1

CFD Open Series - Patch 1.86.1

Essentials of Turbo
Machinery in CFD
Edited and Adapted By :
Ideen Sadrehaghighi, Ph.D.

Unsteady
Unsteady
Flow in
Flow in Axial
Radial
Turbomachines
Turbomachines
(ANSYS)
(ANSYS)
Blade
Interaction
(NUMECA)
Goldman
Annular
Turbine
Cascade
(NASA-TGRID)

ANNAPOLIS, MD
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
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Table of Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 17

2 Preliminary Concepts in Rotating Machinery ................................................................. 19

2.1 Vortex ....................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Properties of Vortex Flow................................................................................................................................ 19
2.2.1 Vorticity ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2 Vortex Types ............................................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.2.1 Rigid-Body Vortex ..................................................................................................................... 20
2.2.2.2 Irrotational Vortex .................................................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Vortex Geometry .................................................................................................................................... 20
2.2.4 Pressure in Vortex ................................................................................................................................. 21
2.3 Impeller ................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.1 Types of Impeller ................................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.2 Flow Characteristics for Impeller.................................................................................................... 22
2.3.3 Mixing Tanks ............................................................................................................................................ 23
2.3.4 Axial Impellers ........................................................................................................................................ 24
2.3.5 Radial Impellers...................................................................................................................................... 24
2.3.6 Power Number for Impeller .............................................................................................................. 24
2.4 Pumps ...................................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.4.1 Types of Pumps....................................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.2 Axial-Flow Pumps vs. Centrifugal Pumps .................................................................................... 26
2.5 Some Physics on Rotating Disks Flow ........................................................................................................ 26
2.5.1 Experimental Set-Up............................................................................................................................. 26
2.5.1.1 Recirculating Flow .................................................................................................................... 27
2.5.1.2 Instability Flow Patterns ........................................................................................................ 27
2.1 Discussion on Effects Swept and Dihedral Blades ................................................................................. 29
2.2 Harnessing the Wind Energy via Wind Turbine..................................................................................... 30
2.2.1 Definitions & Preliminaries ............................................................................................................... 30
2.2.2 A Historical Perspective ...................................................................................................................... 31
2.2.3 Types of Wind Turbines ..................................................................................................................... 33
2.2.3.1 Horizontal Axis ........................................................................................................................... 33
2.2.3.2 Vertical Axis ................................................................................................................................. 34
2.2.3.3 Darrieus Wind Turbine ........................................................................................................... 34
2.2.3.4 Giromill .......................................................................................................................................... 34
2.2.3.5 Savonius Wind Turbine .......................................................................................................... 34
2.2.3.6 Parallel ........................................................................................................................................... 35
2.2.4 References................................................................................................................................................. 35
2.2.5 Wind Turbine Working Principle .................................................................................................... 37
2.2.5.1 Airfoils and Blade Design ....................................................................................................... 38
2.2.5.2 Blade Twist .................................................................................................................................. 39
2.2.5.3 Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) ............................................................................................................. 39
2.2.5.4 Wind Turbine Operation ........................................................................................................ 40
2.2.5.5 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics ............................................................................................... 41
2.2.5.6 Actuator Disk Concept ............................................................................................................. 41
2.2.6 Case Study - Flow Around a Wind Turbine ................................................................................. 42
2.2.6.1 Near-Wake ................................................................................................................................... 44
2.2.6.1.1 Tip and Root Vortices...................................................................................... 44
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2.2.6.1.2 Hub Vortex ...................................................................................................... 45

2.2.6.1.3 Mean Flow Distribution .................................................................................. 45
2.2.6.2 Far-Wake....................................................................................................................................... 46
2.2.6.2.1 Mean Flow Velocity Distribution .................................................................... 46
2.2.6.2.2 Turbulence Distribution .................................................................................. 47
2.2.6.2.3 Streamwise Turbulence Intensity ................................................................... 47
2.2.6.2.4 Turbulent Momentum Flux............................................................................. 48
2.2.6.2.5 Turbulence Kinetic Energy (TKE) ..................................................................... 49
2.2.7 Wake Twisting......................................................................................................................................... 49
2.2.7.1 Analytical Wake Modelling .................................................................................................... 50
2.2.7.2 Summary & Conclusions......................................................................................................... 53
2.2.8 References................................................................................................................................................. 54

3 Conservation of Angular Momentum & Rotating Reference Frame ........................ 57

3.1 Flow in Rotating Reference Frame .............................................................................................................. 57
3.1.1 Centrifugal & Coriolis Forces ............................................................................................................ 58
3.1.2 Relative Velocity Formulation .......................................................................................................... 58
3.1.3 Absolute Velocity Formulation......................................................................................................... 59
3.1.4 Early Formulation and Consideration ........................................................................................... 59
3.2 Flows with Rotating Reference Frames ..................................................................................................... 59
3.2.1 Single Rotating Reference Frame (SRF) Modeling ................................................................... 60
3.2.1.1 Case Study - Aerodynamics and Structural Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade . 61
3.2.1.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 61
3.2.1.1.2 Airfoils and General Concepts of Aerodynamics ............................................ 62
3.2.1.1.3 Lift, Drag and Non-Dimensional Parameters .................................................. 62
3.2.1.1.4 Blade Element Momentum (BEM) Theory ..................................................... 64
3.2.1.1.5 Aerodynamic Load .......................................................................................... 64
3.2.1.1.6 Blade Geometry .............................................................................................. 64
3.2.1.1.7 Mathematic Model ......................................................................................... 65
3.2.1.1.8 Turbulence Model........................................................................................... 65
3.2.1.1.9 Mesh Generation ............................................................................................ 66
3.2.1.1.10 Result and Discussion ................................................................................... 67
3.2.1.1.11 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 68
3.2.2 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames (MRF)............................................................... 68
3.2.2.1 Case Study – Mixing Tank ...................................................................................................... 69
3.2.3 The MRF Interface Formulation....................................................................................................... 70
3.2.3.1 Interface Treatment: Relative Velocity Formulation.................................................. 70
3.2.3.2 Interface Treatment: Absolute Velocity Formulation ................................................ 70
3.2.3.3 Case Study - Experiments and CFD Calculations on the Performance of a Non-
Reversible Axial Fan .......................................................................................................................................... 71
3.2.3.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 71
3.2.3.3.2 Experimental Method ..................................................................................... 72
3.2.3.3.3 Numerical Method.......................................................................................... 72
3.2.3.3.4 Results and Discussion .................................................................................... 74
3.2.3.3.5 Conclusion....................................................................................................... 75
3.3 The Mixing Plane Model (MPM) .................................................................................................................... 76
3.3.1 Rotor and Stator Domains .................................................................................................................. 76
3.3.2 The Mixing Plane Concept .................................................................................................................. 77
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3.3.3 Mixing Plane Algorithm ....................................................................................................................... 78

3.3.3.1 Mass Conservation Across the Mixing Plane.................................................................. 78
3.4 Sliding Mesh Modeling ...................................................................................................................................... 78
3.4.1 Sliding Mesh Theory ............................................................................................................................. 79
3.4.2 The Sliding Mesh Technique ............................................................................................................. 79
3.4.3 Sliding Mesh Concept ........................................................................................................................... 80

4 Elements of Turbomachinery ............................................................................................... 82

4.1 Background............................................................................................................................................................ 82
4.2 Historical Perspectives ..................................................................................................................................... 83
4.3 Modern Turbomachinery as Related to Gas Turbine Engine ............................................................ 83
4.4 Difference Among Turbojet, Turbofan and Turboprop Engines in Aviation .............................. 84
4.4.1 Turbojet ..................................................................................................................................................... 85
4.4.2 Turbofan .................................................................................................................................................... 85
4.4.3 Turboprop ................................................................................................................................................. 86
4.4.4 How does it work? ................................................................................................................................. 87
4.4.5 What is Thrust? ....................................................................................................................................... 88
4.5 Gas Turbine Performance ................................................................................................................................ 89
4.6 Gas Compressors ................................................................................................................................................. 90
4.6.1 Axial-Flow Compressors ..................................................................................................................... 90
4.6.2 Centrifugal Compressors .................................................................................................................... 90
4.7 Nomenclature of Terms .................................................................................................................................... 91
4.8 Component of Gas Turbine Engine .............................................................................................................. 94
4.8.1 Inlet .............................................................................................................................................................. 94
4.8.2 Axial Compressor ................................................................................................................................... 94
4.8.3 Diffuser ....................................................................................................................................................... 97
4.8.4 Nozzle ......................................................................................................................................................... 98
4.8.5 Combustor................................................................................................................................................. 98
4.8.6 Axial Gas Turbine ................................................................................................................................... 99
4.9 Difference in Blading Between Compressor and Turbine ............................................................... 100
4.10 Velocity Triangles in Turbomachines ...................................................................................................... 101
4.11 Energy Exchange with Moving Blades..................................................................................................... 101
4.11.1 Euler’s Equation for Turbomachinery ....................................................................................... 102
4.12 Compressors and their Reaction to Intake Distortion ...................................................................... 103
4.13 Effects of Turbine Temperature................................................................................................................. 105
4.14 Compressor and Turbine Characteristics .............................................................................................. 107
4.14.1 Stall ........................................................................................................................................................... 107
4.14.2 Compressor Surge .............................................................................................................................. 108
4.14.3 Choked Flow.......................................................................................................................................... 109
4.15 Other Types of Turbines ............................................................................................................................... 109

5 Primary Research in Turbomachinery........................................................................... 110

5.1 Research Spectrum .......................................................................................................................................... 110
5.2 Application of CFD in Turbomachinery .................................................................................................. 111
5.3 Quasi 3D Flow (Q3D) ...................................................................................................................................... 111
5.3.1 Stream Surface of Second Kind - Through Flow (S2) ........................................................... 112
5.3.2 Stream Surface of First Kind (Blade 2 Blade – S1) ................................................................ 113
5.3.3 Case Study – Turbine Airfoil Optimization Using Inviscid Quasi 3D (Q3D) Analysis
Codes 114
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5.3.3.1 Quasi-3D CFD Analysis and Results ................................................................................ 115

5.4 Theory of Radial Equilibrium in Through Flow (Cr = 0) .................................................................. 117
5.5 Governing Equation of Rotating Frame of Reference ....................................................................... 118
5.6 Efficiency Effects in Turbomachinery...................................................................................................... 120
5.6.1 Isentropic Efficiency .......................................................................................................................... 120
5.7 Case Study 1 – Computation of Heat Transfer in Linear Turbine Cascade............................... 122
Numerical Methods ............................................................................................................................ 122
Mesh Generation ................................................................................................................................. 123
Heat Transfer Results for 2D & 3D .............................................................................................. 124
Experimental Data .............................................................................................................................. 125
Effects of Turbulence ......................................................................................................................... 125
5.8 Case Study 2 - Using Shock Control Bumps To Improve Transonic Compressor Blade
Performance ................................................................................................................................................................... 127
5.8.1 Introduction and Motivation .......................................................................................................... 127
5.8.2 Shock Control for Turbomachinery & Literature Survey ................................................... 128
5.8.3 Shock Control Bumps ........................................................................................................................ 129
5.8.4 Test Case - NASA Rotor 37 .............................................................................................................. 130
5.8.5 Validation ............................................................................................................................................... 131
5.8.6 Flow Field For the Datum Case ..................................................................................................... 132
5.8.7 Validation ............................................................................................................................................... 132
5.8.8 Blade Flow Features .......................................................................................................................... 133
5.8.9 Adjoint Sensitivity Analysis ............................................................................................................ 134
5.8.10 Shock Bump Parameterization & Optimization ..................................................................... 135
5.8.11 Optimization Method......................................................................................................................... 136
5.8.12 Rotor 37 Bump Optimization ......................................................................................................... 136
5.8.13 Analysis of the R37 Optimized Bump Design .......................................................................... 137
5.8.14 Performance Across the Characteristic for R37 ..................................................................... 138
5.8.15 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 139

6 Complex Flow in Turbomachinery................................................................................... 141

6.1 Key Features of Transonic Fan (Turbine) Field .................................................................................. 141
6.2 Sources of Unsteadiness in Turbomachinery ....................................................................................... 142
6.3 Interaction of Potential Flows in Adjacent Blade Rows ................................................................... 144
6.3.1 Interactions in Transonic Fan ........................................................................................................ 145
6.4 Interaction Between Wake Flow and Blade Rows.............................................................................. 145
6.5 Interaction Between Secondary Flows and Blade Rows.................................................................. 145
6.6 Wake-Boundary Layer Interaction ........................................................................................................... 146
6.7 Un-shrouded Tip Leakage Flow Interaction ......................................................................................... 147
6.8 General Review on Secondary Flows ....................................................................................................... 148
6.8.1 Classical View ....................................................................................................................................... 149
6.8.2 Modern View ......................................................................................................................................... 150
6.8.3 Latest View ............................................................................................................................................ 152
6.8.4 Comparing and Contrasting Secondry Flow in Turbine and Compressors................. 153
6.9 3D Separation .................................................................................................................................................... 154
6.9.1 Compressors Example ...................................................................................................................... 155
6.10 Airfoil End-Wall Heat Transfer ................................................................................................................... 156
6.10.1 Theoretical Development of End-Wall Flows.......................................................................... 157
6.10.2 End-Wall Heat Transfer.................................................................................................................... 159
6.10.3 Leading Edge Modifications............................................................................................................ 160
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6.10.4 Blade Tip Heat Transfer ................................................................................................................... 161

6.10.5 Case Study 1 - Effects of Grid Refinement and Turbulence in 3D Flow Structure and
End-Wall Heat Transfer in Transonic Turbine Blade Cascade ............................................................ 162
6.10.5.1 Problem Definition ................................................................................................................ 162
6.10.5.2 Computational Aspects ........................................................................................................ 163
6.10.5.3 Results and Discussion......................................................................................................... 164
6.10.5.4 End-Wall Heat Transfer Sensitivity w.r.t Grid and Turbulence Models .......... 165
6.10.5.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 168
6.10.6 Case Study 2 - Comparison of Steady and Unsteady RANS Heat Transfer Simulations
of Hub and End all of a Turbine Blade Passage ......................................................................................... 168
6.10.6.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 168
6.10.6.2 Computational Method ........................................................................................................ 170
6.10.6.2.1 Boundary Conditions .................................................................................. 172
6.10.6.3 Results and Discussion......................................................................................................... 173
6.10.6.4 Heat Transfer Comparison With Open Literature .................................................... 180
6.10.6.4.1 Comparison of Casing Heat Flux With [Epstein et al.] ................................ 181
6.10.6.4.2 Comparison of Hub Heat Transfer With Tallman et al. .............................. 181
6.10.6.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 182

7 Blade Cooling ........................................................................................................................... 184

7.1 Film Cooling Effects ......................................................................................................................................... 185
7.1.1 Fundamentals of Film Cooling ....................................................................................................... 185
7.1.1.1 End-Wall Film-Cooling ......................................................................................................... 187
7.2 Blade Cooling Using Vanes in Blades ....................................................................................................... 189
7.2.1 Vane NASA C3X .................................................................................................................................... 190
7.2.2 Showered Film Type Cooling ......................................................................................................... 191
7.2.3 Complex Network of Vanes ............................................................................................................. 191
7.3 Conjugate Heat Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 191
7.3.1 Case Study - Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the P. S. of Turbine Blades ........ 192
7.3.1.1 Literature Survey ................................................................................................................... 192
7.3.1.2 CFD Modeling ........................................................................................................................... 193
7.3.1.3 Description of the Blade Computational Grids and Results for Attached Flow
194
7.3.1.4 Separated Flow with Large Separation Bubble ........................................................ 195
7.3.1.5 Inlet Flow Angle Effects ....................................................................................................... 199
7.3.1.5.1 Reynolds Number Effect ............................................................................... 200
7.3.1.6 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................. 201

8 General Perspectives on Turbulence Consideration ................................................. 203

8.1.1 Case Study - Turbulence Comparisons for a Low Pressure 1.5 Stage Test Turbine
205

9 Rotor-Stator Interaction Treatment (RST) ................................................................... 206

9.1 Physical Perspectives ..................................................................................................................................... 206
9.2 Multi-Passage vs. Multi-Stages ................................................................................................................... 207
9.3 Case for Mixing Plane Model ....................................................................................................................... 208
9.4 Steady Treatment of Interface (Mixing Plane) ..................................................................................... 209
9.4.1 Losses Across the Interface of Mixing Plane ............................................................................ 210
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9.4.2 Principles of Flux Conservation .................................................................................................... 211

9.4.3 Case Study 1 - Comparison of Flux Balanced Mixing Models on Q-1.5 Stage Rotor 67
213
9.4.4 Case Study 2 - Modeling of Secondary Flows in Single Blade Rows using Mixing
Plane Approach ....................................................................................................................................................... 215
9.4.4.1 Transonic Turbine Stage Meshing and Flow Details ............................................... 216
9.4.5 Case Study 3 - Improvement Methods for Mixing Plane Models ..................................... 217
9.4.5.1 Validation Test Case .............................................................................................................. 218
9.4.5.2 1.5 Stage Transonic Axial Compressor .......................................................................... 218
9.4.6 Frozen Rotor ......................................................................................................................................... 219
9.5 Un-Steady Treatment of Interface............................................................................................................. 220
9.5.1 Sliding Mesh (MRF) ............................................................................................................................ 220
9.5.2 Non-Linear Harmonic Balanced Method (NLHB) .................................................................. 221
9.5.3 Profile Transformation (Pitch Scaling) ...................................................................................... 222
9.5.4 Time Transformation Method (TT) using Phase-Shifted Periodic Boundary
Conditions 223
9.5.5 Revisiting Non-Linear Harmonic Balance (NLHB) Methodology.................................... 225
9.5.5.1 Temporal & Spatial Periodicity Requirement ............................................................ 225
9.5.5.2 Boundary Conditions ............................................................................................................ 226
9.5.5.3 Fourier 'Shape Correction' for Single Passage Time-Marching Solution ........ 228
9.5.5.4 Case Study 1 – 2D Compressor Stage ............................................................................. 229
9.5.5.5 Case Study 2 - 3D Flow in Turbine Cascade ................................................................ 229
9.5.6 Assessment of 2D Steady and Unsteady Adjoint Sensitivities for Rotor-Starter
Interaction 230
9.5.6.1 Case Study ................................................................................................................................. 231
9.5.6.2 Results......................................................................................................................................... 232
9.5.6.2.1 Case 1 - Subsonic Stage ................................................................................ 233
9.5.6.2.2 Case 2 - Transonic Stage ............................................................................... 233
9.5.6.3 Design Sensitivity ................................................................................................................... 234
9.5.6.3.1 Case1 - Subsonic Stage ................................................................................. 235
9.5.6.3.2 Case2 - Transonic Stage ................................................................................ 236
9.5.6.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 236
9.6 Case Study - Stator-Rotor Interaction in Axial Turbine: Flow Physics and Design
Perspective...................................................................................................................................................................... 237
9.6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 237
9.6.2 Stator-Rotor Interaction in Axial Stages .................................................................................... 239
9.6.2.1 Stator Wake-Rotor Blade Interaction .......................................................................... 239
9.6.2.2 Stator Secondary Lows-Rotor Blade Interaction ...................................................... 240
9.6.2.3 Of Design Conditions ............................................................................................................. 247
9.6.2.4 Stator Shock-Rotor Blade Interaction ............................................................................ 248
9.6.3 Design Perspective ............................................................................................................................. 250
9.6.3.1 Axial Gap .................................................................................................................................... 250
9.6.3.2 End wall Contouring and 3D Blade Geometries ........................................................ 251
9.6.3.3 Cascades Clocking .................................................................................................................. 252

10 Radial Flow ............................................................................................................................... 254

10.1 Centrifugal Compressor................................................................................................................................. 254
10.1.1 Operation Theory................................................................................................................................ 254
10.1.2 Similarities to Axial Compressor .................................................................................................. 254
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10.1.3 Components of a simple Centrifugal Compressor ................................................................. 255

10.1.3.1 Inlet .............................................................................................................................................. 255
10.1.3.2 Centrifugal Impeller .............................................................................................................. 255
10.1.3.3 Diffuser ....................................................................................................................................... 256
10.1.3.4 Collector ..................................................................................................................................... 256
10.1.4 Applications........................................................................................................................................... 257
10.1.4.1 Gas Turbines and Auxiliary Power Units ...................................................................... 257
10.1.4.2 Automotive and Diesel Engines Turbochargers and Superchargers ................ 257
10.1.4.3 Natural Gas to Move the Gas from the Production site to the Consumer ....... 257
10.1.4.4 Oil Refineries, Natural Gas Processing, Petrochemical and Chemical Plants 257
10.1.4.5 Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration and HVAC .......................................................... 257
10.1.4.6 Industry and Manufacturing to Supply Compressed Air ....................................... 257
10.1.4.7 Air Separation Plants to Manufacture Purified End Product Gases .................. 258
10.1.4.8 Oil Field Re-Injection of High Pressure Natural Gas to Improve Oil Recovery
258
10.2 Radial Turbine ................................................................................................................................................... 258
10.2.1 Advantages and Challenges ............................................................................................................ 258
10.2.2 Types of Radial Turbines ................................................................................................................. 259
10.2.2.1 Cantilever Radial Turbine ................................................................................................... 259
10.2.2.2 90 Degree IFR Turbine ......................................................................................................... 259
10.2.2.3 Outward-Flow Radial Stages ............................................................................................. 259

11 Best Practice Procedures for Turbomachinery ........................................................... 261

11.1 Quasi-3D (Q3D) or 3D Simulation ............................................................................................................. 261
11.1.1 2D Simulations ..................................................................................................................................... 261
11.1.2 Quasi-3D (Q3D) Simulation ............................................................................................................ 261
11.1.3 Full 3D Simulations ............................................................................................................................ 261
11.2 Single vs Multi-Stage Analysis .................................................................................................................... 262
11.2.1 Single Stage ............................................................................................................................................ 262
11.2.2 Multi-Stage Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 263
11.2.2.1 Steady Mixing-Plane Simulations .................................................................................... 263
11.2.2.2 Steady Frozen Rotor Simulations .................................................................................... 263
11.2.2.3 Unsteady Sliding Mesh Stator-Rotor Simulations ..................................................... 263
11.2.2.4 Unsteady Harmonic Balance Simulations .................................................................... 263
11.2.2.5 Hybrid Steady-Unsteady Stator-Rotor Simulations ................................................. 264
11.2.2.6 Other Advanced Multi-Stage Methods ........................................................................... 264
11.3 Inviscid or Viscid .............................................................................................................................................. 264
11.4 Transient or Steady-State ............................................................................................................................. 264
11.5 Meshing ................................................................................................................................................................ 266
11.5.1 Mesh Size Guidelines ......................................................................................................................... 267
11.5.2 Case Study - Mesh Resolution Effect on 3D RANS Turbomachinery Flow Simulations
268
11.5.2.1 Formulation of Problems .................................................................................................... 268
11.5.2.2 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 269
11.5.3 Boundary Mesh Resolution ............................................................................................................. 269
11.5.4 Periodic Meshing ................................................................................................................................. 270
11.6 Boundary Conditions ...................................................................................................................................... 270
11.7 Turbulence Modeling...................................................................................................................................... 272
11.8 Aero-Mechanics ................................................................................................................................................ 272
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11.8.1 Nodal Diameter .................................................................................................................................... 274

11.9 Near Wall Treatment ...................................................................................................................................... 274
11.10 Transition Prediction ..................................................................................................................................... 274
11.11 Numerical Consideration .............................................................................................................................. 275
11.12 Convergence Criteria ...................................................................................................................................... 275
11.13 Single or Double Precision ........................................................................................................................... 275
11.14 Heat Transfer Prediction .............................................................................................................................. 276
11.14.1 Keeping it Cool in Gas Turbine ...................................................................................................... 276
11.15 Literature Review and Parallel Processing Tools ............................................................................... 276
11.16 Concluding Remarks ....................................................................................................................................... 277
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Mesh Resolution and Number of Cells ........................................................................................... 73
Table 3.2 Solution Methods and Boundary Conditions ............................................................................... 74
Table 3.3 Prescribed Boundary zone for Mixing Plane ............................................................................... 77
Table 4.1 Glossary of Turbomachinery Terms ............................................................................................... 91
Table 5.1 Rotor 37 Optimized Bump Performance Comparison – Courtesy of [John et al.] ..... 137
Table 6.1 Parameters of the Grids Used ......................................................................................................... 163
Table 9.1 Rotor/Stator Interaction Schemes ................................................................................................ 207
Table 9.2 Nomenclature for different Mixing Models Used in Study.................................................. 213
Table 9.3 Axial turbine simulation parameters ........................................................................................... 231

List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Vortex created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by colored smoke ......... 19
Figure 2.2 Rigid-Body Vortex ................................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 2.3 3D Visualization of a Vortex Curve ................................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.4 A Plughole Vortex .................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 2.5 Types of Impeller .................................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 2.6 Flow Direction of Three Different Pumps/Impellers (Courtesy of Global Spec) ....... 23
Figure 2.7 A centrifugal pump uses an impeller with backward-swept arms ................................... 23
Figure 2.8 Axial Flow Impeller (left) and Radial Flow Impeller (right) ............................................... 23
Figure 2.9 Centrifugal Pumps ................................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 2.10 Sketch of the experimental set-up ............................................................................................... 27
Figure 2.11 For s ≥ 0 co-rotation at different speed ..................................................................................... 28
Figure 2.12 For s < 0 counter-rotating at different speed......................................................................... 29
Figure 2.13 Geometry of Swept and Dihedral Blades .................................................................................. 29
Figure 2.14 Experimental Pressure Iso-Surfaces ; Left - Without Sweep ;Right - With Forward
Sweep (Courtesy of RÁBAI and VAD [93])............................................................................................................ 30
Figure 3.1 Rotating Frame of Reference ............................................................................................................ 57
Figure 3.2 Centrifugal and Coriolis Force ......................................................................................................... 58
Figure 3.3 Single Blade Model with Rotationally Periodic Boundaries ................................................ 60
Figure 3.4 Airfoil Cross-Sections used in the Design of the Wind Turbine Blades .......................... 62
Figure 3.5 Typical Lift and Drag Coefficients .................................................................................................. 63
Figure 3.6 (top) Airfoils Superposed on the Wind Turbine Blade and (bottom) Top View of a
Subset of the Airfoil Cross-Sections illustrating Blade Twisting ................................................................. 65
Figure 3.7 Force Analysis for S818 Airfoil Section ........................................................................................ 66
Figure 3.8 Static Pressure, Velocity Magnitudes, Deformation and Stress Distribution ............... 67
Figure 3.9 Mixing Tank Geometry with One Rotating Impeller ............................................................... 69
Figure 3.10 Mixing Tank with Two Rotating Impellers .............................................................................. 69
Figure 3.11 Interface Treatment for the MRF Model ................................................................................... 70
Figure 3.12 An industrial axial fan used for ventilation ............................................................................. 71
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Figure 3.13 AMCA 210 test rig [8]........................................................................................................................ 72

Figure 3.14 Surface mesh of the rotating zone ............................................................................................... 73
Figure 3.15 Cell zones and boundary conditions ........................................................................................... 74
Figure 3.16 Torque vs. Volumetric Flow Rate Curves ................................................................................. 75
Figure 3.17 The streamlines inside the duct at a rotor speed of 1500 rpm ....................................... 75
Figure 3.18 Mixing Plane Concepts as Applied to Axial Rotation ........................................................... 77
Figure 3.19 Mixing Plane Concepts Applied to Radial Rotation .............................................................. 77
Figure 3.20 Illustration of Unsteady Interactions .......................................................................................... 78
Figure 3.21 Examples of Transient Interaction using Sliding Mesh ...................................................... 79
Figure 3.22 Initial position and some translation with Sliding Interface ............................................ 80
Figure 4.1 Classification of Turbomachines ..................................................................................................... 82
Figure 4.2 Component of Turbomachines and their Thermodynamic (Brayton cycle) properties
84
Figure 4.3 Turbojet Engine ..................................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 4.4 Turbofan Engine .................................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 4.5 Turboprop Engine................................................................................................................................. 86
Figure 4.6 Turboshaft Engine ................................................................................................................................ 86
Figure 4.7 Twin Pool Trubofan Jet Engine........................................................................................................ 87
Figure 4.8 A 1D Control Volume around a propulsion system (Courtesy’s of NASA Glen
Research Center) ............................................................................................................................................................. 88
Figure 4.9 Gas Compressor Types........................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 4.10 A single stage Centrifugal Compressor ...................................................................................... 90
Figure 4.11 Schematics of Axial Compressor .................................................................................................. 90
Figure 4.12 Blade Related Terminology ............................................................................................................ 94
Figure 4.13 Schematic Diagram of fluid properties through an axial compressor stage –
Courtesy of [T. B. Ferguson, Gravdahl, and Egeland] ..................................................................................... 95
Figure 4.14 Pressure and Velocity profile through a Multi-Stage Axial Compressor ..................... 96
Figure 4.15 Combustor Primary Operating Components .......................................................................... 98
Figure 4.16 Schematics of Axial Flow Turbine ............................................................................................... 99
Figure 4.17 Turbine Flow Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 99
Figure 4.18 Examples of Typical Blades for Compressor and Turbine ............................................. 100
Figure 4.19 Velocity triangles for an Axial Compressor .......................................................................... 101
Figure 4.20 Velocity Triangles in Relation to Incident Angle ................................................................ 103
Figure 4.21 Compressor Operating Map ........................................................................................................ 104
Figure 4.22 Sample engine Perssure, Velocity and Temperature variation .................................... 105
Figure 4.23 Turbine Inlet Temperature27 ...................................................................................................... 106
Figure 4.24 Characteristics Graph of a Compressor .................................................................................. 107
Figure 4.25 Illustration of the Propagation of a Stall Cell in the Relative Frame .......................... 108
Figure 4.26 Classical Compressor Surge Cycles .......................................................................................... 108
Figure 5.1 Impact of CFD on SNECMA fan performance, over a period of 30 years..................... 110
Figure 5.2 Illustration of S1 and S2 surfaces ................................................................................................ 112
Figure 5.3 Streamline Curvature Method ...................................................................................................... 113
Figure 5.4 The turbine Design Process ........................................................................................................... 115
Figure 5.5 Flow Path of the Turbine................................................................................................................. 116
Figure 5.6 Schematics of an airfoil showing stream lines along the radial direction .................. 117
Figure 5.7 3D model of an airfoil showing the passage between adjacent airfoils ....................... 117
Figure 5.8 Radial Equilibrium ............................................................................................................................. 118
Figure 5.9 Coriolis and Centripetal forces created by the Rotating Frame of Reference ........... 119
Figure 5.10 Compression process ..................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 5.11 Expansion process........................................................................................................................... 121
 11

