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School of Engineering
Robert Gordon University
EN1560-Introduction to Electrical Engineering
1 Magnetic Circuits
1.1 Magnetic field

A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material, such as iron, which attracts other
pieces of the same material. If a permanent magnet is suspended in the air so that it is free to
swing in a horizontal plane, one end of the magnet will take up a position towards the earth’s
North Pole. This end is called the north seeking end or the north pole, N of the magnet.
Similarly the other end is known as the south seeking end or the south pole, S of the
magnet.
The distribution of a magnetic field can be demonstrated by the following experiment. A

permanent magnet is placed on a table, covered it by a sheet of cardboard and some iron
filings are
filings sprinkled
to position uniformly in
themselves over the sheet.
curved A slight tapping
lines between of as
the poles theshown
cardboard will cause
in Fig(1.1). the
These
curved lines can be used to visualise the magnetic condition of the space around the magnet,
which may be identified as the magnetic field. Also these lines lead to the idea of lines of
magnetic flux which were introduced by Michael Faraday to visualise the distribution and
density of the magnetic field. They can also be used as a vehicle to explain various effects of
magnetism. It should be realised that the magnetic flux occupies the whole three-dimensional
space in the vicinity of the magnet and decreases in strength as moved away from the
magnet.
Lines of magnetic flux
N S
Fig(1.1) Lines of magnetic flux
Each line of magnetic flux is a closed loop with no beginning and no end as shown in
Fig(1.1). In fact a flux line which starts at a point on the north pole of a magnet passes

EN1560-Magnetic Circuits 1
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Copyright 2006 by Dr G W D M Gunawardene, © 2011 G Dunbar
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through the space surrounding it, enters the south pole and continues through the magnet to
the starting point thus forming a closed loop. This follows that these lines never intersect.
When two magnets are arranged in such away that unlike poles are next to each other, as
shown in Fig(1.2)(a), attraction takes place. The lines of flux passing between the two
magnets behave as if they were trying to shorten themselves causing the magnets to attract
towards each other. If the magnets are arranged so that the like poles are near to each other,
as shown in Fig(1.2)(b), then repulsion takes place. It is seen that the flux lines in the space
between the two magnets are pointing in the same direction thus pushing the two magnets
away from each other.
N S N N
S N S S
Fig(1.2)(a) Attraction between Fig(1.2)(b) Repulsion between

magnets magnets
1.2 Magnetic flux and flux density B
The amount of magnetic field produced by a magnetic source is known as the magnetic flux
and the symbol used is the Greek letter . The unit of magnetic flux is the weber or Wb.
The Magnetic flux density B is defined as the amount of flux per unit area, which is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux. The unit of flux density is tesla or T. Thus we can
write the equation
B Wb/m 2 , Wb.m
2
or tesla Eq(1.1)
A
2 2
where A is the area in m . It is seen from Eq(1.1) that 1 T is equivalent to 1 Wb/(m ) which is
another way of defining the units of flux density B.

Example 1.1
The magnetic flux crossing the air gap of the magnet shown in Fig(1.3) is 12 mWb. Determine
the flux density in the air gap if the magnet has dimensions shown.
Solution 1.1
Cross sectional area A is
2 2 4 2 2
A 8 10 15 10 120 10 m 0.012 m
This gives
12 mWb 0.012
B 1 T
A 0.012 0.012
N S 8 cm
Flux

15 cm
This document is...
Magnet
Fig(1.3) Magnet with air gap

1.3 Magnetic field due to an electric current
A fundamental law of electromagnetism is that a magnetic field is produced around a

conductor when that conductor carries an electric current. This phenomenon was
demonstrated by Oersted in 1820 He noticed that when a wire carrying an electric current is
demonstrated by Oersted in 1820. He noticed that when a wire carrying an electric current is
placed above a magnetic needle, the needle was deflected clockwise or anticlockwise

depending on the direction of the current flow. Using his observations it is possible to form a
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basic sign convention to indicate the direction of the magnetic field.
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1.3.1 Sign convention of electromagnetic field 
Consider a wire carrying an electric current which has a cross section as shown in Fig(1.4). In
Fig(1.4)(a) the current is flowing into the paper as indicated by the cross. The magnetic field
has a clockwise direction and the concentric circles around the wire show the flux lines.
Another method of representing this is to place a corkscrew along the conductor, which
travels into the paper when rotated clockwise. The movement of the corkscrew into the paper
represents the current flow and the clockwise rotation indicates the direction of the magnetic
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field.
In Fig(1.4)(b) the current flow is reversed, ie flowing out of the paper, which is indicated by
the dot. In this case it is obvious that the direction of the field is anticlockwise and again flux
lines are shown by the concentric circles.
Clockwise
rotation of field
Anticlockwise
rotation of field 
Wire
Basic Transformer swinburne'S Test Network Analysis - Mutual

