1.

INTRODUCTION
Damage detection and location, and condition assessment of structures have always been
important subjects. Damage in a structure generally causes a local increase in flexibility,
which depends on the extent of the damage. This reduces the natural frequencies of vibration
and affects the natural mode shapes -effects which have been used, with somewhat mixed
success, to evaluate the deterioration [1].
Cracks present a serious threat to the performance of structures since most of the structural
failures are due to material fatigue. For this reason, methods allowing early detection and
localization of cracks have been the subject of intensive investigation the last two decades.
As a result, a variety of analytical, numerical and experimental investigations now exist. A
review of the state of the art of vibration based methods for testing cracked structures has
been published by Dimarogonas (1996).
The most important aspects of structural health monitoring is that the technique provides
information on the life expectancy of structures, simultaneously detects and locates structural
damage. This needs idea of the model of structures in great detail, which is always not
possible .In addition to it, dynamic systems usually posses non-linear characteristics, which
causes practical difficulties on the model-based damage detection techniques.
In the present survey a number of papers published so far have been surveyed, reviewed and
analyzed. Most of researchers studied the effect of single crack on the dynamics of structures
.However in actual practice structural members are highly susceptible to transverse
crosssectional cracks due to fatigue. Therefore attempt has been made to monitor the dynamic
behavior of basic structures with crack systematically. Here vibration analysis on a cantilever
beam with and without crack is carried out. First the results are obtained analytically and then
they are compared with simulation results. In first phase two transverse surface cracks are
considered in developing the analytical expressions in dynamic characteristics of structures
.These cracks introduce new boundary conditions for the structures at the location of the
cracks. These boundary conditions are derived from strain energy equation using
castiligiano’s theorem. Presence of crack also causes reduction of stiffness of the structures
which has been derived from stiffness matrix. The detailed analyses of crack modeling and
stiffness matrices are presented in subsequent sections. Euler-Bernoulli beam theory is used
for dynamic characteristics of beams with transverse cracks. Modified boundary conditions
due to presence of crack have been used to find out the theoretical expressions for natural
frequencies and mode shape for the beams.
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) has emerged as a promising tool for monitoring and
classification of fault in machine and equipment. This technique is well prepared for solving
inverse variational problems in the context of monitoring and fault detection because of their
pattern recognition and interpolation capabilities (Lopes, Jr. et al., 1997). ANN also
successfully approach and classify the problems associated with non-linearities, provided
they are well represented by input patterns, and also can avoid the complexity introduced by
conventional computational methods. Furthermore, the learning capabilities of neural
networks are well suited to process a large number of distributed sensors, which is ideal for
smart structures.
In this study a feed-forward back-propagation neural network is used to learn the input (the
location and depth of a crack)-output (the structural eigen frequencies) relation of the
structural system. A neural network for the cracked structure is trained to approximate the
response of the structure by the data set prepared for various crack sizes and locations.

1.1VIBRATION BASED SHM TECHNIQUES

The principle behind vibration-based damage detection techniques is that damage

causes local discontinuities in structural stiffness and/or variations in damping properties
which affect a structure’s dynamic characteristics and modal parameters, namely, natural
frequencies, mode shapes and damping, by monitoring which the incidence of damage in a
structure can be identified. Vibration-based methods have the advantage that, in general,
dynamic parameters can be easily and continuously extracted from the vibrations of operating
machines, especially aircraft. Although there are many different vibration-monitoring
methods, depending on the parameters to be monitored and the way in which the data is to be
analyzed to extract the damage parameters, in general, they can be broadly classified into
time domain methods, in which the dynamic response of a structure is monitored in the time
domain and analyzed for sudden variations, and methods based on modal parameters
(frequencies, mode shapes and damping). An overview of these different categories is
presented in the sub-sections below, noting that the research in this thesis is focused on
frequency-based vibration monitoring.
1.1.1 Time response methods

Techniques based on time domain data are extensively used as a means of damage
detection since their measurements are always taken in the time domain. These methods are
regarded as highly sensitive to damage since they use raw data and can detect damaged
situations both globally and locally by changing their input frequencies. Apart from input into
system identification, time domain data can also be broken down into a two-dimensional
function of time and frequency, and use wavelet analysis for fault detection, or as a signal
processing tool for filtering noise.

