TROPOSHERIC POLLUTION AND

REACTIONS

2.1 Outdoor (Ambient) Air Pollution

2.2 Tropospheric Reactions
2.3 Indoor Air Quality
2,4 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
2.5 Acid Rain
TROPOSHERIC POLLUTION AND
REACTIONS
2.1
OUTDOOR (AMBIENT) AIR POLLUTION
 LESSON OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, students will be able to:

1. Define and explain what is pollution.

2. Name and give examples of the different categories of air pollutants.
3. Explain and interpret current terminologies used in air pollution.
OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION
 Pollution is any addition of matter or energy
that degrades the environment for humans
and other organisms.
 Most air pollutants are gaseous but some are
aerosols, which consist of tiny particles of solid
or droplets of liquids suspended in the air.
 There are several ways to categorize air
pollutants.
Categories of Air Pollutants
1. can be categorized according to
their source, whether natural
(unregulated) or anthropogenic or
man-made (regulated)
2. can also be categorized according
to the way in which they are formed in
the atmosphere, primary or secondary
pollutants.
Categories of Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are usually classified
according to the way in which they
are formed in the atmosphere.
1. Primary pollutants
2. Secondary pollutants
Primary Pollutants
 Pollutants that are emitted directly into
the atmosphere by natural events or
human activities.
 These include CO,VOC, particulate
matter , SO2 and oxides of nitrogen
 Secondary Pollutants
 Primary pollutants may react with one another
in the presence of sunlight to form new
compounds that are known as secondary air
pollutants.
 Secondary air pollutants can also form from
reactions with substances that occur naturally
in the atmosphere.
 Examples include O3, most NO3- and SO42-
salts, H2O2, aldehydes.
 Criteria Air Pollutants
 The U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other
countries has a category of air pollutants known as criteria
air pollutants.
 Criteria air pollutants
 Term used internationally to describe air pollutants that
have been regulated and are used as indicators of air quality.
 The regulations or standards are based on criteria that relate
to health and/or environment effects
 The U.S EPA has established air quality standards for six
principal air pollutants (thus they are called criteria air
pollutants)
 These include NO2, O3, SO2, particulate matter (PM), CO
and Pb.
 In addition, certain compounds with high toxicity are known
as hazardous air pollutants or air toxics.
U.S. Criteria Air Pollutants Standard
Air Pollutant Concentration
CO 9 ppm (8-hr average)
SO2 0.03 ppm (annual mean)
NO2 0.053 ppm (annual mean)
O3 0.08 ppm (8- hr average)
Pb 1.5 ug/m3 (3 mth average)
PM10 150 ug/m3(24-hr average)
PM2.5 65 ug/m3 (24-hr average)

_______Other Common Pollutants_________________

Benzene No standards set (current
levels below 2.5 ug/m3
VOCs No standards set but reductions needed
to reduce ground-level ozone.
European Union Air Quality Objectives
Air Pollutant Concentration
CO 10 mg/m3 (8-hr average)
SO2 125 ug/m3( (24-hr average)
NO2 40 ug/m3(annual mean)
O3 120 ug/m3 (8- hr average)
Pb 0.5 ug/m3 (3- mth average)
PM10 50 ug/m3(24-hr average)
PM2.5

_______Other Common Pollutants_________________

Benzene 5.0 ug/m3
RECOMMENDED MALAYSIAN AIR QUALITY
GUIDELINES (RMAQG)
There are no ambient air quality standards in
Malaysia. The Malaysian government, however, established
ambient air quality guidelines in 1988.

Pollutants addressed in the guidelines

 include O3, CO, NO2, SO2, total suspended particles,
particulate matter under 10, Pb and dust fall.
RECOMMENDED MALAYSIAN AIR QUALITY
GUIDELINES (RMAQG)
Pollutants Averaging Time ppm ug/m3

Photochemical/Tropospheric 1 hr 0.10 200

ozone 8 hr 0.06 120

Carbon Monoxide 1 hr 30 35
8 hr 9 10

Nitrogen Dioxide 1 hr 0.17 320

24 hr 0.04

Sulfur Dioxide 1 hr 0.13 350

24 hr 0.04 105
RECOMMENDED MALAYSIAN AIR QUALITY
GUIDELINES (RMAQG)
Pollutants Averaging Time ppm ug/m3