Fig(1.4)(a) Fig(1.4)(b)
Induction Lab manual of 1st solved problems
Notes on DC shunt… ECE - 3rd Sem Fig(1.4)-… Experiment
Sign convention of year mechanica… in electric motors
electromagnetic field
1.3.2 Ampere’s Law
The Ampere’s Law is particularly useful in determining magnetic field strength near current
carrying conductors in certain geometrical arrangements. Knowing the field strength the
magnetic flux density at a point and the magnetic flux around a circuit can easily be
determined. In electrical engineering problems such as electrical machines, transformers etc,
we are often asked to design a magnetic circuit to produce a given flux. The application of the
law is straight forward provided that we know the direction of the flux and the law is most
suitable in situations where the field patterns are predictable.
The Ampere’s law is a statement of fact based on experiments. If a unit pole is placed on any
irregular closed path, such as path A in Fig(1.5), enclosing a current carrying conductor, it
experiences a force H, which is tangential to the path, as shown in Fig(1.5). When the unit
pole is moved an infinitely small distance ℓ along the path the work done is the product of H
and ℓ. The Ampere’s law states that the sum of the product of H ℓ, which is the total work
done by the unit pole in moving once around the closed path A enclosing the conductor is
numerically equal to the current flow in the conductor. This is written as
H  I ( A) Eq(1.2)
0
In the limit as ℓ tends to zero this summation becomes and integral and is written as
H  I ( A) Eq(1.3)
0 
The circle around the integral sign indicates that the integration is done around a closed path.
If the unit pole is moved around any path, regular or irregular, which encloses the conductor
will produce the same result. However path B in Fig(1.5) fails to link the conductor and
therefore no work is done in moving a unit pole round such a path.
Closed path A
Closed path B
Conductor Unit pole
Fig(1.5) Closed path enclosing a

conductor
The Ampere’s law is very simple to use when the tangential force H is a constant and t his is
the case for all examples considered here. Thus if H is constant then Eq(1.3) becomes
H  H I ( A)
0 
Eq(1.4)
H I ( A / m)

This force H is called the magnetising force or the magnetic field strength.

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As an example it is required to calculate the magnitude of the field strength at a point distance
r from the axis of a long conductor carrying a current I. The field pattern for such a case is
shown in Fig(1.4) and if we consider a circular path at radius r, the field strength along this
path is tangential to the path and will be constant (as the field strength at any point on a flux
line is constant). From Fig(1.6) and Eq(1.4) the field strength H at a distance r is given as
I I
H ( A / m) Eq(1.5)
 2 r
Circular path of

length ℓ = 2 r
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Wire 
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Fig(1.6) Circular path around a
current carrying conductor
1.4 Magnetomotive force mmf Fm
In an electric circuit the current is due to the existence of an electromotive force. In a similar

manner the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is due to the existence of a magnetomotive
force mmf or Fm, caused by a current flowing through one or more turns. Thus a coil, as
shown in Fig(1.7), of N turns carrying a current of I Amps is the basic force for the creation of
magnetic fields.
N turns
Basic Transformer swinburne'S Test Network Analysis - I Amp

Mutual Induction Lab manual of 1st solved problems
l meters
Fig(1.7) A coil with N turns
Therefore we can write an equation for F m as
mmf F m NI (ampere - turns or AT) Eq(1.6)
and has the units ampere-turns. Since N has no units sometimes it is expressed in amperes.
The magnetomotive force is the total current linked with the magnetic circuit. If the magnetic
circuit has a uniform cross section, the magnetomotive force per unit length of the magnetic
circuit is the magnetising force or magnetic field strength discussed in Section 1.3.2. As
shown in Fig(1.7) if ℓ is the mean length (meters) of the magnetic circuit then magnetic field
strength H is given as
NI
H ( A / m) Eq(1.7)