1.1.2. Mode shape methods

As a mode shape contains spatial information about structural changes, a damage
location may be detected straightforwardly from its measurement Instead of 9 mode shape
deflections, comparison of mode shape curvatures is reported to be more reliable and useful,
since curvature is directly proportional to bending stiffness and discontinuities in stiffness
directly show up as discontinuities in curvatures. Identifying both the severity and location of
damage, Pandey et al. 1990 first proposed a curvature mode shape to identify and locate
damage in structures. Since curvature is proportional to the bending strain, mode shape
curvatures can be obtained by directly measuring strains instead of differentiating
displacement values which is subject to numerical errors. Despite the advantage of providing
spatial information regarding the location of damage, mode shape methods have several
drawbacks. Firstly, as measurements have to be taken over the entire surface of a structure,
this requires either a grid of sensors or the movement of a single sensor from point to point
between measurements which can be quite time consuming and labour intensive. Secondly,
as variations in mode shape deflections due to damage can be quite small, damage signatures
can be lost in the noise and scatter in the measurements. Thirdly, in practical SHM, obtaining
mode shapes from ambient response measurements is particularly difficult because the
excitation force is difficult to determine.

1.1.3. Damping based methods

The initiation of damage as well as its growth can cause significant damping changes
in a structure. Damping ratio measurements have been found to be highly sensitive to very
small abnormalities which is of interest to the SHM community. However, damping
mechanisms in composites are entirely different from those in traditional materials such as
metals and alloys. Damping coefficients are influenced by boundary conditions and
environmental factors such as humidity and temperature and, in laminated composites,
damping is a function of the material properties of the fibre and matrix as well as the ply
orientation, stacking sequence, frequencies and mode shapes. Due to the complexities of
modelling damping, as well as the influence of numerous factors on its measurements,
damping has not yet been used successfully for delamination detection in composites. 10

1.1.4. Frequency based Methods

As mentioned in the foregoing subsections, mode shape methods require

measurements at multiple locations and are susceptible to measurement noise which may
drown the damage signature while damping measurements are notoriously difficult and
sensitive to variations in environmental conditions. In comparison, frequency-based vibration
techniques facilitate global monitoring, mostly require only a single point measurement, can
be implemented easily even on existing structures, and provide reliable and accurate data.
Furthermore, in structures such as aircraft, they do not need an external source for excitation.
For these reasons, frequency-based methods are promising for implementation as SHM
systems. As previously mentioned, frequency monitoring is already utilized in many
applications for condition monitoring and fault detection, especially in rotating machinery.
Since damage causes a reduction in stiffness, any significant level of damage causes
appreciable and permanent reductions in the natural frequencies of a structure. Thus,
detection of damage using frequency monitoring is straightforward and relatively easy to
accomplish. However, frequency shifts do not directly indicate either the location or size of
damage since different combinations of damage type, size and location can produce the
same amount of frequency shift in any particular mode. The assessment of damage
parameters from measured frequency shifts is often referred to as the ‘solution to the
inverse problem’. Employing theoretical or finite element models to generate forward data,
i.e., frequency shifts in multiple modes caused by a range of damage with known
parameters, the solution to the inverse problem essentially consists of comparing the
measured frequency shifts with their calculated values in the database to predict the
geometric parameters of the damage being assessed. Early applications of damage
assessment using frequency measurements which focused on assessing cracks in metallic
beams and rods employed graphical approaches to solve the inverse problem. More recent
developments, especially for assessing delaminations in composites, involve the use of
artificial intelligence techniques, such as genetic algorithms (GAs) and artificial neural
networks (ANNs).
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Local flexibility are induced due to the presence of cracks in the structure which
affects the dynamic behavior of the whole structure to a considerable degree. It causes
reduction in natural frequencies and changes in mode shapes of vibrations. Any analysis of
these changes makes it possible to identify cracks.

The effect of cracks upon the dynamic behavior of cracked beams has been studied by many
authors. Dimarogonas , Chondros [1] modeled the crack as a local flexibility computed with
fracture mechanics methods and measured experimentally, and they developed a spectral
method to identify cracks in various structures relating the crack depth to the change in
natural frequencies of the first three harmonics of the structure for known crack position.

A.K. Pandey and Biswas 1991 [2] In the analytical and experimental cases studied, change in
flexibility matrix appears to be successful in identifying and locating the damage. The
success of the proposed method or experimental data demonstrates the practical applicability
of this method one real life structure. The proposed method works based when damaged is
located at a section where high bending moment occur, which also happen to be the probable
location of occurrence of such a damage . The paper also showed how change in flexibility is
affected by different support condition.