Figure 5.12 Linear Turbine cascade and computational domain ........................................................ 122
Figure 5.13 A) Default mesh B) Refine mesh ....................... 123
Figure 5.14 Average Pressure Specification at pressure boundary .................................................... 124
Figure 5.15 Stanton Number Distribution on End-Wall .......................................................................... 125
Figure 5.16 Stanton number Distribution on Blade Surface for 2D Grid .......................................... 126
Figure 5.17 Contours Of Casing Static Pressure Beneath A High-Speed Rotor (550 M/S ......... 127
Figure 5.18 Schematic Of Shock Structures (A) Datum, (B) S-Shaped Design. Courtesy of [John
et al.] 128
Figure 5.19 Datum Geometry and Optimized Shock Control Bumps on The Mid- Section of
Nasa Rotor 67- From Mazaheri et al.. ................................................................................................................. 130
Figure 5.20 The R37 CFD Domain Used – Courtesy of [John et al.] ..................................................... 131
Figure 5.21 Radial Profiles Vs Experimental Data – Courtesy of [John et al.] ................................. 132
Figure 5.22 (a) 3d Separation (Orange) On The R37 Geometry (Flow Right To Left), (b) Rel.
Mach No. Contour At 60% Span – Courtesy of [John et al.]......................................................................... 133
Figure 5.23 Shock Region Flow Features For RR-Fan At Points A) A, B) B, C) C, D) D, E) E, F) F.
Flow Direction – Courtesy of [John et al.] .......................................................................................................... 134
Figure 5.24 Example 2d CST Bump (Solid Line) And The Four Polynomials Used To Construct
It (Dashed Lines) – Courtesy of [John et al.]...................................................................................................... 135
Figure 5.25 a) Example Individual Bump Geometry ................................................................................. 135
Figure 5.26 Spanwise Slice Of The Datum And Optimized R37 Geometries At 60% Span –
Courtesy of [John et al.].............................................................................................................................................. 136
Figure 5.27 Optimized R37 Bump (Blue) Added To The Datum Blade Geometry (Grey) ......... 136
Figure 5.28 Datum (Left) And Optimized (Right) Rotor 37 Static Pressure Contours. Flow
Direction Right To Left – Courtesy of [John et al.] .......................................................................................... 137
Figure 5.29 Datum (Left) And R37 Optimized (Right) ............................................................................. 138
Figure 5.30 Datum (Left) And Optimized (Right) Rotor 37 Separated Flow Contours (Orange).
Flow Direction Right To Left.................................................................................................................................... 138
Figure 5.31 Lift Plots For The Datum and Optimized ............................................................................... 139
Figure 5.32 R37 Optimized Characteristic Vs Datum – Courtesy of [John et al.] ........................... 139
Figure 6.1 Complex Flow Phenomena Compressors ................................................................................. 141
Figure 6.2 Fan Tip Section Geometry .............................................................................................................. 142
Figure 6.3 Flow Structures with 5 to 6 Orders of Magnitudes Variations in Length and Time
Scales (LaGraff et al., 2006)...................................................................................................................................... 143
Figure 6.4 Shock Structure in Transonic Fan ............................................................................................... 144
Figure 6.5 Pressure Contour of Wake Flow .................................................................................................. 145
Figure 6.6 Instantaneous Absolute Velocity Contour at Nozzle Exit [Matsunuma, 2006]......... 146
Figure 6.7 Unsteady Wakes Convecting in Blade Passage ...................................................................... 147
Figure 6.8 Flow over an unshrouded tip gap ............................................................................................... 148
Figure 6.9 Classical Secondary Flow Model .................................................................................................. 149
Figure 6.10 Modern Secondary Flow Model ................................................................................................. 150
Figure 6.11 Vortex pattern of Latest secondary flows ............................................................................. 151
Figure 6.12 Turbine Secondary Flow Model (Takeishi et al.) ............................................................... 153
Figure 6.13 Illustration of formation of hub corner stall together with limiting streamlines and
separation lines ............................................................................................................................................................. 155
Figure 6.14 Classic Secondary Flow Pattern for a Turbine Airfoil Passage (L. S. Langston)
Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 6.15 Illustration of the near wall flows as taken through oil and dye surface flow
visualization (reproduced with permission of the publisher from ASME) ......................................... 156
Figure 6.16 (Top) - Measurements of the Horseshoe Vortex just upstream of the Vane at the
Vane-End-Wall Juncture (Bottom) - Actual Hardware Showing Effects of the Horseshoe Vortex
 12

on a First Vane (Courtesy of ASME) .................................................................................................................... 157

Figure 6.17 Illustration of Different Vortical ................................................................................................ 158
Figure 6.18 Contours of Non-Dimensional Heat Transfer Coefficients (Reproduced with
Permission ASME) ...................................................................................................................................................... 159
Figure 6.19 Fillet and Bulb Designs as Shown by (Becz et al.) ............................................................... 160
Figure 6.20 CFD Prediction of Streamlines Across a ................................................................................. 161
Figure 6.21 Blade Passage and Slice of The Computational Domain.................................................. 162
Figure 6.22 Computed Mid-Span Mach Number Distribution............................................................... 164
Figure 6.23 End-Wall Stanton Number (103) Distributions Computed with Grid B in
Comparison with the Measurement Data: (1) k-ω Turbulence Model, (2) M-SST, (3) v2-f, (4)
Experiment ..................................................................................................................................................................... 165
Figure 6.24 Effect of Grid Refinement on the End-Wall Stanton Number (x103) Prediction with
the M-SST Turbulence Model: (1) Grid С, (2) Grid D, (3) Grid E, (4) Experiment. ............................ 166
Figure 6.25 End-Wall Streak Line Visualization.......................................................................................... 167
Figure 6.26 Grid on the Solid Surfaces of the Geometry .......................................................................... 170
Figure 6.27 (a) Casing surface mesh showing multiblock structure and (b) hub surface mesh
showing multiblock structure ................................................................................................................................. 171
Figure 6.28 Total temperature (T0) and total pressure (P0) at the blade inlet ............................... 172
Figure 6.29 Instantaneous and time-averaged „dashed… hub surface.............................................. 173
Figure 6.30 Instantaneous and time-averaged (dashed) hub heat transfer distribution for a
wake passing .................................................................................................................................................................. 174
Figure 6.31 Time-Averaged Casing Pressure ............................................................................................... 175
Figure 6.32 Time-Averaged Hub Pressure .................................................................................................... 175
Figure 6.33 Difference in casing pressure distribution between the time-averaged and steady
results................................................................................................................................................................................ 176
Figure 6.34 Difference in hub pressure distribution between the time-averaged and steady
results................................................................................................................................................................................ 176
Figure 6.35 Time-averaged casing adiabatic wall temperature ........................................................... 177
Figure 6.36 Time-averaged hub adiabatic wall temperature ................................................................ 177
Figure 6.37 Difference in casing adiabatic wall temperature distribution between the time-
averaged and steady results .................................................................................................................................... 178
Figure 6.38 Difference in hub adiabatic wall temperature distribution between the time-
averaged and steady results .................................................................................................................................... 178
Figure 6.39 Time-averaged casing heat transfer rate ............................................................................... 179
Figure 6.40 Time-averaged hub heat transfer rate .................................................................................... 179
Figure 6.41 Difference in casing heat transfer rate between the time-averaged and steady
results................................................................................................................................................................................ 180
Figure 6.42 Difference in hub heat transfer rate between the time averaged and steady results
180
Figure 6.43 Difference in hub Nusselt number between the time averaged and steady results
181
Figure 7.1 The Schematic of a Modern Gas Turbine Blade with Common Cooling Techniques
(Courtesy of Je-Chin Han) .......................................................................................................................................... 184
Figure 7.2 Typical high-pressure turbine stage showing rim seal and wheel-space ................... 185
Figure 7.3 Schematic of Flm Cooling Concept .............................................................................................. 186
Figure 7.4 Measured Adiabatic Wall Temperatures for Coolant Exiting a Combustor/Vane
Leakage Slot (reproduced with permission from ASME) ............................................................................ 187
Figure 7.5 Contours of Adiabatic Effectiveness for Two Film-Cooling Hole Patterns (left and
center) With a Mid-Passage Gutter for the Cooling Hole Pattern in the Center (Right)
(Reproduced With Permission From the Publisher of ASME) .................................................................. 188
 13

Figure 7.6 Vane Section with Ten Cooling Channels and Temperature Distribution Computed
189
Figure 7.7 Surface Temperature Distribution on the Suction Side (Left) and The Pressure Side
(Right) of the Vane ....................................................................................................................................................... 190
Figure 7.8 Flow Streamlines Colored Cooling Air Temperature into Passages ............................. 190
Figure 7.9 2D Hybrid Mesh around the T106 Blade ................................................................................. 195
Figure 7.10 Blade Profile vs. Pressure Coefficient (Courtesy of De La Calzada et al.) ................. 196
Figure 7.11 Flow Field at the Front and Middle Parts of the Separation Bubble (Courtesy of De
La Calzada et al.) ........................................................................................................................................................... 197
Figure 7.12 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Different Negative Incidences (Courtesy of Calzada et
al.) 198
Figure 7.13 Stanton Number for Different Negative Incidences (Courtesy of De La Calzada et
al.) 199
Figure 7.14 Stanton Number vs. Reynolds Numbers (Courtesy of De La Calzada et al.) ........... 200
Figure 7.15 Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number (Courtesy of Calzada et al.)......... 201
Figure 8.1 Pressure Ratio by Normalized Mass Flow (Courtesy of Simoes) ................................... 204
Figure 9.1 Schematics of 3D Concept at IGV/Rotor/Stator Interface................................................. 206
Figure 9.2 Interface Between Rotor/Stator .................................................................................................. 207
Figure 9.3 Difference between Passage and Stages ................................................................................... 207
Figure 9.4 Block Computational Domain for a Rotor with guiding Vanes........................................ 209
Figure 9.5 Axial Rotor/Stator Interaction (Schematics Illustrating the Mixing Plane concepts)
210
Figure 9.6 A Compressor Pressure Distribution on a Surface using a Mixing Plane .................... 210
Figure 9.7 Schematic of an Artificial Interface Between a Rotor and a Stator (left) and the
Virtual Control Volume Formed by Displacing Two Adjacent Domains (right)................................. 211
Figure 9.8 Sketch of Casing Treatment of Rotor 67 (Courtesy of 157)................................................. 213
Figure 9.9 Span-Wise Distributions of Aerodynamic Parameters ....................................................... 214
Figure 9.10 Contour of Relative Mach Number and Iso-Surface of Axial Velocity of Modified
Rotor 67 ........................................................................................................................................................................... 214
Figure 9.11 Temperature Contours on the 1st Interface of Modified Rotor 67 - (a) FBEA ; (b)
FBMA ; (c) EA ; (d) MA ; (e) TA (Courtesy of YaLu et al.) ........................................................................ 215
Figure 9.12 Mesh for Transonic Turbine Stage - Upper Image Depicted the Mesh at the Hub
Surface while the Lower Image Represented Mesh used for the Blade Span ..................................... 216
Figure 9.13 Results of the Velocity Contours for a Radial Section at Stator Mid Span using the
Mixing Plane Approach .............................................................................................................................................. 217
Figure 9.14 Schematic View of Pitch-Wise Mixing Model ....................................................................... 218
Figure 9.15 Instantaneous Distributions at 90% Span. ........................................................................... 219
Figure 9.16 Total Pressure Calculated by the Frozen Rotor .................................................................. 220
Figure 9.17 Half Stencil and Full Stencil Reconstruction with: A) Intersection, B) Halo-Cell .. 221
Figure 9.18 Relative Velocities Obtained using HB Techniques ........................................................... 222
Figure 9.19 Phase shifted Periodic Boundary .............................................................................................. 223
Figure 9.20 Phase Shifted Periodic Boundary Conditions ...................................................................... 224
Figure 9.21 Stagnation Pressure Contours under inlet distortion for NASA Rotor 67 ............... 228
Figure 9.22 Computational Mesh for HB and TRS Methods .................................................................. 229
Figure 9.23 Instantaneous Pressure Distribution Within the Compressor Stage Using (NLHB)
229
Figure 9.24 Instantaneous Predictions of Turbulent Viscosity at Mid-Span for HB and TRS
Solutions .......................................................................................................................................................................... 230
Figure 9.25 Non-Dimensional Entropy Generation Using Unsteady (HB) vs Steady (MP) ....... 232
Figure 9.26 Case2: Non-Dimensional Pressure Contours for the Mixing Plane (MP) simulation
 14

(a) , and Harmonic Balance (HB) at Different Time Instances (bcd) ...................................................... 233
Figure 9.27 Mixing Plane vs Harmonic Balance Normalized Entropy Generation Gradients
Obtained with the Adjoint Solution ..................................................................................................................... 235
Figure 9.28 Velocity triangles for the free stream (subscript FS) and the wake (subscript W)
lows. V = absolute velocity, W = relative velocity, U = peripheral velocity .......................................... 239
Figure 9.29 Pattern of entropy evolution (bowing, chopping and transport) of the stator wake
in the rotor channel, as foreseen by CFD ............................................................................................................ 240
Figure 9.30 Simplified Schematic of the Secondary Flows System Downstream of a Rotor .... 241
Figure 9.31 Total pressure loss (Y%), streamwise vorticity (Ωs) and absolute Mach number
(M) downstream of the stator. Experiments at the Fluidmachinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano
(Italy)................................................................................................................................................................................. 242
Figure 9.32 Rotor inlet low field in the rotating frame of reference. Frame (a) Yloss = total
pressure loss. Frame (b) CPT,R: relative total pressure coefficient. Experiments at the Fluid
machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy). .............................................................................................. 243
Figure 9.33 Schematics of the stator vortical structure transport in the rotor passage ............ 244
Figure 9.34 Time mean flow field downstream of the rotor for a subsonic operating condition
(expansion ratio 1.4, reaction degree at midspan 0.3 and incidence angle close to zero). Frame
(a) relative total pressure coefficient (CPT,R); frame (b) deviation angle (δ). Experiments at the
Fluid machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy). .................................................................................. 244
Figure 9.35 Relative total pressure coefficient on the whole rotor crown. Experiments at the
Fluid machinery Lab. At Politecnico di Milano (Italy). ................................................................................. 245
Figure 9.36 Relative total pressure coefficient (CPT,R), deviation angle (δ) and turbulence (Tu)
for 4 interaction phases. Experiments at the Fluid machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy).
246
Figure 9.37 Standard deviation of the Cptr and δ for the different time frames. Experiments at
the Fluid machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy). .......................................................................... 247
Figure 9.38 Rotor loading effects on the stator-rotor interaction. Experiments at the Fluid
machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy). .............................................................................................. 248
Figure 9.39 Vane shock-rotor interaction in axial turbine blades. Red: computation, black:
experiments. Adapted from [Denos et al.] ......................................................................................................... 249
Figure 9.40 Standard deviation for the different instants of the interaction phases. (A) axial
gap: x/bs = 16%; (B) axial gap: x/bs = 35%, nominal; C) axial gap = 50%. Experiments at the
Fluid machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy). .................................................................................. 250
Figure 9.41 Rotor incidence fluctuations in circumferential direction for the different axial
gaps along the blade span ......................................................................................................................................... 251
Figure 9.42 Efficiency trend versus the axial gap. Experiments at the Fluid machinery Lab. at
Politecnico di Milano (Italy). ................................................................................................................................... 251
Figure 10.1 Centrifugal impeller with a highly polished surface likely to improve performance
254
Figure 10.2 Cut-Away View of a Turbocharger showing the Centrifugal Compressor ............... 255
Figure 10.3 Jet Engine Cutaway Showing the Centrifugal Compressor among others ............... 256
Figure 10.4 Ninety Degree Inward-Flow Radial Turbine Stage ............................................................ 258
Figure 10.5 Outward Flow Radial Turbine .................................................................................................... 259
Figure 11.1 Different Flow (2D, Q3D, and full 3D) ..................................................................................... 262
Figure 11.2 Full Blade Simulation using Harmonic Balanced Method (Courtesy of CD-adapco)
264
Figure 11.3 Transient Blade Row Extensions Enable Efficient Multi-Stage CFD Simulation
(Courtesy of ANSYS.com) .......................................................................................................................................... 266
Figure 11.4 Typical Meshing of a Turbomachinery Stage ....................................................................... 267
Figure 11.5 Multi-Block Grid for the Space Shuttle Main Engine Fuel Turbine ............................. 267
 15

Figure 11.6 Pressure contour plot, 2nd order spatial discretization scheme................................. 271
Figure 11.7 Analysis provided vibration required for flutter analysis .............................................. 273
Figure 11.8 Examples of Nodal Diameter ...................................................................................................... 274
 16

Preface
This note is intended for all undergraduate, graduate, and scholars of Turbomachinery. It is not
completed and never claims to be as such. Therefore, all the comments are greatly appreciated. In
assembling that, I was influenced with sources from my textbooks, papers, and materials that I
deemed to be important. At best, it could be used as a reference. I also would like to express my
appreciation to several people who have given thoughts and time to the development of this article.
Special thanks should be forwarded to the authors whose papers seemed relevant to topics, and
consequently, it appears here©. Finally I would like to thank my wife, Sudabeh for her understanding
and the hours she relinquished to me. Their continuous support and encouragement are greatly
appreciated.

Ideen Sadrehaghighi
June 2018
 17

1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics and thermodynamics are the fundamental sciences used for turbine aerodynamic
design and analysis. Several types of fluid dynamic analysis are useful for this purpose. The concept
through-flow analysis is widely used in axial-flow turbine performance analysis. This involves
solving the governing equations for inviscid flow in the hub-to-shroud plane at stations located
between blade rows. The flow is normally considered to be axisymmetric at these locations, but still
three-dimensional because of the existence of a tangential velocity component. Empirical models are
employed to account for the fluid turning and losses that occur when the flow passes through the
blade rows. By contrast, hub-to-shroud through-flow analysis is not very useful for the performance
analysis of radial-flow turbomachines such as radial-inflow turbines and centrifugal compressors.
The inviscid flow governing equations do not adequately model the flow in the curved passages of
radial turbomachines to be used as a basis for performance analysis. Instead, a simplified “pitch-line”
or “mean-line” one-dimensional flow model is used, which ignores the hub-to-shroud variations.
These also continue to be used for axial-flow turbine performance analysis. Computers are
sufficiently powerful today that there is really no longer a need to simplify the problem that much for
axial-flow turbomachinery. More fundamental internal flow analyses are often useful for the
aerodynamic design of specific components, particularly blade rows. These include 2D flow analyses
in either the blade-to-blade or hub to shroud (Through Flow) direction, and Quasi-3D flow analyses
developed by combining those 2D analyses. Wall boundary layer analysis is often used to supplement
these analyses with an evaluation of viscous effects1.
Viscous CFD solutions are also in use for turbines. These are typically 3D flow analyses, which
consider the effects of viscosity, thermal conductivity and turbulence. In most cases, commercial
viscous CFD codes are used although some in-house codes are in use within the larger companies.
Most design organizations cannot commit the dedicated effort required to develop these highly
sophisticated codes, particularly since viscous CFD technology is changing so rapidly that any code
developed will soon be obsolete unless its development continues as an ongoing activity.
Consequently, viscous CFD is not covered here beyond recognizing it as an essential technology and
pointing out some applications for which it can be effectively used to supplement conventional
aerodynamic analysis techniques.
Prediction of the flow through cascades of blades is fundamental to all aspects of turbomachinery
aerodynamic design and analysis. The flow through the annular cascades of blades in any
turbomachine is really a 3D flow problem. But the simpler two-dimensional blade-to-blade flow
problem offers many advantages. It provides a natural view of cascade fluid dynamics to help
designers develop an understanding of the basic flow processes involved. Indeed, very simple two-
dimensional cascade flow models were used in this educational role long before computational
methods and computers had evolved enough to produce useful design results. Today, blade-to-blade
(B2B) flow analysis is a practical design and analysis tool that provides useful approximations to
many problems of interest. Inviscid blade-to-blade flow analysis addresses the general problem of
two-dimensional flow on a stream surface in an annular. Two-dimensional boundary layer analysis
can be included to provide an approximate evaluation of viscous effects. That approach ignores the
effect of secondary flows that develop due to the migration of low momentum boundary layer fluid
across the stream surfaces. Its accuracy becomes highly questionable when significant flow
separation is present. These limitations require particular care when analyzing the diffusing flow in
compressor cascades. They are less significant for analysis of the accelerating flow in turbine
cascades, but designers still must recognize the approximations and limitations involved. Previously,
it have been emphasized the influence of the blade surface velocity distributions on nozzle row and
rotor performance. A graph of the blade surface velocity distributions as a function of distance along

1 Ronald H Aungier, e-Books, “The American Society of Mechanical Engineers”, (ASME.org).

 18

the blade surface is often referred to as the blade-loading diagram. The fundamental role of blade
loading diagrams for the evaluation of blade detailed aerodynamic designs was discussed. Blade-to-
blade flow analysis provides a practical method to calculate these blade-loading diagrams. Indeed,
blade-to-blade flow analysis is an essential part of a modern aerodynamic design system.
A Quasi-3D flow analysis employs 2D flow analyses in the hub-to-shroud and blade-to-blade surfaces
to approximate the 3D flow in a blade passage. The fundamental concept is generally credited to Wu2.
The present analysis achieves exceptional computational speed and reliability largely due to its use
of the linearized blade-to-blade flow analysis. But that also imposes some limitations on the method
that are particularly significant for turbines. Its limitation to subsonic or low transonic Mach number
levels excludes a number of turbine applications. As noted, its accuracy is compromised when it is
applied to the rather thick airfoils often used for turbines. It certainly could be extended for more
general use on turbines by substituting a more general blade-to-blade flow analysis such as the time-
marching method. But that would substantially increase the computation time required and
significantly reduce its reliability. It is very doubtful that this Quasi-3D flow analysis would remain
an attractive design tool if that were done. Indeed, it would lose most of its advantages over
commercially available viscous CFD codes while offering a less general solution. We start with some
explanation of Rotating flow, as well as, derivation of Conservation of Angular Momentum concept
which is fundamental in rotating flows, as well as blade to blade passage.

2Wu, C. H., "A General Theory of Three Dimensional Flow in Subsonic and Supersonic Turbomachines of Axial,
Radial, and Mixed Flow Types," National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, NACA TN 2604, 1952.
 19

2 Preliminary Concepts in Rotating Machinery

2.1 Vortex
One of the major aspects of rotational flow, and in fact the flow in general, is the concept of Vorticity.
In fluid dynamics, a vortex is a region in a fluid in which the flow rotates around an axis line, which
may be straight or curved3. The plural of
vortex is either vortices or vortexes.
Vortices form in stirred fluids, and may
be observed in phenomena such as
smoke rings, whirlpools in the wake of
boat, or the winds surrounding a
tornado, etc. (see Figure 2.1). Vortices
are a major component of turbulent
flow. The distribution of velocity,
vorticity (the curl of the flow velocity),
as well as the concept of circulation are
used to characterize vortices. In most
vortices, the fluid flow velocity is
greatest next to its axis and decreases in
inverse proportion to the distance from
the axis. In the absence of external
forces, viscous friction within the fluid
tends to organize the flow into a
collection of irrotational vortices, Figure 2.1 Vortex created by the passage of an aircraft
possibly superimposed to larger-scale wing, revealed by colored smoke
flows, including larger-scale vortices.
Once formed, vortices can move, stretch, twist, and interact in complex ways. A moving vortex carries
with it some angular and linear momentum, energy, and mass4.

2.2 Properties of Vortex Flow

2.2.1 Vorticity
A key concept in the dynamics of vortices is the vorticity, a vector that describes the local rotary
motion at a point in the fluid, as would be perceived by an observer that moves along with it.
Conceptually, the vorticity could be observed by placing a tiny rough ball at the point in question, free
to move with the fluid, and observing how it rotates about its center. The direction of the vorticity
vector is defined to be the direction of the axis of rotation of this imaginary ball (according to the
right-hand rule) while its length is twice the ball's angular velocity. Mathematically, the vorticity is
defined as the curl (or rotational) of the velocity field of the fluid, usually denoted by ω and expressed
by the vector analysis formula ∇ × u , where u is the local flow velocity. The local rotation measured
by the vorticity ω must not be confused with the angular velocity vector Ω of that portion of the
fluid with respect to the external environment or to any fixed axis. In a vortex, in particular, ω may
be opposite to the mean angular velocity vector of the fluid relative to the vortex's axis.

𝛚= ∇×𝐮=0
Eq. 2.1

3 Ting, L.,. “Viscous Vortical Flows. Lecture notes in physics”, Springer-Verlag, 1991, ISBN 3-540-53713-9.
4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
 20

2.2.2 Vortex Types

In theory, the speed u of the particles (and, therefore,
the vorticity) in a vortex may vary with the distance r
from the axis in many ways. There are two important
special cases, however:
2.2.2.1 Rigid-Body Vortex
If the fluid rotates like a rigid body, that is, if the
angular rotational velocity Ω is uniform, so that u
increases proportionally to the distance r from the
axis. A tiny ball carried by the flow would also rotate
about its center as if it were part of that rigid body (see
Figure 2.2). In such a flow, the vorticity is the same
everywhere, its direction is parallel to the rotation
axis, and its magnitude is equal to twice the uniform Figure 2.2 Rigid-Body Vortex
angular velocity Ω of the fluid around the center of
rotation.

Ω = (0, 0, Ω) , r = (x, y, 0)
Eq. 2.2
u = Ω  r = (-Ω y , Ω x , 0) → ω =   u = (0, 0, 2Ω) = 2Ω

2.2.2.2 Irrotational Vortex

If the particle speed u is inversely proportional to the distance r from the axis, then the imaginary
test ball would not rotate over itself; it would maintain the same orientation while moving in a circle
around the vortex axis. In this case the vorticity is zero at any point not on that axis, and the flow is
said to be irrotational.