Example 1.2
A circular wooden ring of mean diameter 20 cm has a coil of 800 turns uniformly wound
around it. If the magnetic field strength is 5000 A/m calculate the current in the coil.
Solution 1.2
-2
The mean length (circumference) of the wooden ring is ℓ = d = 20 10 m and from
Eq(1.7) we have
2
H 5000 20 10 10
I 3.93 A
N 800 8
1.5 Permeability and B-H curves
For free space or a non-magnetic material the ratio of magnetic flux density B to magnetic
filed strength or magnetising force H is a constant. This constant is known as the
permeability for free space and has the symbol 0. ie
B 7 Wb / m 2 Wb
0 4 10 Eq(1.8)
H AT / m mAT
Note that this constant has a numerical value of 4 10-7 Wb/(mAT) as given in Eq(1.8).
Another unit for this constant is henrys/m and the interested reader can look elsewhere for
details. All non-magnetic materials are considered to have the same permeability 0 as free
space. Fig(1.8) shows a graph of flux density B plotted against the magnetic field strength H
for free space known as a B-H curve. This curve is linear and the slope of the straight line is
0.

B Wb/m
Slope = 0

H AT/m

Fig(1.8) B-H curve for free space
The absolute permeability of a ferromagnetic material is expressed in relation to the

permeability of free space and is given as
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B
0 r Wb /(mAT ) Eq(1.9)
H
where r is the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic material which has no units. From
this definition it is seen that the relative permeability of free space is 1.
By plotting measured values of B against H, a B-H curve is obtained and typical curves for
three different magnetic materials are shown in Fig(1.9). It is noted that these curves are not
linear any longer and the relative permeability r of the ferromagnetic material is proportional
to the slope of the B-H curve and therefore varies with the magnetic field strength H.
Flux Density B (Wb/m )
1.8
Mild Steel
1.6
1.4
Cast Steel
1.2
1
0.8
Cast Iron
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
20 40 60 80 100
Magnetic Field Strength (AT/m)
Fig(1.9) B-H curves for different

magnetic materials
Example 1.3
A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden

2
ring having a mean circumference of 60
cm and a uniform cross sectional area of 5 cm . If the current through the coil is 4 A calculate
(a) the magnetic field strength (b) the flux density and (c) the total flux.
Solution 1.3
2 -4 2
Here N = 200, I = 4 A, cross sectional area A = 5 cm = 5 10 m and the mean
-2
circumference ℓ = 60 10 m.
(a) From Eq(1.7)
NI 200 4 2000 4

H 2
1333 A / m
 60 10 6
(b) As the wooden ring is made of a non-magnetic material r is 1 and using Eq(1.9)
7
B 0 r H 4 10 1333 1675 10 6
1675 μT
(c) Using Eq(1.1)
6 4 6
BA 1675 10 5 10 0.1675 5 10 0.8375 μWb

Example 1.4
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Calculate the magnetomotive force required to produce a flux of 0.015 Wb across an air gap

2
2.5 mm long, having an effective area of 30 cm .
Solution 1.4
Area A of the air gap is
A 30 cm 2 30 10 4
m2
From Eq(1.1) flux density B is

0.015 104
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0.015 150
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B 5 T

4
A 30 10 30 30

From Eq(1.8) magnetic field strength H is
B 5 7
H 7
0.398 10 A / m
0 4 10
Therefore from Eq(1.7) mmf is
Download Now mmf NI H  0.398 10 7

