methods of deriving a UH discussed previously require observations of rainfall and
runoff. However, for some drainage basins rain gages and/ or streams flow gages are not,
therefore, rainfall – runoff data are not available. For those basins, some kind of techniques to
generate UH (without using rainfall – runoff records) is needed. The UH so derived is called
synthetic UH.
watershed storage.
Snyder’s Method
The first synthetic unit hydrograph was developed by Snyder in 1938, based on a study of a
large number of catchments in the Appalachian Highlands of eastern United States developed
a set of empirical equations for synthetic-unit hydrographs in those areas. These equations are
in use in the USA, and with some modifications in many other countries, and constitute what
is known as Snyder’s synthetic-unit hydrograph.
The synthetic unit hydrograph of Snyder (1938) is based on relationships found between
three characteristics of a standard unit hydrograph and descriptors of basin morphology. The
hydrograph characteristics are the effective rainfall duration, tr, the peak direct runoff
rate, qp, and the basin lag time, tl. From these relationships, five characteristics of a required
unit hydrograph for a given effective rainfall duration may be calculated the peak discharge
per unit of watershed area, qpR, the basin lag, tlR, the base time, tb, and the widths, W (in
time units) of the unit hydrograph at 50 and 75 percent of the peak discharge.
tL = C1Ct (LLc)0.3
where tL = Time [hrs]; C1 = 0.75 for SI unit; 1.0 for English unit; Ct = Coefficient which
is a function of watershed slope and shape, 1.8~2.2 (for steeper slope, Ct is smaller); L =
length of the main channel [mi, km]; Lc = length along the main channel to the point nearest
to the watershed centroid
2. UH Duration (tr):
tr = tL / 5.5
where tr and tL are in [hrs]. If the duration of UH is other than tr, then the lag time needs
to be adjusted as
tpL = tL + 0.25 (tR - tr)
C C
w,75 w,50
W W
75 1.08 50 1.08
q q
p or p
where C2 = 2.75 for SI unit; 640 for English unit; Cp = coefficient accounting for flood
wave and storage condition, 0.4 ~ 0.8; qp = specific discharge, [m3/s/km2] or
[ft3/s/mi2]
tb = C 3 / qp
5. UH Widths: or
where
W50, W75 are in hours; Usually, 1/3 of the width is distributed before UH peak and 2/3 after
the peak