Ω = (0, 0, r -2 ) , r = (x, y, 0)
Eq. 2.3
u = Ω  r = (- yr -2 ,  xr -2 , 0) → ω =   u = 0

2.2.3 Vortex Geometry

In a stationary vortex, the typical streamline (a line that is everywhere tangent to the flow velocity
vector) is a closed loop surrounding the axis; and each vortex line (a line that is everywhere tangent
to the vorticity vector) is roughly parallel to the axis. A surface that is everywhere tangent to both
flow velocity and vorticity is called a vortex tube. In general, vortex tubes are nested around the axis
of rotation. The axis itself is one of the vortex lines, a limiting case of a vortex tube with zero diameter.
According to Helmholtz's theorems, a vortex line cannot start or end in the fluid – except
momentarily, in non-steady flow, while the vortex is forming or dissipating. In general, vortex lines
(in particular, the axis line) are either closed loops or end at the boundary of the fluid. A whirlpool is
an example of the latter, namely a vortex in a body of water whose axis ends at the free surface. A
vortex tube whose vortex lines are all closed will be a closed torus-like surface. A newly created
vortex will promptly extend and bend so as to eliminate any open-ended vortex lines. For example,
when an airplane engine is started, a vortex usually forms ahead of each propeller, or the turbofan of
each jet engine. One end of the vortex line is attached to the engine, while the other end usually
stretches out and bends until it reaches the ground. When vortices are made visible by smoke or ink
 21

trails, they may seem to have spiral path lines or

streamlines. However, this appearance is often
an illusion and the fluid particles are moving in
closed paths. The spiral streaks that are taken to
be streamlines are in fact clouds of the marker
fluid that originally spanned several vortex tubes
and were stretched into spiral shapes by the
non-uniform flow velocity distribution. A simple
mathematical description as depicted in Figure
2.3 and can be manufactured as

x = t sin(t) , y = t cos(t) , z = t
Eq. 2.4

2.2.4 Pressure in Vortex

The fluid motion in a vortex creates a dynamic
pressure (in addition to any hydrostatic
pressure) that is lowest in the core region,
Figure 2.3 3D Visualization of a Vortex Curve
closest to the axis, and increases as one moves
away from it, in accordance with Bernoulli's
Principle. One can say that it is the gradient of this pressure that forces the fluid to follow a curved
path around the axis. In a rigid-body vortex flow of a fluid with constant density, the dynamic
pressure is proportional to the square of the distance r from the axis. In a constant gravity field, the
free surface of the liquid, if present, is a concave paraboloid.
In an irrotational vortex flow with constant fluid density and cylindrical symmetry, the dynamic
pressure varies as P∞ − K/r2, where P∞ is the limiting
pressure infinitely far from the axis. This formula
provides another constraint for the extent of the core,
since the pressure cannot be negative. The free surface
(if present) dips sharply near the axis line, with depth
inversely proportional to r2. The shape formed by the
free surface is called a hyperboloid. The core of a vortex
in air is sometimes visible because of a plume of water
vapor caused by condensation in the low pressure and
low temperature of the core; the spout of a tornado is
an example. When a vortex line ends at a boundary
surface, the reduced pressure may also draw matter
from that surface into the core. For example, a dust
devil is a column of dust picked up by the core of an air
vortex attached to the ground. A vortex that ends at the
free surface of a body of water (like the whirlpool that
often forms over a bathtub drain) may draw a column
of air down the core (see Figure 2.4). The forward
vortex extending from a jet engine of a parked airplane
can suck water and small stones into the core and then
into the engine.
Figure 2.4 A Plughole Vortex
2.3 Impeller
An impeller (also written as impellor ) is a rotor used to increase (or decrease in case of turbines) the
pressure and flow of a fluid. It has been used in variety of everyday equipment such as pumps,
 22

compressors, medical devices, mixing tanks, water jets and washing machines. More specifically, an
impeller is a rotating component equipped with vanes or blades used in turbomachinery (e. g.
centrifugal pumps). Flow deflection at the impeller vanes allows mechanical power (energy at the
vanes) to be converted into pump power output. Depending on the fluid flow pattern in multistage
pumps and the impellers' arrangement on the pump shaft, impeller design and arrangements are
categorised as: single-stage, multistage, single-entry, double-entry, multiple-entry, in-line (tandem)
or back-to-back arrangement. Axial and radial flow impellers are rotating industrial mixer
components designed for various types of mixing. Both types of impellers are primarily constructed
from stainless steel. Impellers impart flow. They serve the purpose of transferring the energy from
the motor to the substance of a tank as efficiently as possible. Impellers are organized by their flow
patterns.
2.3.1 Types of Impeller
The impeller of a Centrifugal Pump can be of three types as shown in Figure 2.5 as discussed by

• Open Impeller : where the vanes are cast free on both sides.
• Semi-Open Impeller : when the vanes are free on one side and enclosed on the other.
• Enclosed Impeller : The vanes are located between the two discs, all in a single casting 5.

Figure 2.5 Types of Impeller

2.3.2 Flow Characteristics for Impeller

Impellers can be designed to impart various flow characteristics to pump or tank media. Impeller
flow designs can take on three distinct types: Axial, Radial, or Mixed (see Figure 2.7). Because
centrifugal pumps are also classified in this manner, the impeller selection depends upon matching
the pump's flow characteristic to that of the impeller6.

• Axial flow impellers move media parallel to the impeller.

• Radial flow impellers move media at right angles to the impeller itself.
• Mixed flow impellers have characteristics of both axial and radial flow. They may move media
at an angle which is different from right angle radial flow.

5 Presented by: Matt Prosoli, “Centrifugal Pump Overview”, Pumps Plus Inc.
6 See Previous.
 23

An impeller is a rotating component of a centrifugal pump,

usually made of iron, steel, bronze, brass, aluminum or
plastic, which transfers energy from the motor that drives
the pump to the fluid being pumped by accelerating the fluid
outwards from the center of rotation. The velocity achieved
by the impeller transfers into pressure when the outward
movement of the fluid is confined by the pump casing.
Impellers are usually short cylinders with an open inlet
(called an eye) to accept incoming fluid, vanes to push the
fluid radially, and a splined, keyed, or threaded bore to accept
a drive-shaft. The impeller made out of cast material in many
cases may be called rotor, also. It is cheaper to cast the radial
impeller right in the support it is fitted on, which is put in
motion by the gearbox from an electric motor, combustion Figure 2.7 A centrifugal pump
engine or by steam driven turbine. The rotor usually names uses an impeller with backward-
both the spindle and the impeller when they are mounted by swept arms
bolts.

Figure 2.6 Flow Direction of Three Different Pumps/Impellers (Courtesy of Global Spec)

2.3.3 Mixing Tanks

Impellers in mixing tanks are used to mix
fluids or slurry in the tank. This can be used
to combine materials in the form of solids,
liquids and gas. Mixing the fluids in a tank is
very important if there are gradients in
conditions such as temperature or
concentration. Figure 2.8 shows two types
of impeller used in mixing tanks, namely:

• Axial flow impeller

• Radial flow impeller
Figure 2.8 Axial Flow Impeller (left) and Radial Flow
Radial flow impellers impose essentially Impeller (right)
shear stress to the fluid, and are used, for
example, to mix immiscible liquids or in
general when there is a deformable interface to break. Another application of radial flow impellers
 24

are the mixing of very viscous fluids. Axial flow impellers impose essentially bulk motion, and are
used on homogenization processes, in which increased fluid volumetric flow rate is important.
Impellers can be further classified principally into three sub-types7

• Propellers
• Paddles
• Turbines

2.3.4 Axial Impellers

Are best for mixing applications that require stratification or solid suspension. Axial impellers are set
up to create effective top to bottom motion in the tank. This motion is highly effective when placed
over the center of a baffled tank. Some common types of axial flow impellers include: marine
impellers, pitched blade impellers, and hydrofoils. Hydrofoil impellers are also known as high
efficiency impellers. They are a popular choice for applications that require a range from general
blending to storage tanks. This is largely due to the greatest pumping per horsepower, cost
effectiveness, and are ideal for shear sensitive applications.
2.3.5 Radial Impellers
are designed in 4-6 blades. In radial flow impellers, the fluid moves perpendicularly to the impeller.
They produce a radial flow pattern which moves the contents of the mixing tank to the sides of the
vessel. The radial flow impacts the side which causes in either an up or down direction which fills the
top and the bottom of the impeller to be ejected once more. It is also important to note that setting
up baffles helps to minimize vortex and swirling motions in the tank, therefore, enhancing agitation
efficiency. Radial impellers are a great fit for low-level applications inside longer tanks based upon
the production of higher shear due to the angle of attack.
2.3.6 Power Number for Impeller
Power number is a value specific to mixing impellers which describes the impeller's power
consumption. The formula for calculating an impeller's power number is

p
Np = Eq. 2.5
n D 5ρ
3

where Np = power number, P = impeller power in watts, ρ = density of tank liquid in kg/m3, n = shaft
speed in revolutions/second and D=impeller diameter in meters. Because of the difficulty in
obtaining many of these values, power numbers can be considered the summary of various
correlated test results (when dealing with standard-sized mixing tank) rather than a precise
specification. Therefore, manufacturers often specify an impeller's power number as a function of its
power and size8.

2.4 Pumps
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical action.
Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to move the fluid:
direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps. Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically
reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid.
Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind
power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial

7 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

8 Engineering 360 powered by IEEE global spec.
 25

pumps. Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from wells,
aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel
injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In
the medical industry, pumps are used for biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing
medicine, and as artificial replacements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart and penile
prosthesis. (see Figure 2.9),

• Single stage pump: When in a casing only one impeller is revolving then it is called single
stage pump.
• Multi stage pump: When in a casing two or more than two impellers are revolving then it is
called double/multi stage pump.

Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications includes the use of
the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply,
gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical
movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc. Because of the wide variety of
applications, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very small, from handling
gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low volume.

Single Stage Multi Stage

Figure 2.9 Centrifugal Pumps

2.4.1 Types of Pumps

Pump types can be characterized as :

• Positive Displacement Pumps

➢ Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps
➢ Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pumps
➢ Various Positive Displacement Pumps
❖ Gear Pump
❖ Screw Pump
❖ Progressing cavity Pump
❖ Roots-type Pumps
❖ Peristaltic pump
 26

❖ Plunger pumps
❖ Triplex-style plunger pumps
❖ Compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm pumps
❖ Rope pumps
• Impulse Pumps
➢ Hydraulic ram pumps
• Velocity pumps
➢ Radial-flow pumps
➢ Axial-flow pumps
➢ Mixed-flow pumps
➢ Jet pump
• Gravity Pumps
• Steam Pumps
• Valve less Pumps

2.4.2 Axial-Flow Pumps vs. Centrifugal Pumps

Axial flow pumps differ from radial flow in that the fluid enters and exits along the same direction
parallel to the rotating shaft. The fluid is not accelerated but instead "lifted" by the action of the
impeller. They may be likened to a propeller spinning in a length of tube. Axial flow pumps operate
at much lower pressures and higher flow rates than radial flow pumps. A centrifugal pump is a roto-
dynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure and flow rate of a fluid.
Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move liquids through a piping system.
The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the
impeller, flowing radially outward or axially into a diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits
into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are typically used for large discharge through
smaller heads.

2.5 Some Physics on Rotating Disks Flow

In order to investigate the fluid flow in rotating frames, researchers performed various experiments.
The basic idea is that the (viscous) fluid is confined between two rotating disks9. In general two
boundary layers may be present. The problem is that the equations of motion are so complex, that no
exact solutions are known for this problem even in the stationary regime (one disk fixed the other
rotating). Therefore scientist have to make use of numerical simulations and various experiments to
shed light on the physical mechanisms going on in the rotating fluid10.
2.5.1 Experimental Set-Up
In order to study the flow between two rotating disks the experimental set-up shown in Figure 2.10
was built. The cell consists of a cylinder of small height h closed by a top disk and a bottom disk, both
of radius R=140 mm. The upper disk is made of glass and rotates together with the cylindrical
sidewall which is made of PVC. The reason why the cylinder and top disk are made of PVC and glass
is to allow visualization from above and from side. The bottom disk is made of rectified brass, with a
black coating to improve visualization contrast. To allow the differential rotation the radius of the
bottom disk is slightly smaller (a tenth of millimeter) than the radius of the shrouding cylinder. The
thickness h of the cell can be varied between few mm up to several The cell is filled with a mixture of
water, glycerol and small anisotropic flakes. The latter enable us to visualize the fluid flow. The flakes'
orientation with the fluid leads to variations of the reflected light. For example, if the flakes are

9 Miha Meznar, “Fluid Flows In Rotating Frames”, University of Ljubljana, March 2005.
10 Here the focus is not on the recirculation flow but rather on the instability patterns in rotating fluids.
 27

mainly horizontal, they reflect light, if they are vertical they do not reflect it so well. The kinematic
viscosity ν = μ/ρ lies between 1x10−6 < ν < 8 x10−6 m2/s due to different concentration of glycerol11.
Each of two disks rotate with its own angular velocity Ωi, where index i = b, where t stands for bottom
and top disk respectively. Angular velocities of the disks range from 0 to 10 rad/s but the upper disk
rotates anticlockwise only, whereas the bottom one can rotate clock- or anticlockwise. Anticlockwise
rotation is taken positive. We call co-rotation the situation where both disks rotate in the same
direction (b and t are of the same sign) and counter-rotation when the disks rotate in the opposite
directions (they have opposite
signs). If one of the disks is left fixed,
the other rotating, the regime is
called rotor-stator regime. We will
define some dimensionless numbers
that describe our cell. The first is
radius-to-height ratio defined as Γ=
R/h , where R is radius and h height
of the cell. The second number is
Reynolds number Rei = Ωih2/ν ,
where index i = b, t denotes the
bottom and top disk respectively, i is
the angular velocity of the disks and Figure 2.10 Sketch of the experimental set-up
ν the kinematic viscosity. The last
number is rotation ratio defined as s = Ωb/Ωt = Reb/Ret . Rotation ratio is positive (s > 0) in the co-
rotation regime and negative (s < 0) in the counter-rotation regime.
2.5.1.1 Recirculating Flow
Each rotation is associated with a meridian recirculating flow, which can be inward or outward
depending on the rotation ratio. For arbitrary positive and small negative rotation ratio s, the radial
recirculating flow is roughly the same as in the rotor-stator case (s = 0): it consists of an outward
boundary layer close to the faster disk and an inward boundary layer close to the slower disk. At
small negative rotation ratio the centrifugal effect of the slower disk is not strong enough to
counteract the inward flow from the faster disk. But as the rotation ratio s is decreased below −0.2,
the slower disk induces a centrifugal flow too, and the radial recirculating flow appears to come
organized into two-cell recirculating structure. At the interface of these two cells a strong shear layer
takes place. The centrifugal flow induced by the faster disk recirculates towards the center of the
slower disk due to the lateral end wall. This inward recirculation flow meets the outward radial flow
induced by the slower disk, leading to a stagnation circle where the radial component of the velocity
vanishes.
2.5.1.2 Instability Flow Patterns
We now turn to the instability patterns of the flow between two rotating disks close to each other (Γ
= 20.9), in both co- and counter-rotating flows. For s ≥ 0 (rotor-stator or co-rotation) and Reb fixed,
on increasing Ret, propagating circular structures are first observed. These axisymmetric vortices
appear close to the landrail wall, propagate towards the center and disappear before reaching the
center of the cell. Above a secondary threshold of Ret, spiral structures appear at the periphery of the
disks, and circles remain confined between two critical radii (Figure 2.11 (a)). These spirals are
called positive spirals (denoted S+) since they roll up to the center in the direction of the faster disk
(here the top one). Increasing Ret further, positive spirals progressively invade the whole cell. Still
increasing Ret, the flow becomes more and more disordered (denoted D, Figure 2.11 (c)). It can be

11 G. Gauthier, P. Gondret, F. Moisy and M. Rabaud, “Instabilities in the flow between co- and counter-rotating
disks”, J. Fluid Mech, volume 473, pp. 1-21, 2002.
 28

shown that co-rotation shifts upwards the instability thresholds for circles and positive spirals12.
However, threshold line for circles is parallel to the solid body rotation (b = t) indicating that the
angular velocity difference Ω = Ωt − Ωb is the only control parameter of this instability and no influence
of the global rotation occurs. By contrast, the borderline for the positive spirals has a larger slope
than the solid body rotation line; in this case the relative angular velocity Ω is not the only control
parameter and an extra velocity of the upper disk is needed for the spirals to arise. The global rotation
in this case has a stabilizing effect.
For s < 0 (counter-rotating case) the onset of the instability patterns depends on the Reynolds
numbers of both disks. For low bottom Reynolds number, −11 < Reb < 0, on increasing the Reynolds
number of the upper disk, the appearance of the instability patterns is the same as in the rotor-stator
or co-rotation case: axisymmetric propagating vortices, positive spirals and disorder. But, for −18 <
Reb < −11, spirals of a new kind appear on increasing Ret. These spirals are said to be negative (and
denoted S−) since they now roll up to the center in the direction of the slower counter-rotating disk
(Figure 2.12 (a)). Unlike circles and positive spirals, negative spirals extend from the periphery to
the center, they invade the whole cell. Also, the onset time for negative spirals is much longer than
for positive ones or circles; when the onset is carefully approached from below, the growth time of
negative spirals can exceed 15 minutes which strongly contrasts circles and positive spirals which
appear almost instantaneously. Increasing Ret further, positive spirals appear as well at the periphery
of the disk, as can be seen in Figure 2.12 (b). Here negative and positive spirals seem to coexist
without strong interaction, which indicates the difference in their origin. The circles and positive
spirals have their origin in the boundary layer instability whereas negative ones, on the other hand,
originate from shear layer instability.
Still increasing Ret, negative spirals disappear and positive spirals alone remain (Figure 2.12(c)).
Increasing Ret yet further, circles appear as in the co-rotation case. Still increasing Ret, the structures
become disorganized and the flow becomes turbulent. For Reb < −18 the negative spirals described
above become wavy, the flow is more and more disorganized and continuously becomes turbulent
without a well-defined threshold. Depending on the Reynolds number, the disorder can be generated
first at the periphery or in the center and then invades the entire cell. Up to now our instability
patterns were limited to radius-to-height ratio Γ = 20.9. Does anything changes if one changes it?
Researchers enlarged the gap h between the disks (Γ diminishes) and observed a new pattern that
consisted of a sharp-cornered polygon of m sides, surrounded by a set of 2m outer spiral arms. These
polygons arise only for small Γs (less than approx. Γ = 10). For higher values the vertical confinement

Figure 2.11 For s ≥ 0 co-rotation at different speed

12 Miha Meznar, “Fluid Flows In Rotating Frames”, University of Ljubljana, March 2005.
 29

leads to a saturated pattern where inner arms, connecting the corners of the polygon to the center of
polygons, turn into negative spirals. Another interesting property of the patterns is that they are not
fixed but rather rotate as a whole. Therefore we define the azimuthal phase velocity ωφ in the
laboratory frame. It corresponds to the angular velocity of the global rotation of the spiral pattern.
For the S+ spirals ωφ is always positive (anticlockwise), i.e. the positive spirals rotate in the direction
of the faster (top) disk, regardless of motion of the bottom one. S− spirals, on the other hand change
sign of ωφ. It means that for small Ret the pattern rotates in the direction of the slower (bottom) disk
while at higher Ret it moves with the top (faster) disk. Here only compare the directions of the disks
and phase velocity. The size of phase velocity is only a fraction of the disk velocities. We see that the
co-rotation flow (Reb > 0, right-hand part of the diagram) is qualitatively the same as the rotor-stator
flow (vertical line Reb = 0); the thresholds of instabilities (circles C and positive spirals S+) are found
to increase just with the bottom Reynolds number. By contrast, the counter-rotating case (Reb < 0,
left-hand part) is much more rich.

Figure 2.12 For s < 0 counter-rotating at different speed

2.1 Discussion on
Effects Swept
and Dihedral
Blades
We have encountered
difficulty with the
terminology that
describes different
blade stacking lines
because sweep and
dihedral have distinct
aerodynamic effects. It
is convenient to reserve
the meaning of dihedral
to be lean at right angles
to the sweep so the
translation producing it
Figure 2.13 Geometry of Swept and Dihedral Blades
is normal to the stagger
line. As blades,
described as having "dihedral," actually has aft sweep as well as dihedral. It would seem more logical,
 30

as well as more desirable, to describe the DHP blades as having "tangential lean," which includes
both true dihedral and sweep, (see Figure 2.13).
Over the forward part of the blade, the forward sweep induces flow near the suction surface toward
the end-wall and induces flow near the pressure surface away from the end-wall. These changes to
the span-wise flow oppose the classical secondary flow created by turning the incoming end-wall
boundary layer within the blade passage, and therefore reduce the cross-passage flow of end-wall
fluid toward the suction surface. Aft sweep will tend to add to the classical secondary flow and there
is then more loss and blockage buildup on the suction surface.
Forward sweep leads to enlargement of the meridional stream-tube near the end-wall ahead of the
leading edge followed by a contraction and then again an opening further downstream. The sequence
leads to a corresponding acceleration, deceleration, and acceleration of the end-wall flow relative to
that for un-swept blades; the consequence is usually lower end-wall loss (see Figure 2.14)13. Aft
sweep has the opposite effects and leads to an increase in end wall loss. Dihedral, on the other hand,
causes the bound vortex and its image to induce velocities more or less parallel to the primary flow.
If the dihedral is positive, so that the suction surface makes an copious angle with the end-wall, the
induced velocities tend to reduce the velocity peak on the suction surface, which reduces the diffusion
near the suction surface end-wall corner.

Figure 2.14 Experimental Pressure Iso-Surfaces ; Left - Without Sweep ;Right - With Forward Sweep
(Courtesy of RÁBAI and VAD [93])

2.2 Harnessing the Wind Energy via Wind Turbine

2.2.1 Definitions & Preliminaries
According to Department of Energy, Wind turbines work on a simple principle: instead of using
electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. Wind turns the
propeller-like blades of a turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator, which creates
electricity. A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the aerodynamic force from the
rotor blades, which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across the
blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure across the
two sides of the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this
causes the rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either directly (if it’s a direct drive

13Gergely Rábai And János Vad, “Validation Of A Computational Fluid Dynamics Method To Be Applied To Linear
Cascades Of Twisted-Swept Blades”, Periodica Polytechnica Ser. Mech. Eng. Vol. 49, No. 2, Pp. 163–180 (2005).
 31

turbine) or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the rotation and allow for
a physically smaller generator. This translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator
creates electricity 14.
2.2.2 A Historical Perspective
Main Source: Wikipedia
Main article: History of wind power
The wind wheel of Hero of Alexandria (10 AD–70 AD) marks one of the first recorded instances of
wind powering a machine in history [2][3]. However, the first known practical wind power plants were
built in Sistan, an Eastern province of Persia (now Iran), from the 7th century (see frame left of Figure
2.15). These "Panemone" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical drive shafts with
rectangular blades [4]. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these
windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the grist milling and
sugarcane industries [5].

Figure 2.15 Early Wind Turbines (left) Nashtifan wind turbines in Sistan, Iran. And (Right)-James
Blyth's electricity-generating wind turbine, photographed in 1891

Wind power first appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages. The first historical records of their use
in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their
windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190 [6]. By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to
drain areas of the Rhine delta. Advanced wind turbines were described by Croatian inventor [Fausto
Veranzio]. In his book Machinae Novae (1595) he described vertical axis wind turbines with curved
or V-shaped blades.
The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887
by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland (see frame right of
Figure 2.15). Some months later American inventor [Charles F. Brush] was able to build the first
automatically operated wind turbine after consulting local University professors and
colleagues Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd and successfully getting the blueprints peer-
reviewed for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio[3]. Although Blyth's turbine was considered
uneconomical in the United Kingdom,[7] electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost
effective in countries with widely scattered populations [6]. The first automatically operated wind
turbine, built in Cleveland in 1887 by Charles F. Brush. It was 60 feet (18 m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6
metric tons) and powered a 12 kW generator. (See Figure 2.16) [8].

14 Enrgy.Gov , Office Of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

 32

In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500

windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps
and mills, producing an estimated combined
peak power of about 30 MW. The largest
machines were on 24-meter (79 ft) towers
with four-bladed 23-meter (75 ft) diameter
rotors. By 1908, there were 72 wind-driven
electric generators operating in the United
States from 5 kW to 25 kW. Around the time of
World War I, American windmill makers were
producing 100,000 farm windmills each year,
mostly for water-pumping.[9]
By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity
were common on farms, mostly in the United
States where distribution systems had not yet
been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel
was cheap, and the generators were placed
atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind
generators was in service at Yalta, USSR in Figure 2.16 The first automatically operated wind
turbine, built in Cleveland in 1887 by Charles F.
1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30-
Brush. It was 60 feet (18 m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6
meter (98 ft) tower, connected to the local metric tons) and powered a 12 kW generator.[8]
6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to
have an annual capacity factor of 32 percent,
not much different from current wind machines.[10][11]
In the autumn of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to a utility grid
in Vermont. The [Smith–Putnam] wind turbine only ran for 1,100 hours before suffering a critical
failure. The unit was not repaired, because of a shortage of materials during the war. The first utility
grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by John Brown & Company in 1951 in
the Orkney Islands.[7][12]
Despite these diverse developments, developments in fossil fuel systems almost entirely eliminated
any wind turbine systems larger than supermicro size. In the early 1970s, however, anti-nuclear
protests in Denmark spurred artisan mechanics to develop microturbines of 22 kW. Organizing
owners into associations and co-operatives lead to the lobbying of the government and utilities and
provided incentives for larger
turbines throughout the 1980s
and later. Local activists in
Germany, nascent turbine
manufacturers in Spain, and
large investors in the United
States in the early 1990s then
lobbied for policies that
stimulated the industry in those
countries.
It has been argued that
expanding use of wind power
will lead to increasing
geopolitical competition over
critical materials for wind Figure 2.17 3 Primary Types of Wind Turbines
turbines such as rare earth
 33

elements neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium. But this perspective has been criticized for
failing to recognize that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating
the power of economic incentives for expanded production of these minerals.[13]
2.2.3 Types of Wind Turbines
The three primary types are: VAWT Savonius, HAWT towered; VAWT Darrieus as they appear in
operation Wind turbines (Figure 2.17) can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the
former being both older and more commonn[25]. They can also include blades, or be bladeless [26].
Vertical designs produce less power and are less common.[27]
2.2.3.1 Horizontal Axis
Large three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) with the blades upwind of the tower
produce the overwhelming majority of wind power in the world today (see Figure 2.18). These
turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed
into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a
wind sensor coupled with a yaw system. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the
blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.[28] Some turbines
use a different type of generator suited to slower rotational speed input. These don't need a gearbox
and are called direct-drive, meaning they couple the rotor directly to the generator with no gearbox
in between. While permanent magnet direct-drive generators can be more costly due to the rare
earth materials required,
these gearless turbines are sometimes
preferred over gearbox generators
because they "eliminate the gear-speed
increaser, which is susceptible to
significant accumulated fatigue torque
loading, related reliability issues, and
maintenance costs."[29] There is also the
pseudo direct drive mechanism, which
has some advantages over the
permanent magnet direct drive
mechanism.[30][31]. The rotor of
a gearless wind turbine being set. This
particular turbine was prefabricated in
Germany, before being shipped to the
U.S. for assembly.
Most horizontal axis turbines have Figure 2.18 The rotor of a gearless wind turbine being set.
their rotors upwind of the supporting This particular turbine was prefabricated in Germany,
tower. Downwind machines have been before being shipped to the U.S. for assembly.
built, because they don't need an
additional mechanism for keeping
them in line with the wind. In high winds, the blades can also be allowed to bend, which reduces their
swept area and thus their wind resistance. Despite these advantages, upwind designs are preferred,
because the change in loading from the wind as each blade passes behind the supporting tower can
cause damage to the turbine.
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed.
These have low torque ripple, which contributes to good reliability. The blades are usually colored
white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 80 meters (66 to 262 ft). The
size and height of turbines increase year by year. Offshore wind turbines are built up to 8 MW today
and have a blade length up to 80 meters (260 ft). Designs with 10 to 12 MW are in
 34

preparation.[32] Usual multi megawatt turbines have tubular steel towers with a height of 70 m to
120 m and in extremes up to 160 m.
2.2.3.2 Vertical Axis
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage
of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which
is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the
turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and
gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-
based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance. However, these designs produce much less
energy averaged over time, which is a major drawback.[27][33]
The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential
higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the
360-degree rotation of the aero foil within the wind flow
during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading
on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some
rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of
modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the
challenges of analyzing and designing the rotor prior to
fabricating a prototype.[34]
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building
generally redirects wind over the roof and this can
double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a
rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of
the building height it is near the optimum for maximum
wind energy and minimum wind turbulence. While wind
speeds within the built environment are generally much
lower than at exposed rural sites,[35][36] noise may be a
concern and an existing structure may not adequately
resist the additional stress. Subtypes of the vertical axis
design include:
2.2.3.3 Darrieus Wind Turbine
"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named
after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus.[37] They
have good efficiency, but produce large torque Figure 2.19 A vertical axis Twisted
ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which Savonius type turbine
contributes to poor reliability. They also generally
require some external power source, or an additional
Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced
by using three or more blades, which results in greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by
blade area divided by the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but
have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.[38]
2.2.3.4 Giromill
A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety
has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.[39] The advantages of variable
pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher coefficient of
performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which
lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.[40]
2.2.3.5 Savonius Wind Turbine
 35

These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, Flettner vents
(commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines.
They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops. Twisted Savonius is a modified
savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque. This is often used as a rooftop wind
turbine and has even been adapted for ships.[41]
2.2.3.6 Parallel
The parallel turbine is similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan. It uses the ground effect. Vertical
axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a unit producing 10 kW was built by Israeli
wind pioneer Bruce Brill in the 1980s.[42]