2.5 10 3
0.9947 10 4 9947 AT

1.6 Reluctance S and the magnetic circuit
In an electric circuit an electromotive force or an emf E will force a current I to flow in the
circuit and the opposition to the flow of current is the resistance R. In a similar manner a
magnetomotive force or mmf Fm will force a magnetic flux to flow in a magnetic circuit and

the opposition to the flow of flux is the reluctance S. This is illustrated in Fig(1.10).
I
E V
I
N R
Magnetic circuit Electric circuit
Fig(1.10) Analogy between magnetic and

electric circuits
For the electric circuit shown in Fig(1.10) emf E is equivalent to the volt drop across the
resistor R and we can write the basic equation as
E V IR volts Eq(1.10)
The analogy for the magnetic circuit is that the mmf F m is equivalent to the product of the flux
and the reluctance S. Ie
F m S AT Eq(1.11)
By comparing Eq(1.10) and Eq(1.11) it seen that Fm (mmf), (flux) and S (reluctance) are
analogous to E (emf), I (current) and R (resistance) respectively. Now we can develop an
equation for S. From Eq(1.11)
F m
S (AT/Wb) Eq(1.12)
Substituting for Fm from Eq(1.6) and for from Eq(1.1) we have
NI
S (AT/Wb) Eq(1.13)
BA
Now we can replace NI by H ℓ (see Eq(1.7)) and Eq(1.13) becomes

H 
S (AT/Wb) Eq(1.14)
BA
If the denominator and numerator of Eq(1.14) are both divided by H we have
 m m At
S B (Wb / m 2 )
2 Wb m 2 Wb At / Wb Eq(1.15)
A m m
H ( At / m) m 2 AT
Now the ratio B/H is the permeability of the material considered and therefore the equation for
reluctance S becomes
  m m
S or At / Wb Eq(1.16)
A A (Wb / mAt )m 2 Wb 2
0 r
m
mAT
2
Here it is noted that ℓ is the length in meters and that A is the cross sectional area in m .
1.6.1 Comparison of the electric and magnetic circuits
It is helpful to present various electric and magnetic quantities and their relationship in tabular
form and such a table is given in Table(1.1). It is noted that the same symbol E is used to
denote the electromotive force emf and the electric filed strength, which may be confusing at
times. Normally bold letter E is used to represent the electric filed strength and care must be
taken in using this symbol.

This document is...
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
Quantity Units Quantity Units
Emf (E) Volt(V) Mmf (Fm) Ampere turns(AT)
Electric field strength Volts per meter (V/m) Magnetic filed Ampere turns per
(E)
Current (I)
Equivalent to emf per
Ampere (A)
strength (H)
Magnetic flux ( )
Equivalent to mmf
meter (AT/m)
Weber (Wb)  Useful  Not useful
resistance per reluctance
Current density Ampere per squared Flux density (B) Tesla or Weber per
2
meter (A/m ) squared meter
2
(Wb/m )
Resistance (R) Ohm ( ) Reluctance (S) Ampere turns per
Weber (AT/Wb)

Table(1.1).Electric and magnetic circuit parameters


Example 1.5
2
The radius and the cross sectional area of a mild steel ring are 5 cm and 400 mm
respectively. A current of 0.5 A flows in a coil wound around the ring and the flux produced is
0.1 mWb. Calculate (a) the reluctance of mild steel and (b) the number of turns of the coil if
the relative permeability is 200.
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Solution 1.5
Here
-2
Length of the ring ℓ = 2 r = 2 (5 10 ) m,
-6 2
Cross sectional area A = 400 10 m
Current I in the coil = 0.5 A

-3
Flux = 0.1 10 Wb
Relative permeability r = 200
(a) From Eq(1.16)
2
 2 5 10
S 7 6
0 A
r 4 10 200 400 10
2 7
5 10 5 10
7
3.125 10 6 AT / Wb
2 10 2 4 10 2 16
Basic Transformer swinburne'S Test (b) From Eq(1.11)

Network Analysis - Mutual Induction Lab manual of 1st solved problems
Notes on DC shunt… F S ECE m 3.125- 3rd
10 0Sem
.1 10 -…
0.3125 10 Experiment
312.5 ( AT ) 6 3 3
year mechanica… in electric motors
and from Eq(1.7)
F m NI
F m 312.5
N 625 (turns)
I 0.5
Example 1.6
A coil of 300 turns is wound uniformly over an iron ring having a uniform cross sectional area
2
of 500 mm and a mean circumference of 400 mm. If the coil has a resistance of 8 and is
connected across a 20 V dc supply, calculate the required mmf, H, and S. Assume that r is
950.
Solution 1.6
Here
Current I in the coil = 20 8 = 2.5 A