Particulate Matter (PM10) 24 hr 150

1 Year 50

Total Suspended 24 hr 260

Particulate (TSP) 1 Year 90

Lead 3 month 1.5

Dust fall 1 Year 133

mg/m2/day
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
 Produced when organic materials such as
gasoline, coal, wood and trash are burnt with
insufficient oxygen.
 Any process that involves the burning of fossil
fuels has the potential to produce carbon
monoxide.
 The single largest source of CO is the
automobile.
 The remainder comes from other processes that
involve burning (power plants, industry, burning
leaves etc)
CO
 Although increased fuel efficiency and the use of catalytic
converters have reduced carbon dioxide emissions per
kilometer driven, CO remains a problem because the
number of automobiles on the road and the number of
kilometers driven have risen.
 In urban areas, as much as 90% of CO is from motor
vehicles.
 In many parts of the world, automobiles are poorly
maintained and may have inoperable pollution control
equipment, resulting in even greater amounts of carbon
monoxide.
 Fortunately, CO is not a persistent pollutant. It readily
combines with oxygen to form CO2.
 How does a catalytic converter work?
1) A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions
control device which converts toxic byproducts of
combustion in the exhaust of an internal combustion
engine to less toxic substances by way of catalysed
chemical reactions.

2) The specific reactions vary with the type of catalyst

installed. Most present-day vehicles that run on gasoline
are fitted with a “three way” converter, so named because it
converts the three main pollutants in automobile exhaust.
3) The three main pollutants are carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbon and
oxides of nitrogen. The first two are converted to two new molecules. This
happens through an oxidizing reaction which converts
carbon monoxide (CO), and unburned hydrocarbons (HC)
to CO2 and water vapor.

4) The last pollutant (oxides of nitrogen) is converted to three new

molecules. This happens through a reduction reaction which converts
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) to CO2, nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O).
Video 2 what is catalytic converter

Video 1 how it works

 Health effects of CO
 CO is dangerous because it binds to the hemoglobin in the
blood and makes the hemoglobin less able to carry oxygen.
 CO is most dangerous in enclosed spaces where it is not
diluted by fresh air entering the space.
 Several hours of exposure to air containing only 0.001%
of CO can cause death.
 Since CO remains attached to hemoglobin for a long time,
even small amounts tend to accumulate and reduce the
blood’s oxygen carrying capacity.
 The amount of CO produced in heavy traffic can cause
headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision.
 Cigarette smoke is also an important source of carbon
monoxide.
 Particulate Matter (PM)
 PM consists of minute (10 microns and smaller) solid
particles and liquid droplets dispersed into the
atmosphere.
 The EPA has set standards for particles smaller than
10 microns (PM10) and 2.5 microns (PM2.5).
 Most of the coarse particles (greater than 2.5
microns) are primary pollutants such as dust and
carbon particles that are released into the air.
 Roads, agricultural activities, construction sites,
industrial processes and smoke particles from fires
are primary sources of coarse particles.
What is micron
 A metric unit of length = 10⁻6 meter. The approved SI
term for the micron's length is micrometer (symbol,
µm).
 Nonetheless, “micron” is still the term most commonly
used in certain fields, including semiconductor
fabrication.
 It is often used in describing the sizes of particles
retained by air and water filters, the range of
wavelengths of light to which an optica instrument
responds, and in machining.
Particulate Matter
 Fine particles (less than 2.5 microns) are
mostly secondary pollutants that form in the
atmosphere from interactions of primary air
pollutants.
 Sulfates and nitrates formed from sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides are examples of
fine particulates.

)
 COARSE AND FINE PARTICLES
 •Coarse dust particles
(PM10) are 2.5 to 10
micrometers in diameter.
 Sources include crushing or
grinding operations and dust
stirred up by vehicles on roads.