2.2.4 References
[1] Evans, Annette; Strezov, Vladimir; Evans, Tim (June 2009). "Assessment of sustainability indicators
for renewable energy technologies". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews..
[2] Drachmann, A.G. (1961). "Heron's Windmill". Centaurus. 7: 145–151.
[3] Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte,
Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995).
[4] Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p.
4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
[5] Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American,
May 1991, pp. 64–69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering) en.wind-turbine-
models.com.
[6] Morthorst, Poul Erik; Redlinger, Robert Y.; Andersen, Per (2002). Wind energy in the 21st century:
economics, policy, technology and the changing electricity industry. Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire: Palgrave/UNEP. ISBN 978-0-333-79248-3.
[7] Price, Trevor J. (2004). "Blyth, James (1839–1906)". Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press.
[8] A Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush. Danish Wind Industry Association. Archived from the
original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
[9] "Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas". Archived
from the original on 3 February 2008.
[10] Alan Wyatt: Electric Power: Challenges and Choices. Book Press Ltd., Toronto 1986, ISBN 0-
920650-00-7
[11] "Bauer, Lucas. "Krasnovsky WIME D-30 – 100,00 kW – Wind turbine".
[12] Anon. "Costa Head Experimental Wind Turbine". Orkney Sustainable Energy Website. Orkney
Sustainable Energy Ltd. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
[13] Overland, Indra (1 March 2019). "The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging
myths". Energy Research & Social Science.
[14] "NREL: Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools – Wind Maps". Nrel.gov. 3 September 2013.
Retrieved 6 November 2013.
[15] Appendix II IEC Classification of Wind Turbines. Wind Resource Assessment and Micro-siting,
Science and Engineering. 2015. pp. 269–
270. doi:10.1002/9781118900116.app2. ISBN 9781118900116.
 36

[16] "The Physics of Wind Turbines Kira Grogg Carleton College, 2005, p. 8"(PDF). Retrieved 6
November 2013.
[17] "Wind Energy Basics". Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 23 April2016.
[18] "Enercon E-family, 330 Kw to 7.5 MW, Wind Turbine Specification"(PDF). Archived from the
original (PDF) on 16 May 2011.
[19] Tony Burton et al., (ed), Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley and Sons
2001 ISBN 0471489972 page 65.
[20] Sanne Wittrup. "11 years of wind data shows surprising production decrease" (in
Danish) Ingeniøren, 1 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
[21] Barber, S.; Wang, Y.; Jafari, S.; Chokani, N.; Abhari, R. S. (28 January 2011). "The Impact of Ice
Formation on Wind Turbine Performance and Aerodynamics". Journal of Solar Energy
Engineering. 133 (1): 011007–011007–9. doi:10.1115/1.4003187. ISSN 0199-6231.
[22] Hau., Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics. Springer. Germany.
2006
[23] "Atmospheric stability and topography effects on wind turbine performance and wake properties
in complex terrain". doi:10.1016/j.renene.2018.03.048.
[24] Ozdamar, G. (2018). "Numerical Comparison of the Effect of Blade Material on Wind Turbine
Efficiency". Acta Physica Polonica A. 134: 156–158. doi:10.12693/APhysPolA.134.156.
[25] "Wind Energy Basics". American Wind Energy Association. Archived from the original on 23
September 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
[26] Elizabeth Stinson (15 May 2015). "The Future of Wind Turbines? No Blades". Wired.
[27] Jump up to:a Paul Gipe (7 May 2014). "News & Articles on Household-Size (Small) Wind
Turbines". Wind-works.org.
[28] "Wind Turbine Components". Danish Wind Industry Association. 10 May 2003. Archived from the
original on 7 June 2008.
[29] G. Bywaters; P. Mattila; D. Costin; J. Stowell; V. John; S. Hoskins; J. Lynch; T. Cole; A. Cate; C.
Badger; B. Freeman (October 2007). "Northern Power NW 1500 Direct-Drive Generator" (PDF).
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. p. iii.
[30] Magnetic Pseudo direct drive generator
[31] Innwind: Overview of the project and research
[32] "MHI Vestas Launches World's First* 10 Megawatt Wind Turbine". 26 September 2018.
[33] Michael Barnard (7 April 2014). "Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: Great In 1890, Also-rans In
2014". CleanTechnica.
[34] Michael C Brower; Nicholas M Robinson; Erik Hale (May 2010). "Wind Flow Modeling
Uncertainty" (PDF). AWS Truepower. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013.
[35] Hugh Piggott (6 January 2007). "Windspeed in the city – reality versus the DTI database".
Scoraigwind.com. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
[36] "Urban Wind Turbines" (PDF).
[37] "Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines". Symscape. 7 July 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
[38] Exploit Nature-Renewable Energy Technologies by Gurmit Singh, Aditya Books, pp 378
 37

[39] Eric Eggleston & AWEA Staff. "What Are Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs)?". American Wind
Energy Association. Archived from the original on 3 April 2005.
[40] Marloff, R.H. (January 1978). "Stresses in turbine-blade tenons subjected to
bending". Experimental Mechanics. 18 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1007/BF02326553.
[41] Rob Varnon (2 December 2010). "Derecktor converting boat into hybrid passenger
ferry". Connecticut Post. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[42] "Modular wind energy device – Brill, Bruce I". Freepatentsonline.com. 19 November 2002.
Retrieved 6 November 2013.
[43] Hewitt, Sam; Margetts, Lee & Revell, Alistair (18 April 2017). "Building a digital wind
farm". Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering. 25(4): 879–899.
[44] Navid Goudarzi (June 2013). "A Review on the Development of the Wind Turbine Generators
across the World". International Journal of Dynamics and Control. 1 (2): 192–
202. doi:10.1007/s40435-013-0016-y.
[45] Navid Goudarzi; Weidong Zhu (November 2012). "A Review of the Development of Wind Turbine
Generators Across the World". ASME 2012 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and
Exposition. 4 – Paper No: IMECE2012-88615: 1257–1265.

2.2.5 Wind Turbine Working Principle

The structure itself is rather simple and fairly common nowadays (see Figure 2.20). The rotor is
made of generally three blades fixed to a hub. The hub is responsible for the blade control and for
connecting the rotor mechanism to the rotor shaft (and consequently to the electrical generator). The
nacelle (see Figure 2.22) is the enclosure that holds all mechanical organs of the machine (gearbox,
rotor brake, bearings, etc.) as well as the generator and control systems. The bedplate, which
connects the nacelle to the tower, is responsible for a very important movement of the WT, the yaw
system, allowing the HAWT to face the direction of the wind flow. Finally, the tower is the structure
that holds the machine in place and that connects the HAWT to the electrical grid.

Figure 2.20 Schematic of a Wind Turbine Generation System- (Courtesy of Gaurav Kapoor)
 38

2.2.5.1 Airfoils and Blade Design

The most important factor in designing a wind turbine is the choice of airfoils from which the blade
gets it aerodynamic shape, as the entire blade is shape lofted from these airfoils sections. The lift
generated from these airfoils at every section causes the rotation of the blade, also the performance
of the blade is highly dependent on airfoil performance. The airfoil near the blade root are usually
thicker and are flat-back (or rounded trailing edge) to make the blade thicker at the root section. The
airfoil section at the tip of the blade has a sharp trailing edge for achieving higher tip speed ratio. The
airfoil sections closer to the
tip of the blade generate
higher lift force due to the
speed variation in the
relative wind, the purpose
of airfoils at the root of
blade is mainly structural,
having a minimal
contribution to the Figure 2.21 Profiles of Flat-back and Sharp Trailing Edge Airfoils
aerodynamic performance
of the blade. Thus the root section of the wind turbine blade is thicker and stronger than its tip section
(Figure 2.21). Wind turbine blades are shaped to extract maximum power from the wind at the
minimum cost involved. Primarily the blade design is driven by the aerodynamic and performance
requirements. But in true sense, the economics mean that the blade shape is a compromise to keep
the cost of construction, operation and maintenance to a minimum. The blade design procedure
starts with obtaining a solution set for both aerodynamic and structural efficiency. The best blade
design is a tradeoff between both aerodynamic performance and structural stiffness.

Figure 2.22 Schematic of Internal Components of a Modern HAWT- (Courtesy of Gaurav Kapoor)
 39

2.2.5.2 Blade Twist

Analogous to an airplane wing, wind turbine blades work by generating lift force due to their airfoil
shape. The more curved side generates low air pressures while high pressure air pushes on the
pressure side of the airfoil. The net result of this pressure difference on either side of the blade
surface is a lift force perpendicular to the direction of flow of the air. Since the turbine blade is in
motion, the true wind is
incident on it from a different
angle. This is called apparent
wind as shown in Figure
2.23. The apparent wind is
stronger than the true wind
but its angle is less favorable
to generate a driving force on
the blade. This also means that
the lift force contributes to the
thrust the rotor. To maintain
an effective angle of attack to
generate lift, the blade must be Figure 2.23 Blade Twist at Span-wise Sections (Airfoils) and
turned further from the true Apparent Wind Angles
wind angle which gives twist
to the blade from root to tip. It can be seen that the blade tip is moving faster through the air
compared to the blade region closer to the root, hence the tip is operating at a greater apparent wind
angle. Thus, the blade needs to be turned further at the tips than at the root, which essentially means
it must be built with an inherent twist along is length. The requirement to twist the blades has
implications on the manufacturing processes.

2.2.5.3 Tip Speed Ratio (TSR)

The rotational speed at which the turbine operates is a fundamental choice in the blade design. It is
defined in terms of the speed of the blade tips relative to the free wind speed. This is called the tip
speed ratio (λ) and its
definition as shown:

ωR
λ=
v0
Eq. 2.6
Where, 𝜔 is the angular
velocity of the wind
turbine rotor, 𝑅 is
radius of the rotor and
𝑣0 is the free wind
speed. A higher tip
speed ratio (TSR)
induces the net
aerodynamic force on
the blade (component
of lift and drag) to be
approximately parallel
to the rotor axis . The Figure 2.24 Swirling Flow in the Wind Turbine Wake
lift to drag ratio can be
 40

affected severely by presence of dirt or roughness on the blade surfaces15. Low tip speed ratio
unfortunately results is lower aerodynamic efficiency due to two effects. Since the lift force on the
blade generates torque, according to the laws of motion, it has an equal but opposite effect on the
incident wind, tending to push it around tangentially in the other direction. As a result, the air
downwind of the turbine has a swirl, i.e. it spins in the opposite direction to the blade rotation, as
depicted in Figure 2.24. This swirl represents lost power which reduces the available power that
can be extracted from the incident wind. Lower rotational speed requires higher torque to maintain
the same power output, so lower tip speed ratio results in greater wake swirl losses.
The other reason for the reduction in aerodynamic efficiency at low tip speed ratio is due to the tip
losses, where high-pressure air from the upwind side of the blade escapes around the blade tip to the
low-pressure side, thereby wasting energy. Since power is a product of blade torque and rotational
speed, at slower
rotational speed the
blades need to generate
more lift force to
maintain the same
power output. In order
to generate greater lift
for a given length, the
blade has to be wider,
geometrically speaking,
a greater proportion of
the blade’s width is Figure 2.26 Typical Wind Turbine Blade Planform View
designed to be close to
the tip (Figure 2.26).
The higher lift force on
a wider blade
translates to greater
structural loads on the
outer components such
as the hub and
bearings. There are
practical limits on the
absolute tip speed ratio
as well. At these speeds,
bird impacts and rain
erosion starts to
decrease the longevity
of the blades and noise Figure 2.25 Typical Wind Turbine Power Output Curve
increases dramatically
with the tip speed.

2.2.5.4 Wind Turbine Operation

Wind turbine operating condition depends on the speed of free stream wind speed; generally, it can
be divided into three operation modes (Figure 2.25),
• Cut-in speed - the minimum wind speed at which the turbine blades overcome frictional force
and begin to rotate.

15Nianxin Ren , Jinping Ou, “Dust Effect on the Performance of Wind Turbine Airfoils”, J.Electromagnetic
Analysis & Applications, 2009, 1: 102-107, doi:10.4236/jemaa.2009.12016, Published Online June 2009.
 41

• Operation mode - the range of wind speeds within which the wind turbine actively
generates power.
• Cut-out mode - the speed at which the turbine is brought to rest to avoid structural
damage due to high wind speeds.

2.2.5.5 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics

A wind turbine extracts mechanical energy from the kinetic energy of the wind by slowing down the
wind. It can either be a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) or a Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine
(VAWT), depending on either it rotates around its horizontal axis or vertical axis, respectively As
discussed earlier, many methods for computing the aerodynamic performance of wind turbines exist.
In 1935, [Betz and Glauert]16 derived the classical analysis method, the Blade Element Momentum
Theory (BEMT), which combines the Blade Element and Momentum theories. But at the present,
only flow equations from the Actuator Disc concept are used and the same will be discussed below.

Figure 2.27 Actuator Disk Concept for Wind Turbine Rotor

2.2.5.6 Actuator Disk Concept

The actuator disk concept is widely used to define the basic aerodynamic flow around the wind
turbine. According to this concept, the wind turbine is considered as an ideal actuator disk:
frictionless, with an infinite number of blades and with no rotational velocity component in the wake
downstream of the turbine. The flow around the turbine is assumed to be homogeneous and steady,
while the air is considered incompressible. If the mass of air passing through the turbine is assumed
to be separated from the mass that does not pass, the separated part of the flow field remains a long
stream tube lying up and downstream of the turbine. As the flow approaches the wind turbine, it
suffers a velocity drop, and in order to compensate for this drop, the stream tube expands (Figure
2.27). From Figure 2.28, the non-dimensionalized difference between the free stream velocity 𝑣0
and axial induced velocity 𝑢, the axial induction factor is defined as:

16 Albert Betz, “Betz Law for Wind Turbines”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz%27s_law.

 42

V0 − U
a=
V0
Eq. 2.7
The shaft power 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is calculated by using the energy equation on a control volume defined
by the stream tube and assuming no change in the internal energy of the flow (since it is assumed to
be frictionless). The power available is;

P = 2ρv0 a(1 − a)AR

Eq. 2.8
where 𝐴𝑅 is the area of the rotor and which
is often non-dimensionalized with respect
to 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 as a power coefficient 𝐶𝑃,

Pavialable
CP =
(1/2)AR ρv03
Eq. 2.9
The power coefficient for the ideal wind
turbine may also be written as:

CP = 4a (1 − a)2
dCP
= a(1 − a)(1 − 3a)
da
Eq. 2.10
The maximum value of 𝐶𝑃 = 16⁄27 = ~
0.593 is obtained for 𝑎 = 1⁄3. This
theoretical maximum value is known as the
Betz Limit and it is not possible to design a
wind turbine that goes beyond this
theoretical limit. In other words, according Figure 2.28 Actuator Disk Concept, Pressure and
to the Betz's law, no turbine can capture Velocity Profiles
more than 16/27 (~ 59.3%) of the kinetic
energy in wind.

2.2.6 Case Study - Flow Around a Wind Turbine

Authors : Fernando Porté-Agel · Majid Bastankhah · Sina Shamsoddin
Published in : Boundary-Layer Meteorology, Springer Nature, Sept 2019.
Link : (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
One of the main challenges of wind farms is the prediction of their performance, owing to the complex
multiscale two-way interactions between wind farms and the turbulent Atmospheric Boundary
Layer (ABL), as investigated by [Porté-Agel et al.]17. The article reviews recent theoretical,
experimental, and computational research on wind-turbine and wind-farm flows, with emphasis on
turbine wakes and their interaction with the ABL. The presence of a wind turbine affects the airflow
both upwind and downwind of the turbine [Wilson et al. ; Spera; Burton et al.]. The upwind region
affected by the turbine is called the induction region. Prior studies (e.g., Medici et al. ; Simley et al.)

17Fernando Porté-Agel, Majid Bastankhah, Sina Shamsoddin, “Wind-Turbine and Wind-Farm Flows: A Review”,
Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 2019.
 43

have shown that the main impact of the turbine on that region is a reduction in wind speed, which
can be estimated acceptably with the following simple relationship based on the vortex sheet theory
[Medici et al.],
−0.5
u̅ 2x 2x 2
= 1 − a {1 + [1 + ( ) ] }
u̅∞ d d
Eq. 2.11
where u is the streamwise velocity component along the rotor axis (the overbar denotes time
averaging), x is the streamwise position (being zero at the turbine and negative upwind), u ∞ is the
streamwise velocity component far upwind, d is the rotor diameter, and a is the rotor induction
factor. The region downwind of the turbine is called the wake. The wind-turbine wake itself is
generally divided into two regions (Vermeer et al.):
• Region immediately downwind of the turbine with a length of 2-4 rotor diameters, called the
near-wake,
• Region further downstream, called the far-wake.
Figure 2.29 shows a schematic of the different regions affected by the presence of the wind turbine.
The near-wake is directly influenced by the presence of the wind turbine, so characteristics of the
turbine, such as the blade profile, hub and nacelle geometry, can affect the flow field in this region.
As a result, the near-wake is characterized by highly complex, three-dimensional (3D), and
heterogeneous flow distribution. In contrast, the far-wake region is less influenced by detailed

Figure 2.29 Schematic figure showing the flow regions resulting from the interaction of a wind
turbine and incoming turbulent boundary layer. Depicted are the most characteristic instantaneous
(top) and time-averaged (bottom) flow features
 44

features of the wind turbine. Instead, global wind-turbine parameters, such as the thrust and power
coefficient, and incoming flow conditions, are likely enough to predict the mean flow distribution in
this region. In the following, we provide an overview of the aerodynamic research on wakes (both
near- and far-wake regions) of single turbines in horizontally-homogeneous boundary layers.

2.2.6.1 Near-Wake
2.2.6.1.1 Tip and Root Vortices
The most striking features of turbine near-wakes are perhaps the periodic helicoidal vortex
structures shedding from the tip and the root of the rotor blades (Figure 2.29). The presence of tip
and root vortices in the near-wake of wind turbines has been widely demonstrated in the literature
(see Figure 2.30). These vortex structures are caused by the difference in pressure between the
pressure and suction sides of the rotor blade (Andersen et al.). Consequently, their shedding
frequency is three times of the rotor rotational frequency for a three-bladed HAWT. While the helix
pitch (i.e., the streamwise distance between two consecutive vortices) of tip vortices is evidently
greater than the pitch of the root vortices, both decrease with the increase of tip-speed ratio (i.e., the
ratio between the velocity of the blade tip to that of the unperturbed incoming flow at hub height).
The evolution and stability of tip and root vortices have received extensive attention in the literature
both numerically and experimentally.

Figure 2.30 Flow visualizations of the 3D helical vortex structures behind a turbine rotor for
different values of tip-speed ratio λ (figure reprinted from Okulov et al. (2014) with permission of
Cambridge University Press)

The main focus has been given to the study of tip vortices as they are more persistent (Sherry et al.).
Moreover, tip vortices can reduce flow entrainment in the near wake by separating this region from
 45

the outer flow. Therefore, it is of great interest to understand the underlying mechanisms that lead
to the evolution and breakdown of tip vortices. To this end, several wind-tunnel studies have been
performed based on high-resolution particle-image velocimetry measurements (both phase-locked
and free-run) to visualize the tip vortices at different locations and time instants. These studies
reported that tip vortices have some random fluctuations around their statistically-averaged
positions. These random motions are referred to as vortex wandering or vortex jittering (Heyes et
al.), and their amplitude increases with the vortex age and the incoming turbulence intensity.
Different mechanisms have been proposed to be responsible for the breakdown of helical vortex
filaments. The mutual inductance instability is, however, considered as the dominant mode of
instability for helical vortex filaments when the helix pitch decreases beyond a certain limit. The
mutual inductance instability results in the pairing of tip vortices and ultimately their breakdown.
The decrease of helix pitch intensifies the mutual inductance instability, so the breakdown of tip
vortices occurs faster at higher tip-speed ratios (Sørensen et al.). It is also important to note that,
under turbulent boundary-layer inflow conditions, the lifetime of tip vortices is significantly reduced
due to the relatively high turbulence intensity and wind shear (Lu and Porté-Agel).
2.2.6.1.2 Hub Vortex
The presence of the so-called hub vortex, a vortical structure located at the central part of the near-
wake and elongated in the streamwise direction, has recently received some attention. Several wind-
tunnel and numerical studies, by various researchers, have shown that the hub vortex is
characterized by a single helix counter-winding instability, which interacts with the tip-vortex layer.
This helical vortex structure induces periodic motions in the central part of the near-wake. Similar
periodic motions in the central part of the near-wake have been also associated to vortex shedding
(e.g., Medici and Alfredsson), commonly seen behind bluff bodies (e.g., cylinders). It is a common
practice to describe the frequency of periodic oscillations by the dimensionless Strouhal number
St, which is given by
fd
St =
u̅h
Eq. 2.12
where f is the oscillation frequency, d is the rotor diameter, and ūh is the mean incoming wind speed
at hub height. A relatively large discrepancy exists between the values of St reported by different
numerical and wind-tunnel studies, ranging between 0.12 and 0.85. This emphasizes the need for
further study to elucidate the underlying mechanisms leading to the development of the hub vortex.
It should also be mentioned that all the above studies were performed with laboratory-scale wind
turbines; therefore, it is of interest to investigate if the same periodic motions can be observed in the
wake of utility-scale turbines, for which the ratio of the nacelle to the rotor is smaller than that of
laboratory-scale turbines.
Finally, it is also important to point out that these periodic motions observed in the central part of
the near-wake are different from the random oscillations of the turbine far-wakes, often referred to
as wake meandering. Meandering of turbine far-wakes is mainly caused by very large turbulent
structures in the incoming boundary layer, and is discussed in detail in Sect. 2.2.6.2.2.

2.2.6.1.3 Mean Flow Distribution

Based on the conservation of angular momentum, the near-wake rotates in the opposite direction
from that of the turbine blades [Manwell et al.], and the amount of the rotation decreases with
increasing downstream distance [Zhang et al.]. A speed-up region is also observed in the central part
of the near-wake, particularly at higher tip-speed ratios (Bastankhah and Porté-Agel). In spite of this
complex nature, for the sake of simplicity, the near-wake has been modelled in some studies with a
uniform velocity-deficit distribution in the central part, and a varying velocity deficit in the side shear
layers, as shown in Figure 2.29 (dashed lines). Based on this simplified description, the side shear
 46

layers expand downstream until the central region with the uniform velocity deficit ultimately
vanishes. Further downstream, the far-wake region, characterized by a self-similar Gaussian velocity-
deficit distribution, is found. The length of the near-wake is influenced by a range of parameters such
as the turbulence intensity of the incoming flow [Wu and Porté-Agel], the mechanical shear generated
by the turbine (Vermeulen 1980), and the turbine tip-speed ratio. Different models have been
proposed in the literature to predict the length of the turbine near-wake. Based on the model
proposed by [Sørensen et al.], the normalized near-wake length xn/d is given by

xn 1 16u̅3c
= − [( ) ln(0.3𝐼) + 5.5 ln(𝐼)]
d 2 Nb λCT
Eq. 2.13
where ūc is the mean convective velocity of the tip vortices normalized by the incoming flow speed
(typically within the range of 0.73–0.78), Nb is the number of blades, λ is the tip-speed ratio, CT is the
thrust coefficient, and I is the incoming streamwise turbulence intensity.

2.2.6.2 Far-Wake
2.2.6.2.1 Mean Flow Velocity Distribution
In contrast to the near-wake region, the far-wake region has more universal characteristics as it is
less influenced by the detailed features of the rotor. Given the fact that turbine spacing in wind farms
usually falls within the range of 3 to 10 rotor diameters, wind turbines commonly operate in the far-
wake of upwind turbines.
As a result, understanding turbine far-wakes is essential for improving the prediction and
optimization of wind-turbine power output in wind farms. In recent years, a great deal of attention
has been paid to studying mean flow distribution in turbine far-wakes by means of field
measurements , laboratory experiments [Medici and Alfredsson; Chamorro and Porté-Agel], among
many others, and numerical simulations.
Due to the entrainment of the outer flow, the wake is found to grow in both lateral and vertical
directions as it moves downstream, and the value of the streamwise velocity component increases
until the wake completely recovers far downstream.
Early studies of wind-turbine wakes in uniform inflows showed that the streamwise velocity profiles
have an axisymmetric Gaussian distribution in this region. In the case of boundary-layer flows,
although later studies showed that wake velocity profiles lose the Gaussian shape due to the incoming
shear and the presence of the ground (see the schematic in Figure 2.29), profiles of the velocity
deficit Δū (i.e., difference between the incoming flow speed and that of the wake) still retain the
Gaussian distribution, except at the edge of the wake. The slight disagreement between the velocity-
deficit profiles and the Gaussian distribution seen at the wake edges has also been reported for other
types of wake flows [Pope; Johansson et al.; Okulov et al.].
One of the inherent characteristics of Gaussian profiles is self-similarity, implying that the profile of
velocity deficit (normalized by its maximum value) as a function of the distance from the wake center
(normalized by the wake width σ) is constant with streamwise position. Far-wake self-similarity
facilitates the development of simple analytical models for the prediction of the mean flow
distribution in this region, see Sect. 2.2.7.1.
Classical theoretical studies on three-dimensional wakes of bluff bodies (e.g., disks) have shown that
the wake velocity deficit Δū decays with x−2/3 along the rotor axis while the increase of the wake width
σ with the streamwise distance is proportional to x1/3.
These theoretical analyses are based on the assumption that shear-generated turbulence due to the
wake is mainly responsible for the wake recovery, and the effect of the incoming flow turbulence is
negligible. This theoretical result is confirmed by experimental studies of turbine far-wakes under
laminar inflow conditions. In more realistic situations when the ambient turbulence is present,
 47

however, wake recovery deviates considerably from the aforementioned theory. Several LES, wind-
tunnel, and field studies of turbine wakes have shown that the wake width increases approximately
linearly with x, and its recovery rate, denoted by k, is larger for boundary layers with higher
turbulence intensity [e.g. Bastankhah & Porté-Agel ; Fuertes et al.].
This is the main reason why turbine wakes in a rough boundary layer recover more rapidly than
those in a smooth boundary layer [Chamorro and Porté-Agel ; Wu and Porté-Agel ]. This is illustrated
in Figure 2.31, showing contours of the time-averaged streamwise velocity component for the wake
of a wind turbine installed over flat terrain with different roughness lengths. This effect explains why,
in general, the capacity density of offshore wind farms is smaller than that of their onshore
counterparts.

Figure 2.31 Contours of the time-averaged streamwise velocity component (in m s−1) in the vertical
plane normal to the rotor plane, at zero span, for different roughness lengths. Figure taken from Wu and
Porté-Agel (2012), in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license)

2.2.6.2.2 Turbulence Distribution

In addition to the far-wake mean velocity distribution, turbulence characteristics of far-wakes have
been extensively studied in the literature. Specifically, the following turbulence quantities are mostly
considered:

2.2.6.2.3 Streamwise Turbulence Intensity

Wind turbine far-wakes are known to have a high turbulence intensity with respect to the incoming
flow, in particular the upper part of the wake. The increased turbulence intensity in far-wakes has
 48

received considerable attention in the literature as it can induce harmful unsteady loads on
downwind turbines. The turbulence intensity (I), and turbulence intensity added by the turbine ΔI,
is given by [Frandsen],
σ𝑢
I= , ∆I = √Iw
2 − I2
u̅ℎ
Eq 2.14
where Iw is the streamwise turbulence intensity in the wake. Under uniform inflow conditions, Iw has
a double Gaussian profile with the maximum values occurring at the edge of the wakes. In boundary-
layer flows, while the maximum value of the turbulence intensity usually occurs close to the upper
edge of the wake as shown in Figure 2.32a, the turbulence is suppressed by the turbine in regions
close to the ground. The value of ΔI reaches its maximum in the range of two to four rotor diameters
downstream at the top-tip level, coinciding with the transition between the near-wake and the far-
wake. The peak of I therefore occurs earlier for incoming boundary layers with higher turbulence
intensity since the near-wake is shorter in this case [Wu and Porté-Agel]. Further downstream, the
value of turbulence intensity monotonically decreases with x in the far-wake. Different empirical and
semi-empirical models have been proposed in the literature to predict the variation of ΔI with x in
turbine far-wakes.