Length of the ring ℓ = 0.4 m,
-6 2
Cross sectional area A = 500 10 m
Number of turns = 300
Relative permeability r = 950
(i)
F m NI 300
2.5 750 AT
(ii)
H NI 750 1875 ( AT / m)

 0.4
(iii) From Eq(1.9)
B
0 r
H
7
B 0 H
r 4 10 900 1875 4 0.9 0.1875 2.12 Wb / m 2
This gives as
6 6
BA 2.12 500 10 1060 10 1.06 mWb
(iv) From Eq(1.12)
F m 750
S
3
707 .355 103 AT / Wb
1.06 10
1.7 Composite magnetic circuit

Consider a magnetic circuit which consists of two specimens of iron arranged as shown in
Fig(1.11). Let ℓ1 and ℓ2 be the mean lengths of specimen 1 and specimen2 in meters, A 1 and
A2 be their respective cross sectional areas in square meters, and 1 and 2 be their
respective relative permeabilities.
The reluctance of specimen 1 is given as
1
S 1 ( AT / Wb) Eq(1.17)
0 1
A1
and that for specimen 2 is
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Network
0 A

Analysis -
( AT / Wb)
2 2 Mutual Induction
Eq(1.18)
Lab manual of 1st solved problems
Notes on DC shunt… ECE - 3rd Sem -… Specimen 1 Experiment year mechanica… in electric motors
ℓ1
A1
A2
Specimen 2
ℓ1
Fig(1.11) Composite magnetic circuit
If a coil of N turns carrying a current I is wound on the specimen 1 and if the magnetic flux is
assumed to be confined to iron core then the total reluctance is given by the sum of the
individual reluctances S 1 and S2. This is equivalent to adding the resistances of a series
circuit. Thus the total reluctance is given by
1 2
S S 1 S 2 AT / Wb Eq(1.19)
0 1 A1 0 2 A2
and the total flux is
mmf NI AT
Wb Eq(1.20)
S 1 2 ( AT / Wb)
0 1 A1 0 2 A2
Example 1.7
A closed magnetic circuit made out of mild steel consists of two parts. The mean length of first
2
part is 6 cm and its cross sectional area is 1 cm . The second part is 2 cm long having a cross
2
sectional area is 0.5 cm . A coil of 200 turns carrying a current of 0.4 A is wound uniformly
over the first part of the circuit. Calculate the flux density in the second path if the relative
permeability of mild steel is 750.
Solution 1.7
Here
Length of part 1 ℓ1 = 6 cm = 0.06 m

Length of part 2 ℓ2 = 2 cm = 0.02 m
2 -4 2
Cross sectional area of part 1 A 1 = 1 cm = 1 10 m
2 -4 2
Cross sectional area of part 2 A 2 = 0.5 cm = 0.5 10 m
Current I in the coil = 0.4 A
Relative permeability of both parts r = 750
Reluctance of part 1 is
2
1 6 10 6 10 7
S 1 7
4
6.366 105 AT / Wb
0 1 A1 4 10 750 1 10 4 7.5
and that for specimen 2 is
2 7

S 2 2
7 2 10 4 2 10 4.244 105 AT / Wb
0 A2 4 10 750 0.5 10 4 3.75
Therefore the total reluctance is
S S 1 S 2 (6.366 ) 10 5

4.244 10.61 10 5 AT / Wb
Therefore the total flux is
mmf 200 0.4 5
S 10.61 105 7 .54 10 Wb
Therefore the total flux density in part 2 is

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5
7.54 10
B 4
1.508 Wb / m 2
A2 0.5 10
Example 1.8  Useful  Not useful

The iron core of a magnetic circuit which has an air gap in it is shown in Fig(1.12). The length
2
ℓ1 of the iron is 40 cm and its cross sectional area is 0.001 m and its relative permeability is
850. The length ℓ2 of the air gap is 1 mm. The iron core is wound with a coil of 2000 turns and
the current flow in the coil produces a flux in the air gap of 1.5 mWb. Assuming all the flux in
the iron passes through the air gap calculate
the iron passes through the air gap calculate

(a) the reluctance of the iron path

(b) the reluctance of the air gap

(c) the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit
(d) the mmf needed to produce the flux 
(e)the
(f) theflux
fluxdensity
densityin
inthe
theiron
air gap
(g) the magnetic field strength in the air gap
(h) the magnetic field strength in the iron
(i) the current in the coil
ℓ1
Download Now I
Air gap