Fine particles (PM2.5) are 2.5 micrometers in diameter or

smaller, and can only be seen with an electron microscope.
Fine particles are produced from all types of combustion,
including motor vehicles, power plants, residential wood
burning, forest fires, agricultural burning, and some industrial
processes
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
 Health and other effects of Particulate
Matter
 Reduced visibility
 PM of asbestos is carcinogenic and can cause
cancer.
 Particles can accumulate in the lung and
interfere with their ability to exchange
gases.
 Sulfuric, nitric and carbonic acids, which
irritate the lining of our respiratory system,
frequently are associated with particulates.
)
 Particulate inhaled vid 6
 Sulfur Dioxide
 SO2 is a compound of sulfur and oxygen that is
produced when sulfur-containing fossil fuels
are burned.
S + O2  SO2
 There is sulfur in coal and oil and this sulfur
combines with oxygen when fossil fuels are
burned.
 More than 50% of SO2 comes from industries
and power plants.
 Health and other effects of SO2
 SO2 has sharp odor
 Causes headaches, sore throats and nausea.
 Irritates respiratory tissue
 Aggravates asthmatic conditions
 Reacts with water, oxygen and other materials to
form sulfur containing acids.
 These acids can become attached to particles
that when inhaled, are very corrosive to lung
tissue.
 These acid containing particles are also involved
in acid deposition.
 Oxides of Nitrogen
 Burning of fossil fuels produces a mixture of nitrogen-
containing compounds commonly known as oxides of
nitrogen.
 The two most common molecules are nitrogen
monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
 The primary molecule produced is nitrogen monoxide
(NO)
N2 + O2  2NO
 But nitrogen monoxide can be converted to nitrogen
dioxide in the air.
2NO + O2  2NO2
Oxides of Nitrogen
 Primary source of nitrogen oxides is the automobile
engine which accounts for more than 50% of oxides of
nitrogen released.
 Catalytic converters (act to convert approx 75% of NO
back to N2 and O2) significantly reduce the amount of
NO released from internal combustion engines.
 However, the increase in the number of cars and the
kilometers driven, still has an impact in the amount of
nitrogen oxides produced.
 Health and other effects of NO2
 NO2 is a highly reactive, reddish brown gas which is a
secondary pollutant.
 Causes respiratory problems
 Component of acid precipitation
 Important in the production of mixture of secondary air
pollutants called smog (especially ozone).
 Lead, Pb
 At one time, primary source of airborne lead was from
additives in gasoline. Lead was added to gasoline to help
engines run more efficiently. Currently, 80% of the gasoline
sold in the world is unleaded.
 Another major source of lead is paints.
◦ Many older homes have paints that contain lead, since various lead
compounds are colourful pigments.
◦ Dust from flaking paint, remodeling or demolition is released into
the environment.
◦ Some young children chew on painted surfaces and often eat paint
chips.
 Today, however, industrial sources such as metal smelters
and manufacturers of batteries account for about 80% of
lead emissions.
Health and other effects of lead
 Lead can enter our bodies when we inhale airborne particles
or consume lead that was deposited on surfaces.
 Lead accumulates in the body and causes a variety of health
effects including mental retardation and kidney damage.
 Tropospheric/ Photochemical Ozone
 Highly reactive, irritating gas with an unpleasant odor that forms
in the troposphere as a major component of photochemical
smog.
 Ground-level or troposheric ozone is produced in the presence
of sunlight when nitrogen dioxide breaks down to nitrogen
monoxide and atomic oxygen:
NO2  NO + O*
O* + O2  O3

Atomic oxygen is extremely reactive and will react with

molecular oxygen in the air to form ozone.
 Health effects of ground-level ozone
 Breathing problems
 Coughing
 Eye, nose and throat irritation
 Aggravates chronic diseases such as asthma, bronchitis,
emphysema, and heart disease.
 Reduces resistance to colds and pneumonia
 May speed up lung tissue aging.
Other effects
 Can damage plants (destroys chlorophyll), and trees.
 Damages rubber, fabrics and paints.
SOLUTION
 AIR QUALITY MONITORING STATIONS
 Located at Strategic Places :
 Residential;
 Industrial;
 Commercial; and
 Traffic
 Air Quality Monitoring Stations

Automatic Manual
Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)
The United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA)
developed the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) to
provide accurate, timely and easily understandable
information about daily levels of air pollution.

The index provides a uniform standard of measuring pollution

levels for the major air pollutants:

 PM10 (particulate matter less than 10 microns in size; 1

micron = 1/1,000th of 1 mm or 1 x 10-6 m);
 sulphur dioxide;
 ozone;
 carbon monoxide;
 nitrogen dioxide.
PSI
The PSI value gives an indication of the air
quality as shown:

PSI Value PSI Descriptor

0 to 50 Good
51 - 100 Moderate
101 - 200 Unhealthy
201- 300 Very Unhealthy
Above 300 Hazardous
Air Quality Index (AQI)
 In the US, PSI is no longer in use, having been
replaced by the AQI, which is more sensitive.