Figure 2.32 Distribution of, a streamwise turbulence intensity I = σu/ ūh, and b normalized kinematic
vertical turbulent momentum flux Bar(u’ w’)/ ū2h , in a vertical plane at zero span. Figure reprinted from
Barlas et al. (2016) with the permission of Springer Nature

2.2.6.2.4 Turbulent Momentum Flux

The spatial distribution of the turbulent momentum flux in turbine wakes reflects the entrainment
of air from the outer flow towards the wake center, and given by

Turbulent Momentum Flux = ̅̅̅̅̅

ρu
⏟ ′ v′ , ⏟̅̅̅̅̅̅
ρu ′w′

Lateral Direction Vertical Direction

Eq. 2.15
where primes indicate turbulent fluctuations. Similar to the streamwise turbulence intensity, the
magnitude of the momentum flux is greater at the edges of the far-wake, especially close to the upper
edge of the wake where the wind shear is greater, as seen in Figure 2.32b.
 49

2.2.6.2.5 Turbulence Kinetic Energy (TKE)

The analysis of the TKE provides insights into the production and transportation of turbulence
structures in wind-turbine wakes, as given

1 ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
′2 + v ̅̅̅̅̅
′2 + w ′2)
TKE = (u
2
Eq. 2.16
Prior studies showed that the TKE production has high values in the near-wake, particularly in the
upper edge of the wake, where mean shear and turbulent fluxes are significant. The generated TKE
at the edge of the turbine wake is then advected by the mean wind downstream.

2.2.7 Wake Twisting

Wake meandering relates to the random unsteady oscillations of the entire wake with respect to the
time-averaged wake centerline. These random oscillations lead to strong turbulence generation and
consequently harmful unsteady loads on downwind turbines. There is almost unanimous agreement
in the wind energy community that wake meandering is caused by very large turbulent eddies in the
incoming boundary layer. [Ainslie] is perhaps the first study to incorporate the effect of wake
meandering into the wake-flow prediction. Later, [Larsen et al.] postulated that, while the wake
recovery is governed by small turbulent eddies, the whole wake is advected passively by turbulent
eddies larger than twice the rotor diameter. Therefore, if the low frequency variation of the incoming
flow is known, one can model random oscillations of the turbine wake as a passive scalar. This study
became the basis of the dynamic wake meandering (DWM) model that was later validated and used
to predict instantaneous wake center position and unsteady loads on downwind turbines in field.
Instead of the incoming flow speed, estimated the wake transportation based on the wake model.
Although this assumption is not consistent with the passive scalar hypothesis, they reported a better
agreement between DMW predictions and field measurements. The DMW predictions in comparison
with field measurements are shown in Figure 2.33.

Figure 2.33 Wake temporal oscillations at three rotor diameters downwind of a turbine. Velocity
contours obtained from lidar measurements in the field are shown in greyscale, and the red line
indicates the temporal variation of the wake center predicted by the DWM model. Figure reprinted from
Bingöl et al. (2010) with the permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc

The connection between the incoming flow characteristics and wake meandering has been further
studied in a series of recent wind-tunnel studies. [España et al.] experimentally confirmed that wake
meandering does not occur unless turbulent eddies much larger than the turbine rotor diameter exist
in the incoming flow. One of the commonly reported characteristics of wake meandering is that
 50

lateral displacements are much more pronounced than vertical ones. The same author argued that
this difference is due to the higher value of σv than σw in turbulent boundary-layer flows.
[Bastankhah and Porté-Agel] hypothesized that this difference is due to the lateral meandering
tendency of very-large-scale motions (VLSMs) present in the incoming boundary layer. VSLMs or
superstructures are very long low- and high-momentum structures observed both in the atmospheric
surface layer and the logarithmic region of a laboratory scale boundary layer. The length scale of
VLSMs can exceed 20δ, where δ is the boundary-layer thickness [Fang and Porté-Agel], and they are
very energetic structures since they account for a considerable share of the TKE and shear stress. The
interaction of VLSMs with wind-turbine wakes might explain another feature of turbine wake
meandering: namely, the fact that the mean wake cross-section is not stretched laterally in spite of
large meandering motions in the lateral direction.

2.2.7.1 Analytical Wake Modelling

Some applications such as wind-farm-layout optimization require the prediction of wake flows for
many (on the order of thousands or more, depending on the optimization technique) scenarios
including, but not limited to, multiple layouts and variations in wind direction, wind speed, and
thermal stratification. Such optimization can only be achieved using simple and computationally
inexpensive wake models. These models can be divided into two main categories:

➢ Empirical Models,
➢ Analytical Models.

Empirical models have been used mainly to estimate the variation of the wake-center velocity deficit
with the streamwise distance from the turbine rotor. Based on these models, the velocity deficit is
generally assumed to have a power-law relationship with x, which is written as

∆u̅ x n
= A( )
u̅∞ d
Eq. 2.17
where A and n are coefficients obtained from experimental and numerical data. Unlike empirical
models, whose model equation is obtained solely by fitting experimental or numerical data, analytical
wake models are derived based on flow governing equations and, therefore, have a superior ability
to capture the physics. The wind-energy literature is enriched with many studies aimed at developing
analytical models for wind-turbine wakes. For the sake of brevity, here, we review those that
attracted the most attention: [Jensen], [Frandsen et al.] and [Bastankhah and Porté-Agel].
Jensen developed a pioneering turbine-wake model, which has been extensively used in the literature
and commercial software (e.g., WAsP, Wind PRO, Wind Sim, Wind-Farmer, and Open Wind). The
Jensen model is obtained by applying the conservation of mass to a control volume downwind of the
wind turbine, and then using the so-called Betz theory to relate the wind speed just behind the rotor
to the turbine thrust coefficient CT. It also assumes a top-hat distribution for the velocity deficit in the
wake for the sake of simplicity. The normalized velocity deficit based on this model is given by

∆u̅ 1 − √ 1 − CT
=
u̅∞ (1 + 2k t x/d)2
Eq. 2.18
where CT is the thrust coefficient of the turbine, ū∞ is the mean incoming flow speed, and Δū = ū∞ − ū.
The wake width is assumed to grow linearly with downwind distance and, therefore, the wake
growth rate, kt , is constant. Jensen suggested that kt = 0.1, whereas values of 0.04 or 0.05 for kt in off-
 51

shore cases and 0.075 for onshore cases are suggested in the later literature. Alternatively, kt can be
estimated by the ratio of the friction velocity to the streamwise velocity component at the hub height
for the incoming boundary layer [Frandsen]. For a logarithmic wind profile, this approximately gives

0.5
kt ≈ z
ln (zh )
0
Eq. 2.19
where zh and z0 are the turbine hub height and the roughness length, respectively. [Peña and
Rathmann] extended the above relationship to account for the effect of thermal stratifications on the
wake growth rate. [Frandsen] used the conservation of mass and momentum for a control volume
around the turbine, with the same top-hat shape assumed for velocity-deficit profiles in the wake.
Based on this work, the normalized velocity deficit is given by

∆u 1 2CT
= (1 − √1 − x)
u̅∞ 2 β+α
d
Eq. 2.20
where α is of order of 10kt and
1 + √ 1 − CT
𝛽=
2 √1 − C T
Eq. 2.21
Note that β is meaningful only for values of CT smaller than one. As a result of the assumption of a
top-hat distribution for wake velocity-deficit profiles, these models tend to underestimate the
velocity deficit at the wake center and overestimate it at the edges of the wake. Moreover,
[Bastankhah and Porté-Agel] showed that top-hat models make the power predictions of downwind
turbines unrealistically sensitive to the lateral position of turbines with respect to each other.
Different numerical and experimental data were used by same authors, to show that self-similar
Gaussian distribution can acceptably represent velocity-deficit profiles in turbine far-wakes. The
normalized velocity deficit is therefore given by

𝑟 2
∆u (− 2 )
= C(x)e 2𝜎
u̅∞
Eq. 2.22
where σ is the wake width. A linear wake growth rate is assumed for the wake, since this is in
agreement with wind-tunnel measurements. Hence, σ is given by

σ x
=k +ϵ
d d
Eq. 2.23
where k is the wake growth rate, and is the initial wake width, equal to 0.2√β. The conservation of
mass and momentum in an integral form is expressed by
πd2
T= ρCT u̅2∞ = ρ ∫ u̅ (u̅∞ − u̅) dA
8
Eq. 2.24
 52

where T is the turbine thrust force. Inserting Eq. 2.22 into Eq. 2.24 yields

∆u̅ CT y 2 + (z − zh )2
= 1 − √1 − + exp (− )
u∞ σ 2 2σ2
8( )
d
( )
Eq. 2.25
where σ is given by Eq. 2.23. In order to use this model to predict the wake velocity distribution, the
value of the wake growth rate k has to be estimated for each case. Note that the original version of
the model expressed by Eq. 2.25 assumes that the wake growth rate k is the same in both lateral and
vertical directions. [Abkar and Porté-Agel] and [Xie & Archer] showed, however, that the wake width
in the vertical direction can be different from that in the lateral direction due to the effect of the
ground or thermal stratification. Hence, for the sake of generality, the model can be written as

∆u̅ CT y 2 + (z − zh )2
= (1 − √1 − σ 𝜎 ) + exp (− )
u∞ 𝑦 𝑧
8( 2 ) 2σ𝑦 σ𝑧
d
Eq. 2.26
The data obtained from wind-tunnel measurements [Bastankhah and Porté-Agel] are shown by black
solid lines. The predictions of the analytical models developed by [ Jensen], [Frandsen et al.] and
[Bastankhah and Porté-Agel ] are shown by red dashed lines, green dash-dot lines and blue dashed
lines, respectively where σy and σz are given by

σ𝑦 x σ𝑧 x
= k𝑦 + ϵ , = k𝑧 + ϵ
d d d d
Eq. 2.27
Here, ky and kz are wake growth rates in the y and z directions, respectively, and as mentioned earlier,
∈ = 0.2√β. Figure 2.34 shows the predictions of the analytical models reviewed above in
comparison with the wind-tunnel data recent. The model inputs are determined based on the
incoming boundary-layer flow conditions as well as turbine operating conditions reported in the
mentioned study. The growth rate of the top hat wake kt is calculated according to Eq. 2.19, while
the wake growth rate k for the last model with a Gaussian velocity deficit profile is estimated to be
0.022 based on the wind-tunnel data. A key parameter of this empirical model is the wake growth
rate k, which depends on the turbulence intensity in the incoming flow. [Niayifar and Porté-Agel]
used LES data to propose the following empirical linear relation to estimate k as a function of the
streamwise turbulence intensity I (for 0.06 < I < 0.15),

k ≈ α1 I + α2
Eq. 2.28
with α1 = 0.38 and α2 = 0.004. A recent field study of wind-turbine wakes using two nacelle mounted
 53

lidars has reported a reasonable fit of the measurements using Eq. 2.28 for the growth rate (with α1
= 0.35 and α2 = 0). It should be mentioned that, even though the streamwise turbulence intensity is
extensively used in analytical modelling of wind-turbine wakes (as discussed before), some studies
have suggested that the spanwise and vertical velocity component fluctuations play a dominant role
on the structure and dynamics of wind-turbine wakes. Considering this, [Cheng and Porté-Agel]
proposed a physics-based analytical model for the wake expansion based on Taylor’s diffusion theory
(Taylor).

Figure 2.34 Lateral (top) and vertical (bottom) profiles of the normalized velocity deficit through the
hub level at different downwind locations. The data obtained from wind-tunnel measurements
(Bastankhah and Porté-Agel 2017b) are shown by black solid lines. The predictions of the analytical
models developed by Jensen (1983), Frandsen et al. (2006) and Bastankhah and Porté-Agel (2014b) are
shown by red dashed lines, green dash-dot lines and blue dashed lines, respectively.

2.2.7.2 Summary & Conclusions

We, [Porté-Agel et al.]18, have reviewed the relevant literature on experimental, computational, and
theoretical studies of the interactions of ABL flow with wind turbines and wind farms. Emphasis has
been placed on the current state of our understanding and ability to model wind-turbine wake, flows
and their impact on ABL structure and wind-farm performance. This knowledge is essential for
optimizing the design and control of wind farms. The focused was on the simplest case of the
interaction between a stand-alone horizontal-axis wind turbine and the ABL over homogeneous flat

18Fernando Porté-Agel, Majid Bastankhah, Sina Shamsoddin, “Wind-Turbine and Wind-Farm Flows: A Review”,
Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 2019.
 54

terrain. The structure and dynamics of the main flow regions (induction, near-wake, and far-wake
regions) are discussed, with emphasis on the role of atmospheric turbulence. The main conclusions
can be summarized as follows:

• The near-wake region, whose structure and dynamics (e.g., tip and hub vortices) are affected
by the geometry and operation of the wind turbine, has a length of about two to four rotor
diameters, depending on the turbulence intensity in the ABL.

• The mean flow velocity in the far-wake region, which depends only on global turbine
performance parameters (mainly CT ) and atmospheric turbulence, can be analytically
modelled using conservation of mass and momentum, together with the assumptions of a
Gaussian distribution of the velocity deficit and a nearly-linear wake expansion.

• Recent attempts have been made to estimate the role of atmospheric turbulence on the
growth rate of the far-wake by using empirical relations as well as theoretical developments
based on the analogy with passive scalar plumes.

• The above-mentioned analytical framework for the far-wake flow has been extended to the
case of turbines working under yawed conditions by using conservation of momentum in
both the streamwise and spanwise direction. Experimental and analytical evidence suggests
that yawing can be used as an effective wake mitigation strategy.

• Meandering of the far-wake has been associated with the dynamics of relatively large (larger
than twice the rotor diameter) turbulent eddy motions in the ABL. This connection has been
used to develop models for the position of the instantaneous wake center and the unsteady
loads on downwind turbines.

Notice : In the original paper, authors reviewed an extensive literature survey of subject, which some
ignored here. For a complete information, readers are encouraged to consult the original source
[Porté-Agel et al.]19.

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39. Peña A, Rathmann O (2014) Atmospheric stability-dependent infinite wind-farm models and
the wake-decay coefficient. Wind Energy 17(8):1269–1285.
40. Abkar M, Porté-Agel F (2015) Influence of atmospheric stability on wind-turbine wakes: a
large-eddy simulation study. Phys Fluids 27(3):035,104.
41. Xie S, Archer C (2015) Self-similarity and turbulence characteristics of wind turbine wakes via
large-eddy simulation. Wind Energy 18:1815–1838.
42. Niayifar A, Porté-Agel F (2016) Analytical modeling of wind farms: a new approach for power
prediction. Energies 9(9):741.
43. Cheng W C, Porté-Agel F (2018) A simple physically-based model for wind-turbine wake
growth in a turbulent boundary layer. Boundary-Layer Meteorol.
44. Taylor GI (1922) Diffusion by continuous movements. Proc London Math Soc s2–20(1):196–
212.
 57

3 Conservation of Angular Momentum & Rotating Reference Frame

3.1 Flow in Rotating Reference Frame
Consider a coordinate system which is rotating steadily with angular velocity ω (bold face represents
the vector quantity in picture) relative to a stationary (inertial) reference frame, as illustrated in
Figure 3.1. The origin of the rotating system is located by a position vector r020. The fluid velocities
can be transformed from the stationary frame to the rotating frame using the following relation:

𝐮𝐫 = 𝐮 − 𝛚
⏟×𝐫 where 𝛚 = 𝛚 𝐚̂
whirl velocity
Eq. 3.1
In the above, ur is the relative velocity (the velocity viewed from the rotating frame), u is the
absolute velocity (the velocity viewed from the stationary frame), ω x r is the whirl (or moving)
velocity (the velocity due to the moving frame), and â is unit directional vector depending or rotation
direction. When the equations of motion are solved in the rotating reference frame, the acceleration
of the fluid is augmented by additional terms that appear in the momentum equations21. Moreover,
the equations can be formulated in two different ways:

• Expressing the momentum equations using the relative velocities as dependent variables
(known as the relative velocity formulation).
• Expressing the momentum equations using the absolute velocities as dependent variables in
the momentum equations (known as the absolute velocity formulation).

The exact forms of the governing equations for these two formulations will be provided in the
sections below. It can be noted here that pressure-based solvers provide the option to use either of
these two formulations, whereas the density-based solvers always use the absolute velocity
formulation.

Figure 3.1 Rotating Frame of Reference

20 FLUENT 6.3 User's Guide.

21 G. K. Batchelor. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, 1967.
 58

3.1.1 Centrifugal & Coriolis Forces

From elementary dynamics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a 'fictitious' or
'pseudo' force) directed away from the axis of rotation that appears to act on all objects when viewed
in a rotating reference frame (i.e., ω = curl v). The Coriolis force is an inertial force (also called a
fictitious force) that acts on objects that are in motion relative to a rotating reference frame22. In
reference frame with clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of the object. In one
with anticlockwise rotation, the force acts to the right (see Figure 3.2)

ωω

Figure 3.2 Centrifugal and Coriolis Force

3.1.2 Relative Velocity Formulation

For the relative velocity formulation, the governing equations of fluid flow for a steadily rotating
frame can be written as follows

∂ρ
Mass + ∇. (ρ𝐮r ) = 0
∂t
∂
(ρ𝐮r ) + ∇. (ρ𝐮r 𝐮r ) + ρ (2𝛚
⏟ × 𝐮r + ⏟ 𝛚 × 𝛚 × 𝐫) = −∇p + ∇𝛕rij + 𝐅
∂t Centrifugal
Coriolis
∂
Energy (ρEr ) + ∇. (ρ𝐮r Hr ) = ∇. (k∇T + 𝛕rij ur ) + 𝐒h
∂t
p 1 2 p
Er = h − + [𝐮r − (𝛚 × 𝐫)2 ] , Hr = Er +
ρ 2 ρ
Eq. 3.2
Here, the subscript r is for relative quantities, the momentum equation contains two additional
acceleration terms, the Coriolis acceleration (2ω x ur), and the Centrifugal acceleration (ω x ω x r).
In addition, the viscous stress τijr is defined as before except that relative velocity derivatives are

22 David Apsley, “Fluid-Flow Equations”, spring 2017.

 59

used. The energy equation is written in terms of the relative internal energy (Er) and the relative total
enthalpy (Hr), also known as the rothalpy23.
3.1.3 Absolute Velocity Formulation
For the absolute velocity formulation, the governing equations of fluid flow for a steadily rotating
frame can be written as follows:

ρ
M ass + .( ρu r ) = 0
t

M omentum ( ρu) + .( ρu r u) + ρ(ω
  u) = −p + τ ij + F
t I
Eq. 3.3


Energy ( ρE ) + .( ρu r H + p(ω  r ) = .(kT + τ ij .u) + Sh
t
In this formulation, the Coriolis and Centripetal accelerations can be collapsed into a single term (I).
Be advised that from now on we will be dealing with linear momentum if noted otherwise24.

3.1.4 Early Formulation and Consideration

There are more simplified version of equations depending to the type of analysis. One particular
version is axisymmetric which usually governs the aerospace cruse condition. For example a time-
marching finite volume numerical procedure is presented for 3D Euler analysis of turbomachinery
flows by [Soulis]25. Another pioneering and early studies in the subject prediction of turbomachinery
performance, as indicated by the flow in the through-flow, or axisymmetric plane, is done by [Siebert
and Yocum]26 when only steady-state and incompressible flows are considered.

3.2 Flows with Rotating Reference Frames

By default, the equations of fluid flow and heat transfer are solves in a stationary (or inertial)
reference frame. However, there are many problems where it is advantageous to solve the equations
in a moving (or non-inertial) reference frame. Such problems typically involve moving parts (such
as rotating blades, impellers, and similar types of moving surfaces), and it is the flow around these
moving parts that is of interest. In most cases, the moving parts render the problem unsteady when
viewed from the stationary frame. With a moving reference frame, however, the flow around the
moving part can (with certain restrictions) be modeled as a steady-state problem with respect to the
moving frame. The moving reference frame modeling capability allows you to model problems
involving moving parts by allowing you to activate moving reference frames in selected cell zones.
When a moving reference frame is activated, the equations of motion are modified to incorporate the
additional acceleration terms which occur due to the transformation from the stationary to the
moving reference frame. By solving these equations in a steady-state manner, the flow around the
moving parts can be modeled. For simple problems, it may be possible to refer the entire
computational domain to a single moving reference frame. This is known as the Single Reference
Frame (SRF) approach. The use of the SRF approach is possible, provided the geometry meets

23 FLUENT 6.3 User's Guide.

24 Same as previous.
25 Johannes Vassiliou Soulis, “An Euler Solver For Three-Dimensional Turbomachinery Flows”, International

Journal For Numerical Methods In Fluids, Vol. 20,L-30, 1995.

26 B. W. Siebert, A.M. Yocum, “An Incompressible Axisymmetric Through-Flow Calculation Procedure For Design

And Off-Design Analyses Of Turbomachinery”. Technical Report No. Tr 93-05, 1993.

 60

certain requirements27. For more complex geometries, it may not be possible to use a single
reference frame. In such cases, you must break up the problem into multiple cells zones, with well-
defined interfaces between the zones (MRF). The manner in which the interfaces are treated leads
to three approximate, steady-state modeling methods for this class of problem:

• Single Reference Frame (SRF)

• Multiple Reference Frame (MRF)
• Mixing Plane Method (MPM)

If unsteady interaction between the stationary and moving parts is important, you can employ the
Sliding Mesh approach, or more simplified Non-Uniform Harmonic Balanced Method, to capture
the transient behavior of the flow.
3.2.1 Single Rotating Reference Frame (SRF) Modeling
Many problems permit the entire computational domain to be referred to as a single rotating
reference frame (SRF modeling). In such cases, the equations for a Rotating Reference Frame are
solved in all fluid cell zones. Steady-state solutions are possible in SRF models provided suitable
boundary conditions are prescribed. In particular, wall boundaries must adhere to the following
requirements:

• Any walls which are moving with the reference frame can assume any shape. An example
would be the blade surfaces associated with a pump impeller. The no slip condition is defined
in the relative frame such that the relative velocity is zero on the moving walls.
• Walls can be defined which are non-moving with respect to the stationary coordinate system,
but these walls must be surfaces of revolution about the axis of rotation. Here the so slip
condition is defined such that the absolute velocity is zero on the walls. An example of this
type of boundary would be a cylindrical wind tunnel wall which surrounds a rotating
propeller.

Rotationally periodic boundaries may also be used, but the surface must be periodic about the axis
of rotation. As an example, it is very common to model through a blade row on a turbomachine by
assuming the flow to be
rotationally periodic and using a
periodic domain about a single
blade. This permits good
resolution of the flow around the
blade without the expense of
model all blades in the blade row
(see Figure 3.3). Flow boundary
conditions (inlets and outlets) can
be in most cases prescribed in
either the stationary or rotating
frames. For example, for a velocity
inlet, one can specify either the
relative velocity or absolute
velocity, depending on which is
more convenient. In some cases Figure 3.3 Single Blade Model with Rotationally Periodic
(e.g. pressure inlets) there are Boundaries

27 FLUENT 6.3 User's Guide.

 61

restrictions based upon the velocity formulation which has been chosen. For additional information,
reader should refer to FLUENT 6.3® user manual.
3.2.1.1 Case Study - Aerodynamics and Structural Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade 28
wind blade design is determined using blade element momentum. The blade plays a pivotal role,
because it is the most important part of the energy absorption system. Practical horizontal axis wind
turbine (HAWT) designs use airfoils to transform the kinetic energy in the wind into useful energy
and it has to be designed carefully to enable to absorb energy with its greatest efficiency. There are
many factors for selecting a profile. One significant factor is the chord length and twist angle which
depend on various values throughout the blade. In this work, the airfoil sections used in horizontal
axis wind turbine (HAWT) are S818; S825 and S826 airfoils used in NREL phase 2 and phase 3 wind
turbines. They have several advantages in meeting the intrinsic requirements for wind turbines in
terms of design point, off-design capabilities and structural properties. The lift and drag goes beyond
the traditional aim of capacity maximization, contributing also for organization’s profitability and
value. Indeed, lean management and continuous improvement approaches suggest capacity
optimization instead of maximization. The study of capacity optimization and costing models is an
important research topic that deserves contributions from both the practical and theoretical
perspectives. This paper presents and discusses a mathematical model for capacity management
based on different costing models (ABC and TDABC). A generic model has been developed and it was
used to analyze idle capacity and to design strategies towards the maximization of organization’s
value. The trade-off capacity maximization vs operational efficiency is highlighted and it is shown
that capacity optimization might hide operational inefficiency.
3.2.1.1.1 Introduction
The power efficiency of wind energy systems has a high impact in the economic analysis of this kind
of renewable energies. The efficiency in these systems depends on many subsystems: blades,
gearbox, electric generator and control. Some factors involved in blade efficiency are the wind
features, e.g. Its probabilistic distribution, the mechanical interaction of blade with the electric
generator, and the strategies dealing with pitch and rotational speed control 29. It is a complex
problem involving many factors, relations and constraints. The design of optimal blades involves
aerodynamic, structural and control problems. However, the design cycle can be practically
approached as an iterative and stepped method. For aerodynamic optimization the blade can be
modelled as a series of sections along the pitch axis. Each section has an airfoil shape, chord length
and attach angle which is the result of a collective pitch angle and a local twist one. This last is a
property of the blade while the pitch angle depends on the control strategy of the whole energy
system.
The computation of the wind flow around rotating blades is a very complex problem. For a precise
knowledge of the wind flow and the induced forces in the turbine surfaces it is necessary to solve the
three-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations in a rotating frame, but the computational cost to obtain
such precise solution prohibits their use in the design and analysis environments 30. The blade
element momentum theory (BEM) is basically a one-dimensional simplified theory that is used
routinely by wind power industry because it provides reasonably accurate prediction of
performance31. The BEM theory has shown to give good accuracy with respect to time cost, and at

28 Sanaa E. Mouhsine, Karim Oukassou, Mohammed Marouan Ichenial, Bousselham Kharbouch,

Abderrahamane Hajraoui, “Aerodynamics and Structural Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade”, 11th International
Conference Interdisciplinarity in Engineering, INTER-ENG 2017, 5-6 October 2017, Romania.
29 K.Y. Maalawi, M.A. Badr, A practical approach for selecting optimum wind rotors, Renewable Energy, (2003).
30 R.W. Thresher, D.M. Dodge, Trends in the evolution of wind turbine generator configurations and systems. Wind

Energy, 1 (1998) 70–86.