ℓ2
N

Fig(1.12) Magnetic circuit with an air gap
Notes on DC shunt…

ECE - 3rd Sem -… Experiment year mechanica… in electric motors
Solution 1.8
Length of iron ℓ1 = 40 cm = 0.4 m

Length of air gap ℓ2 = 1 mm = 0.001 m
2
Area of iron and air gap = 0.001 m
Flux in the iron and air gap = 1.5 mWb
Relative permeability of iron r = 850
(a)
S 1 1 0.4 4 107 6

0.374 10 AT / Wb
7
0 1 A 4 10 850 0.001 4 8.5
(b) As r for air is 1
7
2 0.001 1 10

S 2 7
0.796 106 AT / Wb
0 A 4 10 0.001 4
(c) Therefore the total reluctance is
S S 1 S 2 (0.374 ) 10 6

0.796 1.17 10 6 AT / Wb
(d) Therefore the total mmf is
mmf S 6 1.5 10
1.17 10 3
1755 AT
(e) Flux density of air gap is
3
1.5 10 2
B2 A 0.001 1.5 Wb / m or T (tesla)
(f) As same flux pass through iron core flux density of iron is the same as that of air gap.
(g) Magnetic field strength H 2 of air gap is
B 1.5
H 2
7
1 .194 10 6 AT / m
0 4 10
(h) Magnetic field strength H 1 of iron is

B 1.5 1.194 106
H 1 7
1404 AT / m
0 r 4 10 850 850
(i) Current in the coil is
mmf 1755
I 0.8775 A
N 2000
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EN1560-Introduction to Electrical Engineering

1.1 Magnetic field

The distribution of a magnetic field can be demonstrated by the following experiment. A

Lines of magnetic flux

Fig(1.1) Lines of magnetic flux

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Fig(1.2)(a) Attraction between Fig(1.2)(b) Repulsion between

1.2 Magnetic flux and flux density B

another way of defining the units of flux density B.

Cross sectional area A is

Fig(1.3) Magnet with air gap

A fundamental law of electromagnetism is that a magnetic field is produced around a

Basic Transformer swinburne'S Test Network Analysis - Mutual

1.3.2 Ampere’s Law

Conductor Unit pole

Fig(1.5) Closed path enclosing a

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1.4 Magnetomotive force mmf Fm

Basic Transformer swinburne'S Test Network Analysis - I Amp

Fig(1.7) A coil with N turns

Therefore we can write an equation for F m as

mmf F m NI (ampere - turns or AT) Eq(1.6)

1.5 Permeability and B-H curves

The absolute permeability of a ferromagnetic material is expressed in relation to the

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Flux Density B (Wb/m )

Fig(1.9) B-H curves for different

A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden

(a) From Eq(1.7)

NI 200 4 2000 4

(c) Using Eq(1.1)

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Therefore from Eq(1.7) mmf is

Download Now mmf NI H  0.398 10 7

Fig(1.10) Analogy between magnetic and

Copyright 2006 by Dr G W D M Gunawardene, © 2011 G Dunbar

E V IR volts Eq(1.10)

Substituting for Fm from Eq(1.6) and for from Eq(1.1) we have

Now we can replace NI by H ℓ (see Eq(1.7)) and Eq(1.13) becomes

If the denominator and numerator of Eq(1.14) are both divided by H we have

1.6.1 Comparison of the electric and magnetic circuits

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Basic Transformer swinburne'S Test (b) From Eq(1.11)

Current I in the coil = 20 8 = 2.5 A

H NI 750 1875 ( AT / m)

(iii) From Eq(1.9)

(iv) From Eq(1.12)

1.7 Composite magnetic circuit

The reluctance of specimen 1 is given as

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Basic Transformer swinburne'S Test S 2

Fig(1.11) Composite magnetic circuit

Length of part 1 ℓ1 = 6 cm = 0.06 m

and that for specimen 2 is

Therefore the total reluctance is

S S 1 S 2 (6.366 ) 10 5

Therefore the total flux is

mmf 200 0.4 5

S 10.61 105 7 .54 10 Wb