 For example, particulate matter with an

aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 micrometres
(PM2.5) is a sub index, replacing the less sensitive
PM10 component of the PSI.
Air Pollutant Index (API) In Malaysia
 In 1989, the Department of Environment
(DOE) formulated a set of air quality
guidelines, termed Recommended Malaysian
Air Quality Guidelines (RMAQG) for air
pollutants, defining the concentration limits of
selected air pollutants which might adversely
affect the health and welfare of the general
public.
Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
 Based on the (RMAQG) , the Department
subsequently developed its first air quality
index system, known as the Malaysian Air
Quality Index (MAQI) in 1993.
 An index system plays an important role in
conveying to both decision-makers and the
general public the status of ambient air quality,
ranging from good to hazardous.
 Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
 Application of the index system, particularly in
industralized countries, has demonstrated the useful role in
providing a sound basis for both the effective management
of air quality , as well as the effective protection of public
health.
 In line with the need for regional harmonization and easy
comparison with countries in the region, the Department
revised its index system in 1996, and the Air Pollutant
Index (API) was adopted.
 The API system of Malaysia closely follows the Pollutant
Standard Index (PSI) system of the United States.
 Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
 An air pollution index system normally includes the major air
pollutants which could cause potential harm to human health
should they reach unsafe levels.
 The pollutants included in Malaysia's API are
 photochemical/troposheric ozone (03),
 carbon monoxide (CO),
 dinitrogenoxide (N02),
 sulphur dioxide (S02)
 and suspended particulate matter less than 10 microns in size
(PM10).
Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
 Generally, an air pollution index system is developed in
easily understood ranges of values, instead of using the
actual concentrations of air pollutants, as a means for
reporting the quality of air or level of air pollution.
 To reflect the status of the air quality and its effects on
human health, the range of index values could then be
categorized as follows : good, moderate, unhealthy,
very unhealthy and hazardous.
Malaysian API Status Indicator
A Guide To Air Pollutant Index In Malaysia
 To determine the API for a given time period, the sub-index
(sub-API) for all five pollutants included in the API system
are first calculated.
 The API reported for a given time period represents the
highest API value among all the sub-APIs calculated during
that particular time period. The predominant air pollutant
parameter contributing towards a particular API value is
normally indicated alongside the API value.
 For example, during the 1997 haze episode, the
predominant air pollutant parameter was PM10 and hence
the API values reported were primarily based on the PM10
sub-index.
 In general, PM10 is the dominant air pollutant in Malaysia
especially in Selangor.
Air Pollutant Index Process Flowchart
 Air Pollutant Index (API)
Indeks Pencemar Udara (IPU)
24/12/2007 (Monday)

Other Areas Time (11 am) Time (5.00 pm)

Putrajaya (W. Persekutuan) 41* 43c

Port Dickson (N.Sembilan) 38* 51c

Bandaraya Melaka 33* 36c

Kemaman (Terengganu) 39c 42c

Indera Mahkota, Kuantan 27* 38c

Miri 18* 18c

* PM10 c = O3 & = more than 1

a=SO2 b = NO2 d = CO pollutant
# = technical
problem
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
Air Pollutant Index (API)
Indeks Pencemar Udara (IPU)
16 March 2012

Other Areas Time (11 am) Time (5.00 pm)

Putrajaya (W. Persekutuan) 37* 37*

Port Dickson (N.Sembilan) 52* 52*

Bandaraya Melaka 50* 48*

Kemaman (Terengganu) 47* 46*

Indera Mahkota, Kuantan 39* 38*

Miri 52* 52*

c = O3 * PM10
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
Tropospheric Ozone
 During late afternoons or early evenings,
the concentration of ozone increases and
dominates the API readings in some places.
 In sunlight, oxides of nitrogen and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) from motor
vehicle exhaust and industries react to form
tropospheric ozone.
 Limitations of PSI and API
 The PSI/API emphasizes short term acute health effects, and does not
take into account chronic effects occurring over months or years.

 Also, the PSI/API reading announced over radio or TV may not

correspond to actual values at the time of the announcement, because
the reading is for the immediate three hours. Hence, the current
condition can be better or worse than that of the immediate three
hours.

 Finally, the PSI/API does not take into account the possible
synergistic effects when different pollutants combine together.
That is, the adverse health effects of combinations of two or more
pollutants can be worse than the sum of each of the pollutants
separately.
 Vide summary
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
 Conclusion

1. Define and explain what is pollution.

Pollution is any addition of matter or energy that degrades the
environment for humans and other organisms.

2. Name and give examples of the different categories of air pollutants.

NO2, O3, SO2, particulate matter (PM), CO and Pb.

3. Explain and interpret current terminologies used in air pollution.

AQI, PSI, API
PAST YEAR QUESTION
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
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Nesa (Dec-Apr09)
Nesa (Dec-Apr09)