31 J.L. Tangler, The Nebulous art of using wind-tunnel airfoil data for predicting rotor Performance, 5 (2002).
 62

moderate wind speeds, it has sufficed for blade geometry optimization 32-33-34. The BEM theory is the
composition of two different approaches to study the forces in a wind turbine. The first is the
momentum theory that studies the global changes in wind momentary, axial and tangential, in an
ideal turbine. Changes in axial and rotational moment between upwind and downwind induce thrust
and torque respectively in the rotor. The wind flow is split in many differential non-interacting
annular stream tubes. The second theory, the blade element, studies the aerodynamic forces acting
in a local airfoil. As in aeronautics wing theory, the forces are lift, which is perpendicular to the wind
direction, and drag that is in the same direction. Drag is mainly generated by friction between the
viscous fluid and the airfoil surface. It is a dissipative force that generates power loss and lack in
momentum changes. The applications of thick airfoils are extended to the assessment of wind turbine
performance. It is well established that the power generated by a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine
(HAWT) is a function of the number of blades B, the tip speed ratio λ (blade tip speed/wind free
stream velocity) and the lift to drag ratio (CL/CD) of the airfoil sections of the blade. The airfoil
sections used in HAWT are generally thick airfoils such as the S818, S825 and S826 of airfoils. These
airfoils vary in (CL/CD) for a given B and λ, and therefore the power generated by HAWT for different
blade airfoil sections will vary. Another goal of this study is to evaluate the effect of different airfoil
sections on HAWT performance using the Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory.
3.2.1.1.2 Airfoils and General Concepts of Aerodynamics
A number of terms are used to characterize an airfoil. The mean camber line is the locus of points
halfway between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The most forward and rearward points
of the mean camber line are
on the leading edge and
trailing edges, respectively.
The straight line connecting
the leading and trailing
edges is the chord line of the
airfoil, and the distance from
the leading to the trailing
edge measured along the
chord line is designated as
the chord of the airfoil. The Figure 3.4 Airfoil Cross-Sections used in the Design of the Wind
thickness is the distance Turbine Blades
between the upper and
lower surfaces, also
measured perpendicular to the chord line. Finally, the angle of attack α is defined as the angle
between the relative wind and the chord line. (See Figure 3.4)
3.2.1.1.3 Lift, Drag and Non-Dimensional Parameters
Theory and research have shown that many flow problems can be characterized by non-dimensional
parameters. The most important non-dimensional parameter for defining the characteristics of fluid
flow conditions is the Reynolds number. Force and moment coefficients, which are a function of
Reynolds number, can be defined for two or three-dimensional objects. Force and moment
coefficients for flow around two-dimensional objects are usually designated with a lower case
subscript lift and drag coefficients that are measured for flow around two- or three-dimensional
object are usually designated with an upper case subscript. Rotor design usually uses two

32 M.M. Duquette, K.D. Visser, Numerical implications of solidity and blade number on rotor performance of
horizontal-axis wind turbines, J. Sol. Energy Eng.-Trans, ASME. 125 (2003) 425–432, 2003.
33 P. Fuglsang, H.A. Madsen, Optimization method for wind turbine rotors, J. Wind E, Ind. Aerodynamics. (1999).
34 M. Jureczko, M. Pawlak, A. Mezyk, Optimisation of wind turbine blades, J. Mater, Proc. Technol. 167 (2005).
 63

dimensional coefficients, determined for a range of angles of attack and Reynolds numbers, in wind
tunnel tests. The two-dimensional lift and drag coefficients is defined as:

L/l D/l
CL = , CD =
(1/2)ρU 2 c (1/2)ρU2 c
Eq. 3.4
where ρ is the density of air, U is the velocity of undisturbed airflow, c is the airfoil chord length and
l is the airfoil span. Other dimensionless coefficients that are important for the analysis and design of
wind turbines include the power and thrust coefficients and the tip speed ratio, the pressure
coefficient, which is used to analyze airfoil flow:

p − p∞
Cp =
(1/2)ρU2
Eq. 3.5
Under similar ideal conditions, symmetric airfoils of finite thickness have similar theoretical lift
coefficients. This would mean that lift coefficients would increase with increasing angles of attack
and continue to increase until the angle of attack reaches 90 degrees. The behavior of real symmetric

(a) Lift coefficients (b) Drag coefficients for the

variations vs angle of attack S818 airfoil at Re=1.106

(c) Lift coefficients variations

(d) Drag coefficients for the
vs angle of attack
S825 airfoil at Re=1.106

Figure 3.5 Typical Lift and Drag Coefficients

 64

airfoils does indeed approximate this theoretical behavior at low angles of attack. For example,
typical lift and drag coefficients for a S818, S825, and S826airfoils,the profiles of which are shown in
Figure 3.5 (a-d) as a function of angle of attack and Reynolds number.
Note that, in spite of the very good correlation at low angles of attack, there are significant differences
between actual airfoil operation and the theoretical performance at higher angles of attack. The
differences are due primarily to the assumption, in the theoretical estimate of the lift coefficient, that
air has no viscosity. Surface friction due to viscosity slows the airflow next to the airfoil surface,
resulting in a separation of the flow from the surface at higher angles of attack and a rapid decrease
in lift. This condition is referred to as stall. Airfoils for horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) often
are designed to be used at low angles of attack, where lift coefficients are fairly high and drag
coefficients are fairly low. The lift coefficient of this symmetric airfoil is about zero at an angle of
attack of zero and increases to over 1.0 before decreasing at higher angles of attack. The drag
coefficient is usually much lower than the lift coefficient at low angles of attack. It increases at higher
angles of attack. The lift coefficient at low angles of attack can be increased and drag can often be
decreased by using a cambered airfoil.
3.2.1.1.4 Blade Element Momentum (BEM) Theory
The blade element momentum (BEM) theory is a compilation of both momentum theory and blade
element theory35-36. Momentum theory, which is useful in predicted ideal efficiency and flow velocity,
is the determination of forces acting on the rotor to produce the motion of the fluid. Theory
determines the forces on the blade as a result of the motion of the fluid in terms of the blade geometry.
By combining the two theories, BEM theory, also known as strip theory, relates rotor performance to
rotor geometry.
3.2.1.1.5 Aerodynamic Load
Aerodynamic load is generated by lift and drag of the blades airfoil section, which is dependent on
wind velocity, blade velocity, angle of attack and yaw37. The angle of attack is dependent on blade
twist and pitch. The aerodynamic lift and drag produced are resolved into useful thrust in the
direction of rotation absorbed by the generator and reaction forces. It can be seen that the reaction
forces are substantial acting in the flat wise bending plane, and must be tolerated by the blade with
limited deformation. For calculation of the blade aerodynamic forces the widely publicized blade
element momentum (BEM) theory is applied. Working along the blade radius taking small elements
δr, the sum of the aerodynamic forces can be calculated to give the overall blade reaction and thrust
loads.
3.2.1.1.6 Blade Geometry
The main objective in the design of wind turbines is to find a rotor that meets the basic conditions
requested. The most important condition is to get a rotor to deliver output power required at a
particular speed. For this, the first assumption of the aerodynamic rotor is its diameter, which can be
roughly estimated power. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the importance of the
geometry of the rotor, taking into consideration the most important, the aerodynamic performance,
strength and stiffness conditions, and costs. However, power generation through wind turbines also
play a decisive role in the design of the aerodynamics of the rotor, which is influenced by other
parameters such as power generator and control system. The results of the optimal distribution of
the cord and twist for a blade of 43.2 m in diameter and having various profiles.

35M. Jureczko, M. Pawlak, A. Mezyk, Optimization of wind turbine blades, J. Mater, Proc. Technol. 167 (2005).
36E. Benini, Ã. Significance of blade element theory in performance prediction of marine propellers, Ocean Eng,
31, 957–974, 2004.
37 M.O.L. Hansen, Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines: Rotors, Loads and Structure, James & James Science

Publishers, London, UK, pp. 48-59, 2000.

 65

3.2.1.1.7 Mathematic Model

The governing equations are the continuity and Navier-Stokes equations. These equations are
written in a frame of reference rotating with the blade. This has the advantage of making our
simulation not require a moving mesh to account for the rotation of the blade. The equations cab be
obtained from [Mouhsine et al.]38.
3.2.1.1.8 Turbulence Model
The SST 𝑘−𝜔 turbulence model39-40 is a two equation eddy-viscosity model which has become very
popular. The shear stress transport (SST) formulation combines the better of two worlds. The use of
a 𝑘−𝜔 formulation in the inner parts of the boundary layer makes the model directly usable all the
way down to the wall through the viscous sub-layer; hence the SST 𝑘 − 𝜔 model can be used as a Low-
Re turbulence model without any extra damping functions. The SST formulation also switches to a 𝑘
−𝜀 behavior in the free-stream and thereby avoids the common 𝑘 − 𝜔 problem that the model is too
sensitive to the inlet free-stream turbulence properties. Authors who use the SST 𝑘−𝜔 model often
merit it for its good behavior in adverse pressure gradients and separating flow. The SST 𝑘−𝜔 model
does produce a bit too large turbulence levels in regions with large normal strain, like stagnation

Figure 3.6 (top) Airfoils Superposed on the Wind Turbine Blade and (bottom) Top View of a Subset of
the Airfoil Cross-Sections illustrating Blade Twisting

38 Saaa E. Mouhsine, Karim Oukassou, Mohammed Marouan Ichenial, Bousselham Kharbouch, Abderrahamane
Hajraoui, “Aerodynamics and Structural Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade”, 11th International Conference
Interdisciplinarity in Engineering, INTER-ENG 2017, 5-6 October 2017, Romania.
39 D. C. Wilcox, Formulation of the k–ω Turbulence Model Revisited, 11, AIAA Journal, 823–2838, 2008.
40 F. R. Menter, “Zonal Two Equation k-ω Turbulence Models for Aerodynamic Flows”, AIAA Paper, Vol. 93, 1993.
 66

regions and regions with strong acceleration. Details of the SST 𝑘−𝜔 turbulence model is available in
[Mouhsine et al.]41.
3.2.1.1.9 Mesh Generation
In order to create the computational domain and generate mesh, the commercially available software
“ANSYS Meshing tool” is used to build a wind tunnel model and generate an unstructured mesh
around the blade in the computational domain. As shown in Figure 3.6, a 3D straight untampered
blade is placed inside a computational domain (mimicking a wind tunnel) with inflow and outflow
boundaries. The wall boundary condition is applied to the right and lift surface of the computational
domain. The back and front surfaces of the computational box are set as symmetry boundary
condition due to the free motion of air on these surfaces. As shown, one important part of the mesh
shape is that it must be smooth and dense enough to be suitable for any arbitrary airfoil shape and
3D Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine. The wind tunnel geometry is always the same, but the airfoil/blade
in the center of the tunnel changes from one generation to the next. This poses a challenge for mesh
generation in 3D. Faces are meshed using quadrilateral cells, and we require that the number of
nodes on opposite faces be identical. To ensure this distribution, we define a set number of nodes
(and not relative node spacing) along each edge. Otherwise, thicker or more cambered airfoil edges
would have more nodes than thinner ones if a relative distribution was used. A refined boundary
layer is carefully constructed around the airfoil to capture the boundary layer behavior.

Figure 3.7 Force Analysis for S818 Airfoil Section

41Saaa E. Mouhsine, Karim Oukassou, Mohammed Marouan Ichenial, Bousselham Kharbouch, Abderrahamane
Hajraoui, “Aerodynamics and Structural Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade”, 11th International Conference
Interdisciplinarity in Engineering, INTER-ENG 2017, 5-6 October 2017, Romania.
 67

3.2.1.1.10 Result and Discussion

The Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) is 43.2 meters long and starts with a cylindrical shape at
the root and then transitions to the airfoils S818, S825 and S826 for the root, body and tip,
respectively. This wind blade also has pitch to vary as a function of radius, giving it a twist and the
pitch angle at the blade tip is 4 degrees. Accordingly, the stress limit of the blade is determined by
the strength of the E-glass used in the skin of the blade. The turbulent wind flows towards the
negative z-direction at 12 m/s which is a typical rated wind speed for a turbine at this size. This
incoming flow is assumed to make the blade rotate at an angular velocity of-2.22 rad/s about the z-
axis. The tip speed ratio is therefore equal to 8 which is a reasonable value for a large wind turbine.
The blade root is offset from the axis of rotation by 1 meter. The process of CFD simulation begins
with the creation of a three dimensional domain and its proper discretization. We define the velocity

(a) velocity distribution

(b) Pressure contours at several blade cross-sections at

viewed from the back of the blade.

(c) Full Blade Deformation for Cut-Out Wind Speed

(d) Stress for Cut-Out Wind Speed

Figure 3.8 Static Pressure, Velocity Magnitudes, Deformation and Stress Distribution
 68

at the inlet of 12 m/s with turbulent intensity of 5% and turbulent viscosity ratio of 10 and the
Pressure of 1 atm in order to validate the present simulation. As mentioned in the beginning of this
work, the aerodynamic performance of wind turbines are primarily a function of the steady state
aerodynamics that is discussed. The analysis presented provides a method for determining average
loads on a wind turbine. However, a number of important steady state and dynamic effects that cause
increased loads or decreased power production from those expected with the BEM theory presented
here, especially increased transient loads. Figure 3.7 gives the obtained result of the force analysis
on the airfoil sections. Figure 3.8 (a-d) show Static pressure, velocity magnitudes, deformation and
stress distribution of the Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT).
3.2.1.1.11 Conclusion
In this study, we applied the finite element model of aerodynamics and static structural analyses of
Horizontal- Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT). The first part of the paper focused on the wind turbine
geometry modeling, mesh generation, and numerical simulation of Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine
(HAWT). The fluid and structural meshes are compatible at the interface and may be employed for
the coupled FSI analysis. These aerodynamic models have been coupled with a nonlinear formulation
describing the structural dynamics to moderate deformations. A comprehensive look at blade design
has shown that an efficient blade shape is defined by aerodynamic calculations based on chosen
parameters and the performance of the selected airfoils. Aesthetics plays only a minor role. The
optimum efficient shape is complex consisting of airfoils sections of increasing width, thickness and
twist angle towards the hub. This general shape is constrained by physical laws and is unlikely to
change. However, airfoils lift and drag performance will determine exact angles of twist and chord
lengths for optimum aerodynamic performance. Due to the large and flexible structure of the wind
turbine blades, there will probably be aeroelastic instability. The displacement of the tip of the blade
at the nominal wind speed (12 m/s) is obtained (0.045 m) a reduction in the power performance of
the turbine, which implies a reduction in the rated power. In order to do the intensive study of the
structural models and aeroelastic behavior of the blade, the aerodynamic is constructed correctly.
3.2.2 Flow in Multiple Rotating Reference Frames (MRF)
Many problems involve multiple moving parts or contain stationary surfaces which are not surfaces
of revolution (and therefore cannot be used with the Single Reference Frame modeling approach).
For these problems, you must break up the model into multiple fluid/solid cell zones, with interface
boundaries separating the zones. Zones which contain the moving components can then be solved
using the moving reference frame equations, whereas stationary zones can be solved with the
stationary frame equations. The manner in which the equations are treated at the interface lead to
two approaches:

➢ Multiple Reference Frame Model (MRF)

➢ Mixing Plane Model (MPM)
➢ Sliding Mesh Model (SMM

Both the MRF and Mixing plane approaches are steady-state approximations, and differ primarily
in the manner in which conditions at the interfaces are treated. These approaches will be discussed
in following sections. The sliding mesh model approach is, on the other hand, inherently unsteady
due to the motion of the mesh with time. The MRF model is, perhaps, the simplest of the two
approaches for multiple zones. It is a steady-state approximation in which individual cell zones move
at different rotational and/or translational speeds. The flow in each moving cell zone is solved using
the moving reference frame equations. If the zone is stationary (ω = 0), the stationary equations are
used. At the interfaces between cell zones, a local reference frame transformation is performed to
enable flow variables in one zone to be used to calculate fluxes at the boundary of the adjacent zone.
 69

It should be noted that the MRF approach does not account for the relative motion of a moving zone
with respect to adjacent zones (which may be moving or stationary); the grid remains fixed for the
computation. This is analogous to freezing the motion of the moving part in a specific position and
observing the instantaneous flow field with the rotor in that position. Hence, the MRF is often
referred to as the frozen rotor approach. While the MRF approach is clearly an approximation, it can
provide a reasonable model of the flow for many
applications. For example, the MRF model can be
used for turbomachinery applications in which
rotor-stator interaction is relatively weak, and the
flow is relatively uncomplicated at the interface
between the moving and stationary zones. In
mixing tanks, for example, since the impeller-
baffle interactions are relatively weak, large-scale
transient effects are not present and the MRF
model can be used. Another potential use of the
MRF model is to compute a flow field that can be
used as an initial condition for a transient sliding
mesh calculation. This eliminates the need for a
startup calculation. The multiple reference frame
model should not be used, however, if it is
necessary to actually simulate the transients that Figure 3.9 Mixing Tank Geometry with One
may occur in strong rotor-stator interactions, the Rotating Impeller
sliding mesh model alone should be used.

3.2.2.1 Case Study – Mixing Tank

In a mixing tank with a single impeller, you can define a rotating reference frame that encompasses
the impeller and the flow surrounding it, and use a stationary frame for the flow outside the impeller
region. An example of this configuration is illustrated in Figure 3.9. (The dashes denote the interface
between the two reference frames). Steady-state flow conditions are assumed at the interface
between the two reference frames. That is, the velocity at the interface must be the same (in absolute
terms) for each reference frame. The grid does not move. You can also model a problem that includes
more than one rotating
reference frame. Figure
3.10 shows a geometry
that contains two
rotating impellers side
by side. This problem
would be modeled using
three reference frames:
the stationary frame
outside both impeller
regions and two separate
rotating reference
frames for the two
impellers. (As noted
above, the dashes denote
the interfaces between Figure 3.10 Mixing Tank with Two Rotating Impellers
reference frames.)
 70

3.2.3 The MRF Interface Formulation

The MRF formulation that is applied to the interfaces will depend on the velocity formulation being
used. The specific approaches will be discussed below for each case. It should be noted that the
interface treatment applies to the velocity and velocity gradients, since these vector quantities
change with a change in reference frame. Scalar quantities, such as temperature, pressure, density,
turbulent kinetic energy, etc., do not require any special treatment, and thus are passed locally
without any change.

3.2.3.1 Interface Treatment: Relative Velocity Formulation

In implementation of the MRF model, the calculation domain is divided into subdomains, each of
which may be rotating and/or translating with respect to the laboratory (inertial) frame. The
governing equations in each subdomain are written with respect to that subdomain's reference
frame. Thus, the flow in stationary and translating subdomains is governed by Continuity and
Momentum Equations, while the flow in
rotating subdomains is governed by the
equations presented in Equations for a
Rotating Reference Frame. At the
boundary between two subdomains, the
diffusion and other terms in the governing
equations in one subdomain require
values for the velocities in the adjacent
subdomain (see Figure 3.11). To enforce
the continuity of the absolute velocity, u,
is to provide the correct neighbor values
of velocity for the subdomain under
consideration. (This approach differs
from the mixing plane approach described
previously; The Mixing Plane Model,
where a circumferential averaging
technique is used). When the relative
velocity formulation is used, velocities in
each subdomain are computed relative to Figure 3.11 Interface Treatment for the MRF Model
the motion of the subdomain. Velocities
and their gradients are converted from a moving reference frame to the absolute inertial frame using
following equation. For a translational velocity ut, we have

𝐮 = 𝐮f + 𝛚
⏟×𝐫 + 𝐮t , ∇𝐮 = ∇𝐮f + ∇(𝛚 × 𝐫)
Swirl Velocity
Eq. 3.6
Note that scalar quantities such as density, static pressure, static temperature, species mass fractions,
etc., are simply obtained locally from adjacent cells.

3.2.3.2 Interface Treatment: Absolute Velocity Formulation

When the absolute velocity formulation is used, the governing equations in each subdomain are
written with respect to that subdomain's reference frame, but the velocities are stored in the absolute
frame. Therefore, no special transformation is required at the interface between two subdomains.
Again, scalar quantities are determined locally from adjacent cells.
 71

3.2.3.3 Case Study - Experiments and CFD Calculations on the Performance of a Non-Reversible Axial
Fan42
Here, the CFD simulation results of a six blade axial fan are compared with test data obtained from
AMCA chamber. Flow through one period of the axial fan is simulated. In flow simulations standard
k-ε turbulence model with standard wall functions are implemented. Convergence of the simulation
results are tested under grid refinement by generating coarse, medium and fine meshes. Test results
are obtained from a test rig, designed according to AMCA-210 Standard.
3.2.3.3.1 Introduction
Axial fans are continuous flow machines that provide positive or negative pressure for a space by
rotation of axial fan blades. Air flow is in the axial direction. Axial fans are widely used at parking
garages, buildings, public areas such as restaurants, hospitals and schools to provide fresh air or
expel the polluted air. Axial fans are classified as
propeller axial fans, vane axial fans and tube axial
fans. Various types of axial fans are used for
different purposes such as providing required air
flow rate or static pressure increase. An industrial
axial fan produced by Cvsair, Turkey is shown in
Figure 3.12.
Axial fans’ performance is the key factor that
determines the fire scenario in parking garages. In
parking garages, fresh or exhaust air flow rate is
determined according to the volume of the lot and
required air exchange rate. Multiplying the parking
garage volume with air change rate gives the
exhaust flow rate and 50-70% of this exhaust flow
rate is generally suitable as fresh air flow rate.
Therefore, performance characteristics of a fan
used in a parking garage is the key factor for Figure 3.12 An industrial axial fan used for
ventilation. ventilation
Static pressure increase of axial fans is important
when using duct systems or axial flow shafts. Because continuous and local head losses are
determined by the duct geometry and air flow rate, the diameters and number of embranchments of
an air flow shaft must be known to determine the required air pressure rise provided by fans.
CFD analysis of fans with forward and backward skewed blade profiles are carried out by the
standard or RNG k-ε turbulence models and some of them are compared with test results before43-44.
Aerodynamic and aero-acoustic performance of an axial flow fan is optimized for efficiency and
pressure rise and sound pressure level by solving Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations
coupled with shear stress transport turbulence model and Flows Williams-Hawkings equations and
implementing Latin Hypercube sampling in the design space and multi objective evolutionary
algorithm coupled with response surface approximation surrogate model45-46.

42 BACAK Aykut, ÜNVERDİ, Salih Özen, “Experiments and CFD Calculations on the Performance of a Non-
Reversible Axial Fan”, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Heating, Ventilation and Air-
Conditioning, May 30-1st June, 2016, Tehran, Iran ICHVAC7-1813.
43 D. Dwivedi, D.S. Dantodiya, “CFD Analysis of Axial Flow Fans with Skewed Blades”, IJETAE, Issue 10, 2013).
44 T. Köktürk, “Design and Performance Analysis of a Reversible Axial Flow Fan”, Master Thesis, METU, 2005.
45 J.H. Kim, J.W. Kim, K.Y. Kim, “Axial-Flow Ventilation Fan Design Through Multi-Objective Optimization to

Enhance Aerodynamic Performance”, Journal of Fluids Engineering, vol. 133 / 101101-1, 2011.
46 J. Kim, B. Ovgor, K. Cha, J. Kim. S. Lee, K. Kim, “Optimization of the Aerodynamic and Aero acoustic Performance

of an Axial-Flow Fan”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 52, No. 9, 2014.

 72

3.2.3.3.2 Experimental Method

Sufficient ventilation of a parking garage depends on the correct fan selection. Fans are selected by
deciding if the air flow rate determined by intersecting the fans’ H-Q characteristic curves with the
system resistance curve is sufficient for the ventilation of the space. For that purpose, database of
various fans’ performance curves and static pressure loss vs. airflow rate curve of the ventilated
system are needed. Fan databases are setup by testing the performance of fans in test systems
that are designed according to the national and/or international standards. One of the commonly
used measurement systems is AMCA 210 test rig shown in Figure 3.13. The flow rate through the
fan is changed by adjusting the flow resistance, i.e. nozzle diameter, which is located in the variable
exhaust system of the AMCA chamber.

Figure 3.13 AMCA 210 test rig [8]

3.2.3.3.3 Numerical Method

The CFD solution domain consists of one slice of the axial fan around a blade, which is extended in
both upstream and downstream directions to improve the solution accuracy, as described below.
After CAD geometry cleanup and generation of surface and volume mesh required by the Multiple
Reference Frame, MRF, method, the grid is read into the computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
software. Then, the fluid properties, turbulence model, wall functions, fan rpm and boundary
conditions are set. Results are obtained by a parallel CFD solver and post-processed to get visual and
numeric data about the flow field.
The solution of a case is used as the initial guess for the next one, thereby a parametric study of the
fan performance is realized. According to the standards on the methods of fan testing47 the minimum
length for both the upstream and downstream ducts of the axial fan is assumed to be 5D, where D is
the diameter of the fan casing. Both stationary and rotating zones of the MRF model are generated
for one sixth of the axial fan by using periodic boundary conditions. Velocity inlet and pressure outlet
boundary conditions are used at the upstream and downstream ends of the computational domain,
respectively.

47AMCA 210: Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc. “Laboratory Methods of Testing Fans for
Aerodynamic Performance Rating “, 1999.
 73

[Pascu] built a CFD model of an axial fan which is

3D and 2D long in the upstream and downstream
sides of the fan, respectively48. The complete
surface mesh of the rotating zone obtained by
revolving one slice of the blade and the hub
around the fan axis is shown in Figure 3.14.
Surface mesh is created on both pressure and
suction sides of the fan blades, therefore the
blade thickness is maintained. The cylindrical
outer wall of the AMCA chamber is the boundary
that surrounds the computational model.
Boundary layer mesh is applied throughout
stationary and rotating zone walls and around
the fan blade walls.
There is not a stator in the model. Ten boundary
mesh layers are generated next to the duct wall
and five boundary mesh layers are used around Figure 3.14 Surface mesh of the rotating zone
the blades. Thin boundary mesh layers required
by the k-ε turbulence model are used to resolve the small blade tip clearance and flow around the
blades, which yield accurate prediction of the fan performance and especially the fan noise
generation49-50. Convergence of the results are
tested under grid refinement by generating Mesh Density Number of Cells
three meshes of different resolution, whose Coarse Mesh 169477
number of cells are given in Table 3.1. Medium Mesh 178410
Reynolds averaged continuity and Navier-Stokes Fine Mesh 496616
Equations coupled with turbulent kinetic energy
and dissipation rate transport equations of the Table 3.1 Mesh Resolution and Number of Cells
standard k-ε turbulence model are used in the
fan simulations. RNG k-ε turbulence model chosen in a similar study of axial flow fans 51. Continuity,
momentum and k-ε turbulence model equations are given below:

∂ρ ∂(ρui )
+ =0
∂t ∂xi
∂ ∂
ρui +
̅̅̅̅ ρu
̅̅̅̅̅
u =
∂t ∂xi i j
∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂ui ∂
− + [μ ( + − δij )] + ̅̅̅̅̅
(−ρu ′ u′ )
i j
∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj 3 ∂xi ∂xj
Eq. 3.7

48 M. T. Pascu, “Modern Layout and Design Strategy for Axial Fans”, Ph.D. Thesis at Erlangen University, 2009.
49 Srinivas G., Srinivasa Rao Potti: “Numerical Simulation of Axial Flow Fan Using Gambit and Fluent”. IJRET,
Vol.3, No 3, pp. 586-590, 2014.
50 A. Raj. S, P. Pandian P.: “Effect of Tip Injection on an Axial Flow Fan under Distorted Inflow”. IJASER, Vol.3, No

10, pp.302-309, 2014.

51 T. Köktürk, “Design and Performance Analysis of a Reversible Axial Flow Fan”, Master Thesis, METU, 2005.
 74

∂κ ∂κ ∂κ ∂κ
ρ
+ ρU + ρV + ρW =
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ μt ∂κ ∂ μt ∂κ ∂ μt ∂κ
( )+ ( )+ ( ) − ρε +
∂x σκ ∂x ∂y σκ ∂y ∂z σκ ∂z
∂U 2 ∂V 2 ∂W 2 ∂U ∂V 2 ∂U ∂W 2 ∂U ∂W 2
μt {2 [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ] + ( + ) + ( + ) +( + ) }
⏟ ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x
𝐺
Eq. 3.8

∂ε ∂ε ∂ε ∂ε
ρ
+ ρU + ρV + ρW =
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ μt ∂ε ∂ μt ∂ε ∂ μt ∂ε ε2 ε
( )+ ( )+ ( ) − C2 ρ + C1 μt G
∂x σκ ∂x ∂y σκ ∂y ∂z σκ ∂z κ κ
Eq. 3.9
After generating
tetrahedral cells with
appropriate resolution
above the inflation layers,
boundary conditions are
set. In Figure 3.15 and
Table 3.2 rotating and
stationary cell zones and
boundary conditions are
indicated. For more
accurate solutions, second
order discretization is
used for continuity,
momentum and
turbulence model Figure 3.15 Cell zones and boundary conditions
equations.
3.2.3.3.4 Results and Turbulence Modeling κ-ε
Discussion Inlet B.C. Velocity Inlet
Reynolds averaged Outlet B.C. Pressure Outlet
continuity, Navier-Stokes Blade Pressure Side Periodic
and k-ε turbulence model Blade Suction Side Periodic
equations are solved Fluid Air
simultaneously using
Fan Speed 1500
Multiple Reference
Residual For Iteration Convergence 1E-5
Frames, MRF, method.
After simulations, validity Near Wall Treatment Standard Wall Function
of the results are checked
Table 3.2 Solution Methods and Boundary Conditions
by verifying that y+ values
on the pressure and
suction surfaces of the fan blades remain between 30 and 100.
 75

In the following figures comparison of CFD simulation and test results for fan pressure rise, torque
and efficiency vs. volumetric flow rate curves are given for the three grid resolutions. Difference
between the calculated and test torque data is caused by neglecting mechanical friction in the CFD
model.
30 ∗ Q ∗ ∆p
η=
π∗n∗T
Eq. 3.10
where Q is the volumetric airflow rate
in m3/s, ΔP is the fan pressure rise in
Pa, n is the fan speed in rpm, and T is
the sum of the fan aerodynamic and
mechanical friction torques in Nm. In
Figure 3.17, numerical torque values
are almost half of the experimental
ones because the losses caused by the
bearing and transmission friction
torques are ignored. Even though
there are significant variations in the
previous charts, simulation results of
fan static pressure rise vs. volume flow
rate curves are quite similar to the test
result, because mechanical friction of
bearings and the transmission do not
affect these parameters. Following
formula is used to calculate the electric
motor torque in terms of the motor Figure 3.17 Torque vs. Volumetric Flow Rate Curves
power and fan rpm.

60 ∗ p
Tmotor =
2∗π∗n
Eq. 3.11
The torque curve which is obtained by
adding the aerodynamic torque
calculated by postprocessing
CFD results and the motor torque
calculated above and estimated
mechanical friction torque is compared
with the torque value read from electric
control panel. Figure 3.16 shows the
streamline inside the duck at the rotor.
3.2.3.3.5 Conclusion
CFD simulation results of an axial fan are
obtained under grid refinement and are
compared with the fan test data. Use of
the CFD model of a slice of the fan with Figure 3.16 The streamlines inside the duct at a rotor
speed of 1500 rpm
periodic boundary conditions decreases
the memory requirements of the
simulations because of the substantial decrease of the number of cells. Acceptable agreement of the
 76

axial fan static pressure rise vs. airflow rate curve with the test data is promising for using CFD as a
means of predicting the performance of axial fans. The pressure rise prediction of the current CFD
model is quite well in the neighborhood of the design point of the fan. Indeed, the calculated pressure
rise corresponding to the volume flow rate at the design point is almost the same as the test data.
As the fan operates away from the design point and stall inception occurs, numerical results begin to
move away from the test data. This shows that the standard k-ε turbulence model with standard wall
functions is insufficient in calculating the location of the separation point and the pressure change on
the blade surfaces for separated flows. If electric motor and mechanical friction torques are not taken
into account, aerodynamic torque calculated by CFD is almost half of the value measured in
experiments. As the motor torque and estimated mechanical friction torque values are considered,
numerical and experimental torque vs. air flow-rate curves get closer. Furthermore, because the
calculated efficiency depends on the friction torque, taking into account of the total torque results in
having closer agreement between the predicted and measured efficiency values. Reversible axial fan
performance and noise predictions by CFD simulations and comparison of the results with the test
data is planned as the future research. Furthermore the degree of improvement of the predicted fan
performance at stall condition, provided by applying shear stress transport, SST, k-ω turbulence
model on fine meshes is to be studied in the future.