Dimitrina Kindova-Petrova [3] Two methods for crack detection in a simply supported beam
of rectan- gular cross section have been presented. The accuracy of the methods depends
predominantly on the change in the frequency of the cracked beam compared to the
frequency of the uncracked one. The error increases when the crack is close to the supports of
the beam and when the crack depth has a relatively small value. In general, the first method
presented gives results with higher accuracy, than the results of the second method presented.
Suh et al. [4] has proved that a crack has a significant effect on the dynamic behavior of a
structure. The location and depth of the crack plays an important role. To find out the location
and depth of a crack on a structure, a method is cited in this paper which uses hybrid
neurogenetic technique. Feed-forward back propagation neural networks are used to learn the
input and output relation of the structural system. With this trained neural network, genetic
algorithm is used to find out the crack location and depth thus minimizing the difference from
the measured frequencies.

Behera [30] in his research work has developed the theoretical expressions to find out the
natural frequencies and mode shapes for the cantilever beam with two transverse cracks.
Experiments have been conducted to prove the authenticity of the theory developed
 3.CRACK THEORY

3.1 Physical parameters affecting Dynamic characteristics of cracked

structures:

The dynamic response of a structure is normally determined by the physical

properties, boundary conditions and the material properties. The changes in dynamic
characteristics of structures are caused by their variations. The presence of a crack in
structures also modifies its dynamic behavior. The following properties of the crack
influence the dynamic response of the structure.
• The depth of crack
• The location of crack
• The orientation of crack
• The number of cracks
3.2 Classification of cracks
On the basis of geometry, cracks can be broadly classified into:
• Transverse cracks- These cracks are perpendicular to the beam axis. Due to transverse
cracks the cross-section of the structure got reduced and thus weaken the beam. Due to the
reduction in the cross-section it introduces a local flexibility in the stiffness of the beam due
to strain energy concentration in the vicinity of the crack tip.

• Longitudinal cracks- These cracks are parallel to the beam axis. It is dangerous when
tensile load is applied at right angles to the crack direction i.e. perpendicular to beam axis or
perpendicular to crack.

• Slant cracks- These cracks are at an angle to the beam axis. It influences the torsional
behavior of the beam. Their effect on lateral vibrations is less than that of transverse cracks of
comparable severity.
• Breathing cracks-These are the cracks that open when the affected part of the material is
subjected to tensile stresses and close when the stress is reversed. When under tension the
stiffness of the component is most influenced. A crack breathes when crack sizes are small,
running speeds are low and radial forces are large.
• Gaping cracks- These cracks always remain open. They are more accurately known as
notches.

• Surface cracks- These are the cracks that open on the surface. These can be easily detected
by dye-penetrations or visual inspection. Surface cracks have a greater effect than subsurface
cracks on the vibration behavior of shafts.

• Subsurface cracks- These are the cracks that are not on the surface. Special techniques
such as ultrasonic, magnetic particle, radiography or shaft voltage drop are needed to detect
them.
 4.Artificial neural networks

4.1 Introduction of Artificial neural networks (ANN)

This part of the research work presents an introduction to fundamental neural network
structures for predicting the crack in a shaft with different end condition including training
rules. The anatomy of the human body consists of the sets of neurons connected with multiple
organic neural networks to provide better helps for different variety of output as that of
driving, breathing, and thinking Usually, the neurons are supposed to collect the organic
neural functions accompanying with their memories and training of the neural conformity to
develop a new link between the neurons. ANN is collected by a huge quantity of interrelated
processing elements (neurons) functioning in parallel to work out for particular applications,
such as pattern recognition or data classification, through a learning procedure. The
biological system involves an adjustment for learning procedure with varying the synaptic
weights that exist between the neurons. The main characteristic property of artificial neural
network (ANN) is to generate knowledge processing technique for a given structure. The
ANN can be used as an alternative effective tool for solving the inverse engineering problems
because of the pattern-matching capability. The results of ANN are quite encouraging and
prove the robustness of the proposed damage assessment algorithm.
A neural network is classified on the basis of the model synaptic inter connections
,the learning rule adopted and the activation functions used in the neural network. Based on
the synaptic interconnections, a multi-layer perception model has been chosen for the
research purpose. Now, depending on the process of learning a neural network, it is classified
as a supervised learning network, unsupervised learning network and reinforced learning
network. Supervised learning process requires a set of already known values to train the
network and hence find out the output. From the set of values obtained by monitoring the
vibrational characteristics of the cracked shaft and subjecting it to finite element modelling ,
the corresponding values are trained to the network. The most commonly used ANN is feed
forward back propagation neural network (FFBP), which is a supervised learning network.
The FFBP is better suited for prediction type problem while147unsupervised (categorical)
learning ANNs is generally used for classification problems. Back propagation uses gradient
descent laws, categorical, uses Kohonen learning laws. Determination of appropriate network
architecture (geometry) is one of the most important and difficult tasks in the model building
process. A back propagation neural network controller has been developed for detection of
the relative crack location and relative crack depth. The typical neural network architecture is
shown in Figure.