3.3 The Mixing Plane Model (MPM)

The mixing plane model provides an alternative to the multiple reference frame and sliding mesh
models for simulating flow through domains with one or more regions in relative motion. The
Multiple Reference Frame Model, is applicable when the flow at the boundary between adjacent
zones that move at different speeds is nearly uniform (mixed out). If the flow at this boundary is not
uniform, the MRF model may not provide a physically meaningful solution. The sliding mesh model
(Sliding Mesh Theory) may be appropriate for such cases, but in many situations it is not practical to
employ a sliding mesh. For example, in a multistage turbomachine, if the number of blades is
different for each blade row, a large number of blade passages is required in order to maintain
circumferential periodicity. Moreover, sliding mesh calculations are necessarily unsteady, and thus
require significantly more computation to achieve a final, time-periodic solution. For situations
where using the sliding mesh model is not feasible, the mixing plane model can be a cost-effective
alternative. In the mixing plane approach, each fluid zone is treated as a steady-state problem. Flow-
field data from adjacent zones are passed as boundary conditions that are spatially averaged or mixed
at the mixing plane interface. This mixing removes any unsteadiness that would arise due to
circumferential variations in the passage-to-passage flow field (e.g., wakes, shock waves, separated
flow), thus yielding a steady-state result. Despite the simplifications inherent in the mixing plane
model, the resulting solutions can provide reasonable approximations of the time-averaged flow
field.
3.3.1 Rotor and Stator Domains
Consider the turbomachine stages shown schematically in Figure 3.19 and Figure 3.18. In each
case, the stage consists of two flow domains: the rotor domain, which is rotating at a prescribed
angular velocity, followed by the stator domain, which is stationary. The order of the rotor and stator
is arbitrary (that is, a situation where the rotor is downstream of the stator is equally valid). In a
numerical simulation, each domain will be represented by a separate mesh. The flow information
between these domains will be coupled at the mixing plane interface (as shown in Figure 3.18 and
Figure 3.19) using the mixing plane model. Note that you may couple any number of fluid zones in
this manner; for example, four blade passages can be coupled using three mixing planes. Note that
the stator and rotor meshes do not have to be conformal; that is, the nodes on the stator exit
boundary do not have to match the nodes on the rotor inlet boundary. In addition, the meshes can be
of different types (e.g., the stator can have a hexahedral mesh while the rotor has a tetrahedral mesh).
 77

Figure 3.19 Mixing Plane Concepts as Applied to Axial Rotation

3.3.2 The Mixing Plane Concept

The essential idea behind the mixing plane
concept is that each fluid zone is solved as
a steady-state problem. At some
prescribed iteration interval, the flow data
at the mixing plane interface are averaged
in the circumferential direction on both the
stator outlet and the rotor inlet boundaries.
By performing circumferential averages at
specified radial or axial stations, profile of
flow properties can be defined. These
profiles which will be functions of either
the axial or the radial coordinate,
depending on the orientation of the mixing
plane are then used to update boundary
conditions along the two zones of the
mixing plane interface. In the examples
shown in Figure 3.18 and Figure 3.19, Figure 3.18 Mixing Plane Concepts Applied to Radial
profiles of averaged total pressure (p0), Rotation
direction cosines of the local flow angles in
the Radial, Tangential, and Axial directions (αr; αt; αz), Up Stream Down Stream
total temperature (T0), turbulence kinetic energy (k), and
turbulence dissipation rate (ε) are computed at the rotor Pressure Outlet Pressure Inlet
exit and used to update boundary conditions at the stator Pressure Outlet Velocity Inlet
inlet. Likewise, a profile of static pressure (ps), direction Pressure Outlet Mass flow Inlet
cosines of the local flow angles in the radial, tangential,
Table 3.3 Prescribed Boundary zone
and axial directions (αr ; αt ; αz), are computed at the stator
for Mixing Plane
inlet and used as a boundary condition on the rotor exit.
Passing profiles in the manner described above assumes
specific boundary condition types have been defined at the mixing plane interface. The coupling of
 78

an upstream outlet boundary zone with a downstream inlet boundary zone is called a mixing plane
pair. In order to create mixing plane pairs, the boundary zones must be as prescribed as
Table 3.3.
3.3.3 Mixing Plane Algorithm
The basic mixing plane algorithm can be described as follows:

• Update the flow field solutions in the stator and rotor domains.
• Average the flow properties at the stator exit and rotor inlet boundaries, obtaining profiles
for use in updating boundary conditions.
• Pass the profiles to the boundary condition inputs required for the stator exit and rotor inlet.
• Repeat steps 1-3 until convergence.

Note that it may be desirable to under-relax the changes in boundary condition values in order to
prevent divergence of the solution (especially early in the computation).
3.3.3.1 Mass Conservation Across the Mixing Plane
Note that the algorithm described above will not rigorously conserve mass flow across the mixing
plane if it is represented by a pressure inlet and pressure outlet mixing plane pair. If you use a mass
flow inlet and pressure outlet pair instead, we will force mass conservation across the mixing plane.
The basic technique consists of computing the mass flow rate across the upstream zone (pressure
outlet) and adjusting the mass flux profile applied at the mass flow inlet such that the downstream
mass flow matches the upstream mass ow. This adjustment occurs at every iteration, thus ensuring
rigorous conservation of mass ow throughout the course of the calculation. Also note that, since mass
flow is being fixed in this case, there will be a jump in total pressure across the mixing plane. The
magnitude of this jump is usually small compared with total pressure variations elsewhere in the
flow field. Other quantities which will be conserved across Mixing Plane are Swirl and Total
Enthalpy.

3.4 Sliding Mesh Modeling

In sliding meshes, the relative
motion of stationary and rotating
components in a rotating
machine will give rise to
unsteady interactions. These
interactions are illustrated in
Figure 3.20, and generally
classified as follows:

• Potential interactions:
flow unsteadiness due to
pressure waves which
propagate both upstream
and downstream. Figure 3.20 Illustration of Unsteady Interactions
• Wake interactions: flow
unsteadiness due to wakes from upstream blade rows, convecting downstream.
• Shock interactions: for transonic/supersonic ow unsteadiness due to shock waves striking
the downstream blade row.
Where the multiple reference frame (MRF) and mixing plane (MP) models, are models that are
applied to steady-state cases, thus neglecting unsteady interactions, the sliding mesh model cannot
 79

neglect unsteady interactions. The sliding mesh model accounts for the relative motion of stationary
and rotating components.
3.4.1 Sliding Mesh Theory
When a time-accurate solution for rotor-stator interaction (rather than a time-averaged solution) is
desired, you must use the sliding mesh model to compute the unsteady flow field. As mentioned in
Section 10.1: Introduction, the sliding mesh model is the most accurate method for simulating flow
in multiple moving reference frames, but also the most computationally demanding. Most often, the
unsteady solution that is sought in a sliding mesh simulation is time periodic. That is, the unsteady
solution repeats with a period related to the speeds of the moving domains. However, you can model
other types of transients, including translating, sliding mesh zones (e.g., two cars or trains passing in
a tunnel). Reminder that for flow situations where there is no interaction between stationary and
moving parts (i.e., when there is only a rotor), the computational domain can be made stationary by
using a rotating reference frame. (ω = 0). When transient rotor-stator interaction is desired (as in
the examples in Figure 3.21 (a) and Figure 3.21 (b), you must use sliding meshes. If you are
interested in a steady approximation of the interaction, you may use the multiple reference frame
model or the mixing plane model, as described before.

(a) Rotor-Stator
Interaction (b) Blower

Figure 3.21 Examples of Transient Interaction using Sliding Mesh

3.4.2 The Sliding Mesh Technique

In the sliding mesh technique two or more cell zones are used. (If you generate the mesh in each zone
independently, you will need to merge the mesh profiles prior to starting the calculation. Each cell
zone is bounded by at least one interface zone where it meets the opposing cell zone. The interface
zones of adjacent cell zones are associated with one another to form a grid interface. The two cell
zones will move relative to each other along the grid interface. Be advised that the grid interface must
be positioned so that it has fluid cells on both sides. For example, the grid interface for the geometry
shown in Figure 3.22-(c) must lie in the fluid region between the rotor and stator; it cannot be on
the edge of any part of the rotor or stator. During the calculation, the cell zones slide (i.e., rotate or
translate) relative to one another along the grid interface in discrete steps. To recap, topological Mesh
Changes in Sliding Interface are:

• Defined by a master and slave surfaces.

• As surfaces move relative to each other, perform mesh cutting operations and replace original
faces with facets.
 80

• Re-assemble mesh connectivity on all cells and faces touching the sliding surface: fully
connected 3-D mesh.
• Once the mesh is complete, there is no further impact!
• Connectivity across interface changes with relative motion (see Figure 3.22 (a-d)).

Figure 3.22-(a) and Figure 3.22-(b) show the initial position of two grids and their positions after
some translation has occurred. For an axial rotor/stator configuration, in which the rotating and
stationary parts are aligned axially instead of being concentric (see Figure 3.22-(d)), the interface
will be a planar sector. This planar sector is a cross-section of the domain perpendicular to the axis
of rotation at a position along the axis between the rotor and the stator.
3.4.3 Sliding Mesh Concept
As discussed before, the sliding mesh model allows adjacent grids to slide relative to one another. In
doing so, the grid faces do not need to be aligned on the grid interface. This situation requires a means
of computing the flux across the two non-conformal interface zones of each grid interface. To
compute the interface flux, the intersection between the interface zones is determined at each new
time step. The resulting intersection produces one interior zone (a zone with fluid cells on both sides)
and one or more periodic zones. If the problem is not periodic, the intersection produces one interior
zone and a pair of wall zones (which will be empty if the two interface zones intersect entirely), as
shown in Figure 3.22 (a). (You will need to change these wall zones to some other appropriate
boundary type.) The resultant interior zone corresponds to where the two interface zones overlap;
the resultant periodic zone corresponds to where they do not. The number of faces in these
intersection zones will vary as the interface zones move relative to one another. Principally, fluxes

(b) Sliding Mesh

(a) Initial Position

(c) Rotor /Starter

Interactions (d) Linear Grid Interface

Figure 3.22 Initial position and some translation with Sliding Interface

Figure 3.22
 81

across the grid interface are computed using the faces resulting from the intersection of the two
interface zones, rather than from the interface zone faces themselves.
In the example shown in Figure 3.22 (b), the interface zones are composed of faces A-B and B-C,
and faces D-E and E-F. The intersection of these zones produces the faces a-d, d-b, b-e, etc. Faces
produced in the region where the two cell zones overlap (d-b, b-e, and e-c) are grouped to form an
interior zone, while the remaining faces (a-d and c-f) are paired up to form a periodic zone. To
compute the flux across the interface into cell IV, for example, face D-E is ignored and faces d-b and
b-e are used instead, bringing information into cell IV from cells I and III, respectively.
 82

4 Elements of Turbomachinery
4.1 Background
Turbomachinery is widely used equipment in industry such as compressors and turbines in a jet
engine; steam turbine in power plants, propeller for ships, hydraulic turbines for irrigation, wind
turbines for green energy, small fans for cooling, and so on52. A common feature of these devices is
that they all work with fluid and have rotating component. Gorla53 gives a general definition of
turbomachinery which says “Turbomachinery is a device in which the energy transfer occurs
between a flowing fluid and a rotating element due to dynamic action, and results in a change
in pressure and momentum of the fluid”. The usage of turbomachinery has a long history. It is
recorded that the waterwheel, a kind of primitive turbomachinery, was invented and used for power
generation more than hundred years ago. Although the configuration is simple, it does follow the
same basic principle with other complicated modern turbomachinery’s, for instance the compressor
and the gas turbine in a jet engine. Figure 4.1 represents classification of turbomachines. Here we
concern mainly with axial devices. As the air is compressed in compressor before entering the
combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs (a.k.a., aggravated stage).
Then the gas with high pressure and high temperature flows through gas turbines and leaves the
engine through a nozzle. While expanding through the turbine blades, power is released from the gas
and drives the turbine rotating. This constitutes the modern gas turbine engine phenomena to be

Axial Flow Devices

Flow Direction Centrifugal Flow Devices

Mixed Flow
Devices Wind Turbine
Turbomachines
Comprssible Gas Turbine

Steam Turbine
Fluid Physics

Pumps
Incompressible
Hydroulic Turbine

Figure 4.1 Classification of Turbomachines

52 Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade
Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy, July 2010.
53 R. S. R. Gorla. Turbomachinery: Design and Theory. CRC Press, 2003.
 83

discussed next.

4.2 Historical Perspectives

The gas turbine is an internal combustion (IC) engine that uses air as the working fluid. It is the
production of hot gas during fuel combustion, not the fuel itself that the gives gas turbines the name.
Gas turbines can utilize a variety of fuels, including natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic fuels.
Combustion occurs continuously in gas turbines, as opposed to reciprocating IC engines, in which
combustion occurs intermittently. The engine extracts chemical energy from fuel and converts it to
mechanical energy using the gaseous energy of the working fluid (air) to drive the engine and
propeller, which, in turn, propel the airplane. The gas turbine engine was first invented in the
1930s∼1940s, which gave the opportunity of rapid development to turbomachinery. From the initial
turbojet engine to the modern turbofan engine with large bypass ratio, the evolution of jet engine
requires more advanced compressors and turbines with higher stage pressure ratio and higher
efficiency. Since 1988, the military of USA launched a series of research projects to develop advanced
turbines, such as “IHPTET” (Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology), “VAATE”
(Versatile Affordable Advanced Turbine Engines) etc. The primary goal is to double the thrust-to-
weight ratio (TWR) of engine which will reach to 15∼20, decrease the fuel consumption ratio by
15%∼30%. Compressor and turbine are two core components of jet engine. The performance of a jet
engine strongly depends on the design level of compressor and turbine. Therefore, significant
researching efforts have been spent on improving the performance of turbomachinery. Today, the
modern compressor stage has an efficiency of about 90% and the modern turbine stage has an
efficiency of up to 95%. Further improvements become more and more difficult and require much
deeper understanding of the flow field inside of the turbomachinery. Meanwhile, in industrial field,
steam turbine and gas turbine are the main instruments of power generation. Due to the energy
crisis, design of advanced turbine with higher efficiency is much more crucial than ever before.
Therefore, similar strong demands of improving the performance of turbomachinery are also
brought forward. While a turbine transfers energy from a fluid to a rotor, a compressor transfers
energy from a rotor to a fluid. These two types of machines are governed by the same basic
relationships including Newton's second Law of Motion and Euler's energy equation for
compressible fluids 54.

4.3 Modern Turbomachinery as Related to Gas Turbine Engine

In general, the rotating element is named rotor which is usually composed of one or several rows of
rotating blades. There also exits a stator which is also composed of rows of blades, but not rotating.
A pair of stator and rotor constitutes a stage. According to the way of energy transfer, turbomachines
are generally divided into two main categories. The first category is used primarily to generate power
which is called Turbine, including steam turbines, gas turbines and hydraulic turbines. The main
function of the second category is to increase the total pressure of the working fluid by consuming
power which includes compressors, pumps and fans as detailed in Figure 4.2. According to inlet
and outlet flow directions, turbomachines can be classified into two types: axial turbomachinery and
radial turbomachinery. However, here we concern only focuses on the axial turbomachinery. More
detail classification and description about the configurations can be found in55. Considerable
progress in development and application of CFD for aero-engines internal flow systems has been
made in recent years. CFD is regularly used in industry for assessment of air systems, and
performance of CFD for basic axisymmetric rotor/rotor and stator/rotor disc cavities with radial
through flow is largely understood and documented. In cooperation with 3D geometrical features
and calculation of unsteady flow are becoming common place. Automation of CFD, coupling with

54 See previous.
55 M. T. Schobeiri. Turbomachinery: Flow Physics and Dynamic Performance. Springer, Berlin, 2005. 2, 37, 38
 84

thermal models of solid components, is current area of development. A wide variety of flow
phenomena, which are coupled in nature, occur in Turbomachinery CFD ranging from shock surfaces,
boundary layer, secondary flow, and vortex generating from blade tip and hob. These, makes the flow
analysis of turbo-machinery extremely complex and CFD limited. The number of turbine stages varies
in different types of engines, with high bypass ratio engines tending to have the most turbine stages.
The number of turbine stages can have a great effect on how the turbine blades are designed for each
stage. Many gas turbine engines are twin spool designs, meaning that there is a high pressure spool
and a low pressure spool. The high pressure turbine is exposed to the hottest, highest pressure air,
and the low pressure turbine is subjected to cooler, lower pressure air. The difference in conditions
leads to the design of high pressure and low pressure turbine blades that are significantly different
in material and cooling choices even though the aerodynamic and thermodynamic principles are the
same. Under these severe operating conditions inside the gas and steam turbines, the blades face high
temperature, high stresses, and potentially high vibrations. Steam turbine blades are critical
components in power plants which convert the linear motion of high temperature and high pressure
steam flowing down a pressure gradient into a rotary motion of the turbine shaft.
Figure 4.7 illustrates of a twin spool jet engine. The high pressure turbine (HPT) is connected by a
single spool to the high pressure compressor (purple) and the low pressure turbine is connected to
the low pressure compressor by a second spool (green)56.

Figure 4.2 Component of Turbomachines and their Thermodynamic (Brayton cycle) properties

4.4 Difference Among Turbojet, Turbofan and Turboprop Engines in Aviation

Both engines use a turbine for power. This is where the "turbo" part of the name comes from. In a
turbine engine, air is compressed and then fuel is ignited in this compressed air. The energy produced

56 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

 85

by the ignition turns the turbine. The turbine is then able to drive both the compressor at the front
of the engine and also some useful load. In airplanes, it produces thrust.
4.4.1 Turbojet
The first jet engine was a turbojet. This is a simple turbine engine that produces all of its thrust from
the exhaust from the turbine section. However, because all of the air is passing through the whole
turbine, all of it must burn fuel. This means it is inefficient, and the solution is the turbofan (see
Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3 Turbojet Engine

4.4.2 Turbofan
In a turbofan, the turbine primarily drives a fan at the front of the engine. Most engines drive the fan
directly from the turbine. There are usually at least two separate shafts to allow the fan to spin slower
than the inner core of the engine. The fan is surrounded by a cowl which guides the air to and from
the fan. Part of the air enters the turbine section of the engine, and the rest is bypassed around the
engine. In high-bypass engines, most of the air only goes through the fan and bypasses the rest of the
engine and providing most of the thrust (see Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Turbofan Engine

 86

4.4.3 Turboprop
In a turboprop, the turbine primarily drives a propeller at the front of the engine. There is no cover
around the prop. Some air enters the turbine, the rest does not. The propeller is geared to allow it to
spin slower than the turbine (see Figure 4.5). Although this diagram shows only a single shaft, many
turboprops have two, with a high pressure shaft driving the compressor and a low pressure shaft
driving the propeller. Turboprops are more efficient at lower speeds since the prop can move much
more air with a smaller turbine than the fan on a turbofan engine. The cover around the turbofan's
large fan allows it to perform better than an open propeller at high speeds, but limits the practical
size of the fan.

Figure 4.5 Turboprop Engine

At supersonic speeds, turbojets have more of a performance benefit. They develop all of their thrust
from the high velocity turbine exhaust, while turbofans supplement that with the lower velocity air
from the fan. Since the air from the fan is also not compressed nearly as much as the core turbine
flow, it is also harder to prevent the flow from going supersonic and causing losses. The Concorde
used turbojets because it was designed to cruise for long periods at supersonic speeds. Modern
fighter jet engines are turbofans, which
provide a compromise between
efficiency and speed.
Elsewhere in aviation, turbine engines
are used in helicopters, as a turboshaft
engine driving the rotors instead of a
propeller, and with a freewheeling
clutch to enable autorotation’s (see
Figure 4.6). Turbocharged piston
engines use a turbine much differently
from the examples above. Instead of
being the primary power source, the
turbine only assists the piston engine.
A turbocharger uses a turbine to
compress air sent to the engine intake.
The increased compression helps the Figure 4.6 Turboshaft Engine
engine generate more power. The
 87

turbine of a turbocharger is driven by engine exhaust gasses, and a supercharger is similar but is
directly powered by the engine57.
4.4.4 How does it work?
Gas turbines are comprised of three primary sections mounted on the same shaft: the compressor,
the combustion chamber (or combustor) and the turbine, as described above. The compressor can
be either axial flow or centrifugal flow. Axial flow compressors are more common in power
generation because they have higher flow rates and efficiencies. Axial flow compressors are
comprised of multiple stages of rotating and stationary blades (or stators) through which air is drawn
in parallel to the axis of rotation and incrementally compressed as it passes through each stage. The
acceleration of the air through the rotating blades and diffusion by the stators increases the pressure
and reduces the volume of the air. Although no heat is added, the compression of the air also causes
the temperature to increase. The compressed air then mixed with fuel injected through nozzles. The
fuel and compressed air can be pre-mixed or the compressed air can be introduced directly into the
combustor. The fuel-air mixture ignites under constant pressure conditions and the hot combustion
products (what we like to call: aggravated gases) are directed through the turbine where it expands
rapidly and imparts rotation to the shaft. The turbine is also comprised of stages, each with a row of
stationary blades (or nozzles) to direct the expanding gases followed by a row of moving blades. The
rotation of the shaft drives the compressor to draw in and compress more air to sustain continuous
combustion. The remaining shaft power is used to drive a generator which produces electricity.
Approximately 55-65 % of the power produced by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. To
optimize the transfer of kinetic energy from the combustion gases to shaft rotation, gas turbines can
have multiple compressor and turbine stages. Because the compressor must reach a certain speed
before the combustion process is continuous – or self-sustaining – initial momentum is imparted to
the turbine rotor from an external motor, static frequency converter, or the generator itself. The
compressor must be smoothly accelerated and reach firing speed before fuel can be introduced and
ignition can occur. Turbine speeds vary widely by manufacturer and design, ranging from 2,000
revolutions per minute (rpm) to 10,000 rpm. Initial ignition occurs from one or more spark plugs
(depending on combustor design). Once the turbine reaches self-sustaining speed above 50% of full

Figure 4.7 Twin Pool Trubofan Jet Engine

57 Aviation weekly.
 88

speed; the power output is enough to drive the compressor, combustion is continuous, and the starter
system can be disengaged.
Simply put, in a compressor, to raise the pressure, the fluid must be slowed down as it passes
through a blade row. In a turbine, to drop the pressure, the fluid must be accelerated as it passes
through a blade row. By having alternate stationary and moving blade rows and making use of
the change of frame of reference, it is possible to always slow down (relative to the blade row)
or always speed up the fluid. For example: In a turbine the flow is accelerated in the stator
(stationary blade row). However, because the rotor row is moving, the flow appears to be moving
more slowly in the relative frame and so can be re-accelerated in the relative frame. This
appears to be a deceleration in the absolute frame58.
4.4.5 What is Thrust?
Thrust is a mechanical force which is generated through the reaction of accelerating a mass of gas, as
explained by Newton's 3rd law of motion. A gas or working fluid is accelerated to the rear and the
engine and aircraft are accelerated in the opposite direction. To accelerate the gas, we need some
kind of propulsion system. For right now, let us just think of the propulsion system as some machine
which accelerates a gas. From Newton's second law of motion, we can define a force T to be the
change in momentum of an object with a change in time. The thrust force, using a simple control
volume around propulsion systems obtained (see Figure 4.8) as

Figure 4.8 A 1D Control Volume around a propulsion system (Courtesy’s of NASA Glen Research
Center)

if Pe ≠ P0 → T = ṁ e Ve − ṁ 0 V0 + (Pe − P0 )Ae
if Pe = P0 → T = ṁ e Ve − ṁ 0 V0
Where T is thrust and ṁ = mass flow rate
Eq. 4.1
We see that there are two possible ways to produce high thrust. One way is to make the engine flow
rate (m dot) as high as possible. As long as the exit velocity is greater than the free stream, entrance
velocity, a high engine flow will produce high thrust. This is the design theory behind propeller
aircraft and high-bypass turbofan engines. A large amount of air is processed each second, but the
velocity is not changed very much. The other way to produce high thrust is to make the exit velocity
very much greater than the incoming velocity. This is the design theory behind pure turbojets,
turbojets with afterburners, and rockets. A moderate amount of flow is accelerated to a high velocity
in these engines. If the exit velocity becomes very high, there are other physical processes which
become important and affect the efficiency of the engine. There is a simplified version of the general
thrust equation that can be used for gas turbine engines. The nozzle of a turbine engine is usually
designed to make the exit pressure equal to free stream. In that case, the pressure-area term in the

58 University of Cambridge, Compressor and Turbine stages.

 89

general equation is equal to zero. The thrust is then equal to the exit mass flow rate times the exit
velocity minus the free stream mass flow rate times the free stream velocity59.

4.5 Gas Turbine Performance

The thermodynamic process used in gas turbines is the Brayton cycle. Two significant performance
parameters are the pressure ratio and the firing temperature. The fuel-to-power efficiency of the
engine is optimized by increasing the difference (or ratio) between the compressor discharge
pressure and inlet air pressure. This compression ratio is dependent on the design. Gas turbines for
power generation can be either industrial (heavy frame) or aero derivative designs. Industrial gas
turbines are designed for stationary applications and have lower pressure ratios, typically up to 18:1.
Aero derivative gas turbines are lighter weight compact engines adapted from aircraft jet engine
design which operate at higher compression ratios up to 30:1. They offer higher fuel efficiency and
lower emissions, but are smaller and have higher initial (capital) costs. Aero derivative gas turbines
are more sensitive to the compressor inlet temperature. The temperature at which the turbine
operates (firing temperature) also impacts efficiency, with higher temperatures leading to higher
efficiency. However, turbine inlet temperature is limited by the thermal conditions that can be
tolerated by the turbine blade metal alloy. Gas temperatures at the turbine inlet can be 1200°C to
1400°C, but some manufacturers have boosted inlet temperatures as high as 1600°C by engineering
blade coatings and cooling systems to protect metallurgical components from thermal damage.
Because of the power required to drive the compressor, energy conversion efficiency for a simple
cycle gas turbine power plant is typically about 30 percent, with even the most efficient designs
limited to 40 %. A large amount of heat remains in the exhaust gas, which is around 600˚C as it leaves
the turbine. By recovering that waste heat to produce more useful work in a combined cycle
configuration, gas turbine power plant efficiency can reach 55 to 60 percent. However, there are

Axial
Dynamic
Centrifugal Single Acting

Reciprocating Double Acting

Compressor Types
Diaphram

Positive Displacement Vane

Scroll

Rotery Liquid Ring

Screw

Lobe

Figure 4.9 Gas Compressor Types

59 NASA – Glen Research Center.

 90

operational limitations associated with operating gas turbines in combined cycle mode, including
longer startup time, purge requirements to prevent fires or explosions, and ramp rate to full load.

4.6 Gas Compressors

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor. Compressors are similar to pumps: both
increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are
compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible;
while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. The
main types of gas compressors are illustrated in Figure 4.9. where here we deal with two commonly
used Axial and Centrifugal compressors.
4.6.1 Axial-Flow Compressors
The dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress a
fluid. They are used where high flow rates or a compact design are required. The arrays of airfoils are
set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as
blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes,
decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the
fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next
stage (see Figure 4.11). Axial compressors are
almost always multi-staged, with the cross-
sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along
the compressor to maintain an optimum axial
Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1
design pressure ratio a compressor will not
function unless fitted with features such as
stationary vanes with variable angles (known as
variable inlet guide vanes and variable stators), the
ability to allow some air to escape part-way along
the compressor (known as inter-stage bleed) and
being split into more than one rotating assembly
(known as twin spools, for example). Axial
compressors can have high efficiencies; around Figure 4.11 Schematics of Axial Compressor
90% at their design conditions. However, they are
relatively expensive, requiring a large number of
components, tight tolerances and high quality
materials. Axial-flow compressors are used in
medium to large gas turbine engines, natural gas
pumping stations, and some chemical plants.
4.6.2 Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or
impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the
rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the
gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts
the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are
primarily used for continuous, stationary service
in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and
petrochemical plants and natural gas processing Figure 4.10 A single stage Centrifugal
plants.[1][14][15] Their application can be from 100 Compressor
horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower.
 91

With multiple staging, they can achieve high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
Many large snowmaking operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor. They are also used
in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are
used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines.
(see Figure 4.10).

4.7 Nomenclature of Terms

Before going further, it is prudent to get familiarize our self with terminology used in industry
regarding components of turbomachines60. From personal experience, it is an important issue. Some
of these are shown in Figure 4.12 and shown alphabetically in Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Glossary of Turbomachinery Terms

aspect ratio ratio of the blade height to the chord

axial chord Length of the projection of the blade, as set in the turbine, onto a line parallel to the
turbine axis. It is the axial length of the blade.
axial solidity Ratio of the axial chord to the spacing.
adiabatic insulated; occurring with no external heat transfer
blade exit angle Angle between the tangent to the camber line at the trailing edge and the turbine axial
direction.
blade height radius at the tip minus the radius at the hub
blade inlet angle between the tangent to the camber line at the leading edge and the turbine axial
angle direction
blower Rotary machine that produces a low-to-moderate pressure rise in a compressible fluid
(usually air), usually incorporated in a duct. See "fan" and "compressor."
bucket same as rotor blade
camber angle External angle formed by the intersection of the tangents to the camber line at the
leading and trailing edges. It is equal to the sum of the angles formed by the chord line
and the camber-line tangents
camber line Mean line of the blade profile. It extends from the leading edge to the trailing edge,
halfway between the pressure surface and the suction surface
CBE Compressor-burner-expander, or the "simple" gas-turbine "cycle."
CBEX Compressor (heat exchanger)-burner-expander-heat exchanger, or the "regenerated,"
"recuperated," or "heat-exchanger" gas-turbine "cycle."
chord Length of the perpendicular projection of the blade profile onto the chord line. It is
approximately equal to the linear distance between the leading edge and the trailing
edge.
chord line Two-dimensional blade section were laid convex side up on a flat surface, the chord
line is the line between the points where the front and the rear of the blade section
would touch the surface.
compressor rotary machine that produces a relatively high pressure rise (pressure ratios greater
than 1.1) in a compressible fluid
deflection Total turning angle of the fluid. It is equal to the difference between the flow inlet angle
and the flow exit angle

60David Gordon Wilson; "The Design of High-Efficiency Turbomachinery and Gas Turbines", pp 487-492,
published by the MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984, 5th printing 1991.
 92

deviation angle the flow exit angle minus the blade exit angle
diffuser A duct or passage shaped so that a fluid flowing through it will undergo an efficient
reduction in relative velocity and will therefore increase in (static) pressure.
EGV at the exit of the compressor consisting of another set of vanes further diffuses the
fluid and controls its velocity entering the combustors and is often known as the Exit
Guide Vanes (EGV)
effectiveness term applied here to define the heat-transfer efficiency of heat exchangers
efficiency Performance relative to ideal performance. There are many types of efficiency
requiring very precise definitions
entropy A property of a substance defined in terms of other properties. Its change during a
process is of more interest than its absolute value. In an adiabatic process, the increase
of entropy indicates the magnitude of losses occurring
expander A rotary machine that produces shaft power from a flow of compressible fluid at high
pressure discharged at low pressure. Here the only types of expander treated are
turbines
flow exit angle angle between the fluid flow direction at the blade exit and the machine axial direction
flow inlet angle angle between the fluid flow direction at the blade inlet and the machine axial direction
head the height to which a fluid would rise under the action of an incremental pressure in a
gravitational field
hub the portion of a turbomachine bounded by the inner surface of the flow annulus
hub-tip ratio same as hub-to-tip-radius ratio
IGV An additional row of stationary blades that frequently used at the compressor inlet
and are known as Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV) to ensure that air enters the first-stage
rotors at the desired flow angle, these vanes are also pitch variable thus can be
adjusted to the varying flow requirements of the engine
hub-to-tip radio ratio of the hub radius to the tip radius
incident angle the flow inlet angle minus the blade inlet angle
intensive Property that does not increase with mass; for instance, the pressure and temperature
property of a body of material do not double if an equal mass at the same temperature and
pressure is joined to it. (The energy, on the other hand, would double.)
intercoolers heat exchangers that cool a gas after initial compression and before subsequent
compression
isentropic occurring at constant entropy
isothermal occurring at constant temperature
leading edge the front, or nose, of the blade
mean section the blade section halfway between the hub and the tip
meridional a plane cutting a turbomachine through a diametric line and the (longitudinal) axis
plane
nozzle blade same as stator blade, for turbines only
pitch the distance in the direction of rotation between corresponding points on adjacent
blades
pressure The concave surface of the blade. Along this surface, pressures are highest
surface
pump A machine that increases the pressure or head of a fluid. In connection with
turbomachinery it usually refers to a rotary machine operating on a liquid.
 93

radius ratio same as hub-to-tip-radius ratio

recuperator a heat exchanger, defined in this book as one with nonmoving surfaces, transferring
heat from a hot fluid to a cold fluid
regenerated See "CBEX."
cycle
regenerator a heat exchanger, defined in this book as one having moving surfaces or valves
switching the hot and cold flows
reheat The effect of losses in increasing the outlet enthalpy, or in decreasing the steam
wetness, in a steam-turbine expansion. Also see "reheat combustor."
reheat a combustor fitted between two turbines to bring the gas temperature at inlet to the
combustor second turbine to approach the temperature at inlet to the first
root The compressor or turbine-blade section attaching it to its mounting platform. Rotor
blade root sections are normally at the hub, and stator- blade roots at the shroud
rotor the rotating part of a machine, usually the disk or drum plus the rotor blades
rotor blade a rotating blade
separation when a fluid flowing along a surface ceases to go parallel to the surface but flows over
a near-stagnant bubble, or an eddy, or over another stream of fluid
shroud the surface defining the outer diameter of a turbomachine flow annulus
solidity the ratio of the chord to the spacing
spacing same as pitch
stagger angle the angle between the chord line and the turbine axial direction (also known as the
setting angle)
stall the condition of operation (usually defined by the incidence) of an airfoil, or row of
airfoils, at which the fluid deflection begins to fall rapidly and/or the fluid losses
increase rapidly
static conditions or properties of fluids as they would be measured by instruments moving
(conditions) with the flow
stator the stationary part of a machine, normally that part defining the flow path
stator blade A stationary blade.
suction surface The convex surface of the blade. Along this surface, pressures are lowest
surge the unstable operation of a high-pressure-ratio compressor whose stalls propagate
upstream from the high-pressure stages or components allowing reverse flow and the
discharge of the reservoir of high-pressure fluid, followed by re-establishment of
forward flow and a repetition of the sequence.
tip The outermost section of the blade or "vane."
total conditions or properties of fluids as they would be measured by stationary
(conditions) instruments that bring the fluid isentropically to rest
trailing edge the rear, or tail, of the blade
transverse the plane normal to the axis of a turbomachine
plane
turbine A rotary machine that produces shaft power by extracting energy from a stream of
fluid passing through it, using only fluid-dynamic forces (as distinct from "positive
displacement" or piston-and-cylinder-like machines).
turbomachines As for "turbine," except that the shaft power may be produced or absorbed, and the
energy may be extracted from or added to a stream of fluid.
 94

working fluid Fluid that undergoes compression, expansion, heating, cooling, and other processes in
a heat-engine cycle. In an open-cycle gas turbine the working fluid is air

Figure 4.12 Blade Related Terminology

4.8 Component of Gas Turbine Engine

4.8.1 Inlet
The air inlet duct must provide clean and unrestricted airflow to the engine61. Clean and undisturbed
inlet airflow extends engine life by preventing erosion, corrosion, and Foreign Object Damage (FOD).
Consideration of atmospheric conditions such as dust, salt, industrial pollution, foreign objects (birds,
nuts and bolts), and temperature (icing conditions) must be made when designing the inlet system.
Fairings should be installed between the engine air inlet housing and the inlet duct to ensure
minimum airflow losses to the engine at all airflow conditions. The inlet duct assembly is usually
designed and produced as a separate system rather than as part of the design and production of the
engine.
4.8.2 Axial Compressor
The compressor is responsible for providing the turbine with all the air it needs in an efficient
manner. In addition, it must supply this air at high static pressures. The example of a large turboprop

61 “Fundamentals of Gas Turbine Engines”, Cast-Safty.org.

 95

axial flow compressor will be used. The compressor is assumed to contain fourteen stages of rotor
blades and stator vanes. The overall pressure ratio (pressure at the back of the compressor compared
to pressure at the front of the compressor) is approximately 9.5:1. At 100% (>13,000) RPM, the
engine compresses approximately 433 cubic feet of air per second. At standard day air conditions,
this equals approximately 33 pounds of air per second. The compressor also raises the temperature
of the air by about 550F as the air is compressed and moved rearward. The power required to drive
a compressor of this size at maximum rated power is approximately 7000 horsepower. In an axial
flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts the pressure from the previous stage.
A single stage of compression
consists of a set of rotor
blades attached to a rotating
disk, followed by stator
vanes attached to a
stationary ring. The flow area
between the compressor
blades is slightly divergent.
Flow area between
compressor vanes is also
divergent, but more so than
for the blades. In general
terms, the compressor rotor
blades convert mechanical
energy into gaseous energy.
This energy conversion
greatly increases total
pressure (PT). Most of the
increase is in the form of
velocity (V), with a small
increase in static pressure
(PS) due to the divergence of
the blade flow paths. The
stator vanes slow the air by
means of their divergent duct
shape, converting 'the
accelerated velocity (V) to
higher static pressure (PS).
The vanes are positioned at
an angle such that the exiting
air is directed into the rotor
blades of the next stage at the
most efficient angle. This
process is repeated fourteen
times as the air flows from Figure 4.13 Schematic Diagram of fluid properties through an axial
the first stage through the compressor stage – Courtesy of [T. B. Ferguson, Gravdahl, and
fourteenth stage. Error! R Egeland]
eference source not found.
shows one stage of the compressor and a graph of the pressure characteristics through the stage.
(see [Niazi]62).

62 Saeid Niazi, “Numerical Simulation of Rotating Stall and Surge Alleviation in Axial Compressors”, A Thesis
 96

The stator removes swirl from the flow, but it is not a moving blade row and thus cannot add any net
energy to the flow. Rather, the stator rather converts the kinetic energy associated with swirl to
internal energy (raising the static pressure of the flow). Thus typical velocity and pressure profiles
through a multistage axial compressor look like those shown in Error! Reference source not found.. A
lternatively, assuming incompressible, constant density, and with no body force, we can use
Bernoulli’s equations (PT = PS + 1/2ρV2) where PT is the stagnation pressure, a measure of the total
energy carried in the flow, p is the static pressure a measure of the internal energy, and the velocity
terms are a measure of the kinetic energy associated with each component of velocity63. The rotor
adds swirl to the flow, thus increasing the total energy carried in the flow by increasing the angular
momentum (adding to the kinetic energy associated with the tangential or swirl velocity, 1/2rv 2).
The stator removes swirl from the flow, but it is not a moving blade row and thus cannot add any net
energy to the flow. Rather, the stator rather converts the kinetic energy associated with swirl to
internal energy (raising the static pressure of the flow).
Thus a typical velocity and pressure profiles through a multistage axial compressor look like those
shown in Figure 4.14. In addition to the fourteen stages of blades and vanes, the compressor also
incorporates the inlet guide vanes and the outlet guide vanes. These vanes, located at the inlet and
the outlet of the compressor, are neither divergent nor convergent. The inlet guide vanes direct air
to the first stage compressor blades at the "best" angle. The outlet guide vanes "straighten" the air to
provide the combustor with the proper airflow direction. The efficiency of a compressor is primarily
determined by the smoothness of the airflow. During design, every effort is made to keep the air
flowing smoothly through the compressor to minimize airflow losses due to friction and turbulence.
This task is a difficult one, since the air is forced to flow into ever-higher pressure zones. Air has the

Figure 4.14 Pressure and Velocity profile through a Multi-Stage Axial Compressor

Presented to the Academic Faculty, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2000.

63 MIT OpenCourseWare
 97

natural tendency to flow toward low-pressure zones. If air were allowed to flow "backward" into the
lower pressure zones, the efficiency of the compressor would decrease tremendously as the energy
used to increase the pressure of the air was wasted. To prevent this from occurring, seals are
incorporated at the base of each row of vanes to prevent air leakage. In addition, the tip clearances
of the rotating blades are also kept at a minimum by the use of coating on the inner surface of the
compressor case. All components used in the flow path of the compressor are shaped in the form of
airfoils to maintain the smoothest airflow possible. Just as is the case for the wings of an airplane, the
angle at which the air flows across the airfoils is critical to performance. The blades and vanes of the
compressor are positioned at the optimum angles to achieve the most efficient airflow at the
compressor’s maximum rated speed. Any deviation from the maximum rated speed changes the
characteristics of the airflow within the compressor. The blades and vanes are no longer positioned
at their optimum angles. Many engines use bleed valves to unload the force of excess air in the
compressor when it operates at less than optimum speed.64 The example engine incorporates four
bleed valves at each of the fifth and tenth compressor stages. They are open until 13,000 RPM (~94%
maximum) is reached, and allow some of the compressed air to flow out to the atmosphere. This
results in higher air velocities over the blade and vane airfoils, improving the airfoil angles. The
potential for airfoil stalling is reduced, and compressor acceleration can be accomplished without
surge.
4.8.3 Diffuser
All turbomachines and many other flow systems incorporate a diffuser (e.g. closed circuit wind
tunnels, the duct between the compressor and burner of a gas turbine engine, the duct at exit from a
gas turbine connected to the jet pipe, the duct following the impeller of a centrifugal compressor,
etc.)65. Air leaves the compressor through exit guide vanes, which convert the radial component of
the air flow out of the compressor to straight-line flow. The air then enters the diffuser section of the
engine, which is a very divergent duct. The primary function of the diffuser structure is aerodynamic.
The divergent duct shape converts most of the air’s velocity (Pi) into static pressure (PS) with the aid
of Bernoulli equation. As a result, the highest static pressure and lowest velocity in the entire engine
is at the point of diffuser discharge and combustor inlet. Other aerodynamic design considerations
that are important in the diffuser section arise from the need for a short flow path, uniform flow
distribution, and low drag loss. In addition to critical aerodynamic functions, the diffuser also
provides:

• Engine structural support, including engine mounting to the nacelle

• Support for the rear compressor bearings and seals
• Bleed air ports, which provide pressurized air for:
• Airframe "customer" requirements (air conditioning, etc.)
• engine inlet anti-icing
• control of acceleration bleed air valves
• Pressure and scavenge oil passages for the rear compressor and front turbine bearings.
• Mounting for the fuel nozzles.

The primary fluid mechanical problem of the diffusion process is caused by the tendency of the
boundary layers to separate from the diffuser walls if the rate of diffusion is too rapid66. The result of

64 MIT, OpenCourseWare.
65 S. L.
Dixon, “Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery”, 5th edition, Senior Fellow at University
of Liverpool, 1978-1998.
66 See 13.
 98

too rapid diffusion is always large losses in stagnation pressure. On the other hand, if the rate of
diffusion is too low, the fluid is exposed to an excessive length of wall and fluid friction losses become
Pre-dominant. Clearly, there must be an optimum rate of diffusion between these two extremes for
which the losses are minimized.
4.8.4 Nozzle
In a large number of turbomachinery components the flow process can be regarded as a purely nozzle
flow in which the fluid receives an acceleration as a result of a drop in pressure (see
Figure 4.7). Such a nozzle flow occurs at entry to all turbomachines and in the stationary blade rows
in turbines. In axial machines the expansion at entry is assisted by a row of stationary blades (called
guide vanes in compressors and nozzles in turbines) which direct the fluid on to the rotor with a
large swirl angle. Centrifugal compressors and pumps, on the other hand, often have no such
provision for flow guidance but there is still a velocity increase obtained from a contraction in entry
flow area. In reality, Nozzle and Diffuser work against each other. A nozzle increases the velocity of a
fluid, while a diffuser decreases the velocity of a fluid. Nozzles can be used by jets and rockets to provide
extra thrust. Conversely, many jet engines use diffusers to slow air coming into the engine for a more
uniform flow.
4.8.5 Combustor
Once the air flows through the diffuser, it enters the combustion section, also called the combustor.
The combustion section has the difficult task of controlling the burning of large amounts of fuel and
air. It must release the heat in a manner that the air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth and
stable stream of uniformly heated gas at all starting and operating conditions. This task combustion
liners must position and control the fire to prevent flame contact with any metal parts. The engine
under consideration here uses a can-annular combustion section with six combustion liners (cans).
They are positioned within an annulus created by inner and outer combustion cases. Combustion
takes place in the forward end or primary zone of the cans. Primary air (amounting to about one
fourth of the total engine’s total airflow) is used to support the combustion process. The remaining
air, referred to as secondary or dilution air, is admitted into the liners in a controlled manner (Figure
4.15). The secondary air controls the flame pattern, cools the liner walls, dilutes the temperature of
the core gasses, and provides mass. This cooling air is critical, as the flame temperature is above
1930C (3500F), which is higher than the metals in the engine can endure. It is important that the fuel
nozzles and combustion liners control the burning and mixing of fuel and air under all conditions to

Figure 4.15 Combustor Primary Operating Components

 99

avoid excess temperatures reaching the turbine or combustion cases. Maximum combustion section
outlet temperature (turbine inlet temperature) in this engine is about 1070C (>1950F). The rear third
of the combustion liners is the transition section. The transition section has a very convergent duct
shape, which begins accelerating the gas stream and reducing the static pressure in preparation for
entrance to the turbine section.
4.8.6 Axial Gas Turbine
This example engine has a four-stage turbine. The turbine converts the gaseous energy of the
air/burned fuel mixture out of the combustor into mechanical energy to drive the compressor, driven
accessories, and, through a reduction gear, the propeller. The turbine converts gaseous energy into
mechanical energy by expanding the hot, high-pressure gases to a lower temperature and pressure.
Each stage of the turbine consists of a row of stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating blades.
This is the reverse of the order in the compressor. In the compressor, energy is added to the gas by
the rotor blades, then converted to
static pressure by the stator vanes. In
the turbine, the stator vanes increase
gas velocity, and then the rotor blades
extract energy. The vanes and blades
are airfoils that provide for a smooth
flow of the gases. As the airstream
enters the turbine section from the
combustion section, it is accelerated
through the first stage stator vanes.
The stator vanes (also called nozzles)
form convergent ducts that convert
the gaseous heat and pressure energy Figure 4.17 Turbine Flow Characteristics
into higher velocity gas flow (V). In
addition to accelerating the gas, the vanes "turn" the flow to direct it into the rotor blades at the
optimum angle. As the mass of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous
energy is converted to mechanical energy. Velocity, temperature, and pressure of the gas are
sacrificed in order to rotate the turbine to generate shaft power. Figure 4.17 represents one stage
of the turbine and the characteristics of the gases as it flows through the stage. A multi-stage turbine

Figure 4.16 Schematics of Axial Flow Turbine

 100

is illustrates in Figure 4.15. The efficiency of the turbine is determined by how well it extracts
mechanical energy from the hot, high-velocity gasses. Since air flows from a high-pressure zone to a
low pressure zone, this task is accomplished fairly easily. The use of properly positioned airfoils
allows a smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades and vanes of the turbine. All the air
must flow across the airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency in the turbine. In order to ensure this,
seals are used at the base of the vanes to minimize gas flow around the vanes instead of through the
intended gas path. In addition, the first three stages of the turbine blades have tip shrouds to
minimize gas flow around the blade tips. We can apply the same analysis techniques to a
turbine. Again, the stator does no work. It adds swirl to the flow, converting internal energy into
kinetic energy. The turbine rotor then extracts work from the flow by removing the kinetic
associated with the swirl velocity.

Typical Compressor Blade ( Air

Defence Museum) Typical Turbine Blade

Figure 4.18 Examples of Typical Blades for Compressor and Turbine

4.9 Difference in Blading Between Compressor and Turbine

There is quite a difference between Compressor and Turbine blading. Aside from shape of it, they
are number of stages and arrangement of it. While Compressor blades are generally thin and straight,
and resemble a tiny
rectangular wing with low Compressor
camber thickness. Turbine
blades are more curved. In • Area increase: pressure rise
particularly large and • Flow deceleration: thick boundary layers
recent engines, where
efficiency is critical, turbine • Little flow turning: many stages
blades will often be full of
tiny holes for cooling
effects. The difference best Turbine
described below and
examples of blade shown in • Area decrease: pressure drop
Figure 4.18. To • Flow acceleration: thin boundary layers
distinguish between high • Large flow turning: few stages
pressure and low pressure
 101

stages (compressor or turbine does not matter), the length of the blade and its torsion (i.e. how much
the aerodynamic profile turns around the axis of the blade going from the root to the tip) are key:
shorter and more twisted blades will be high pressure ones, longer and straighter blades will be low
pressure. Note that two blades of the same length could come one from a high pressure stage and the
other from a low pressure one of a different engine: "short" and "long" are relative to the engine size.

4.10 Velocity Triangles in Turbomachines

An important aspect of Turbomachinery is the velocity triangle and their goal to change the flow
apparatus. It is basic vector relationship between relative and absolute frame. Velocity triangles are
typically used to relate the flow properties and blade design parameters in the relative frame
(rotating with the moving blades),
to the properties in the stationary
or absolute frame. It uses the
study of first year Static, and by
“unwrapping” the
compressor. That is, we take a
cutting plane at a particular radius
(see Figure 4.19). Here we have
assumed that the area of the
annulus through which the flow
passes is nearly constant and the
density changes are small so that
the axial velocity is approximately
constant. Let’s examine the
velocities of the gas, as it passes
through a rotor and a stator. At the
point we’re examining, the rotor is
moving with a velocity U. The
velocity of the gas relative to the
rotor is denoted by C and V is Figure 4.19 Velocity triangles for an Axial Compressor
absolute velocity or V = C + U. The
angle between the flow velocity C and the shaft axis is denoted by α. The angle between the rotor
blade angle and the shaft axis is denoted by β. The component of the velocity C in axial direction is
denoted by Ca. It is assumed to be constant along the compressor. Notice the tangential velocity
increase across the rotor for compressor. In some circles, they used W instead of C or W = V – U. In
drawing these velocity diagrams it is important to note that the flow typically leaves the trailing edges
of the blades at approximately the trailing edge angle in the coordinate frame attached to the blade
(i.e. relative frame for the rotor, absolute frame for the stator). We will mainly look at axial
compressors as they are the most used type of compressors. Also, axial compressors work very
similar to axial turbines where stator gives tangential velocity, and rotor moves in the direction of
tangential velocity, having work done on them by flow. Notice tangential velocity decrease across
turbine rotors. (Figure 4.19).

4.11 Energy Exchange with Moving Blades

The Euler turbine equation relates the power added to or removed from the flow, to characteristics
of a rotating blade row. The equation is based on the concepts of conservation of angular momentum
and conservation of energy. They are both turbomachinery: machines that transfer energy from a
rotor to a fluid, or the other way around. The working principle of the compressor and the turbine is
therefore quite similar.
 102

4.11.1 Euler’s Equation for Turbomachinery 67

Let’s examine a rotor, rotating at a constant angular velocity ω. The initial radius of the rotor is r 1,
while the final radius is r2. A gas passes through the rotor with a constant velocity c. The rotor causes
a moment M on the gas. The power needed by the rotor is thus P = Mω. It would be nice if we can find
an expression for this moment M. For that, we first look at the force F acting on the gas. It is given by

d(mc)
dFu = = ṁc
dt
Eq. 4.2
Where we have used the assumption that c stays constant. Only the tangential component Fu
contributes to the moment. Every bit of gas contributes to this tangential force. It does this according

dF𝑢 = ṁdc𝑢
Eq. 4.3
Where cu is the tangential velocity of the air. Let’s integrate over the entire rotor. We then find that

2 2 2

M = ∫ dM = ∫ rdF𝑢 = ṁ ∫ rdc𝑢 = ṁ(c𝑢,2 r2 − c𝑢,1 r1 )

1 1 1
Eq. 4.4
The power is now given by

P = Mω = Tω = ṁ(c𝑢,2 r2 − c𝑢,1 r1 )ω = ṁ(c𝑢,2 r2 − c𝑢,1 r1 )

Eq. 4.5
In this equation, T denotes Torque, u denotes the speed of the rotor at a certain radius r. We have
also used the fact that ω = u1/r1 = u2/r2. The above equation is known as Euler’s equation for
turbomachinery. From Eq. 4.5 it is obvious that:

• If the tangential velocity increases across a blade row (where positive tangential velocity is
defined in the same direction as the rotor motion) then work is added to the flow (a
compressor).
• If the tangential velocity decreases across a blade row (where positive tangential velocity is
defined in the same direction as the rotor motion) then work is removed from the flow (a
turbine).

Furthermore, another form of Euler’s Turbomachinery equation, with aid of the steady flow energy
equation:

H2 − H1 = ω (cu,2 r2 − cu,1 r1 ) = Cp (T2 − T1 ) where Cp = constant Eq. 4.6

It relates the temperature ratio (and hence the pressure ratio) across a turbine or compressor to the
rotational speed and the change in momentum per unit mass. Note that the velocities used in this
equation are what we call absolute frame velocities (as opposed to relative frame velocities).68 It is
given fact that:

67 “Compressor and turbines”, Aero students.

68 MIT, OpenCourseWare.
 103

• If angular momentum increases across a blade row, then T2 > T1 and work was done on the
fluid (a compressor).
• If angular momentum decreases across a blade row, then T2 < T1 and work was done by the
fluid (a turbine)

Figure 4.20 Velocity Triangles in Relation to Incident Angle

4.12 Compressors and their Reaction to Intake Distortion

During the design phase of an aircraft and its engine it is important that the compatibility aspects at
the aerodynamic interface between the aircraft intake and the engine are given sufficient
consideration because of the implications failures in this area may have69. On a macroscopic level
and in isolation from other effects, the isentropic relation can be applied. Compressors, as the name
implies, compress air by a repeated sequence of first adding kinetic energy to the flow and then
converting the kinetic energy to pressure by a process of flow deceleration. The elements within a
compressor achieving this process are a number of airfoils, either rotating or stationary. Work input
to the flow by a rotor row is achieved via change of the angular momentum of the flow, and these
properties are related to each other via the following equation,

H2 − H1 = u2 c𝑢,2 − u1 c𝑢,1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗U⃗

where c⃗ = w
Eq. 4.7
Especially for axial compressors where rotor angular velocities at rotor inlet and exit are very similar
to each other, it is evident that an increase in total enthalpy requires changing the angular velocity of
flow. Velocity triangles at rotor inlet and exit exemplified in Figure 4.20 show how angular flow
velocities, rotor inlet flow angles and rotor exit flow angles are related to each other. The symbol “c”
denotes velocity in the absolute frame of reference. Due to the rotational speed “u” of the rotor, rotor
blades experience flow velocities within their rotating (or relative) frame of reference, denoted by
the symbol “w”. For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed that the flow at rotor inlet has no angular
component (cu, 1 = 0), and the exit flow angle of the rotor blade remains unchanged (in the rotor frame
of reference). With these assumptions, an increase in work input according to equation 1 can only be
achieved by an increase of cu,2. According to the dependencies shown in Figure 4.20, this requires

69Breuer, B., Bissinger, N., C., “Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering – Volume 8 - Chapter EAE 573-Basic
Principles – Gas Turbine Compatibility – Gas Turbine Aspects”.
 104

reducing the axial velocity component of the flow behind the rotor. Because of conservation of mass
flow through the rotor, also the axial velocity at rotor inlet will be reduced, leading to an increased
incidence of the flow to the rotor blade. Translating the state of flow behind the rotor from the
rotating frame of reference into the stationary one, Figure 4.20 also shows that an increase of work
delivered to the flow by the rotor increases the incidence to the subsequent stator row as well.
Therefore, an increase of work input to the flow means increasing incidences to both rotor and stator
airfoils. Therefore, an increase of work input to the flow means increasing incidences to both rotor
and stator airfoils.
Very much like aircraft wings, these airfoils have certain operating limits in terms of airfoil angle of
attack or incidence. With increasing incidence, rotor airfoils provide for a larger work input and
hence pressure rise, but at the same time the aerodynamic loading increases, up to a point where the
flow separates. On a larger scale, the pressure rise capability of a compressor is typically depicted
using a compressor map where pressure rise is depicted as a function of compressor mass flow for
different rotational speeds.
An example map is provided
with Figure 4.21, and for the
sake of illustration, it also
relates different regimes of
compressor operating range
to an aircraft operating at
different angles of attack. At
low pressure ratios, the
airfoils operate with negative
to small incidence, and usually
elevated losses. When the
pressure ratio is increased,
airfoil incidences now
approach a condition with
minimum losses. Further
increasing the pressure ratio
is equivalent to further rise of
airfoil aerodynamic loading
and losses increase due to Figure 4.21 Compressor Operating Map
formation of regions of
separated flow. At the upper end of a speed line, there is a point where regions of separated flow have
enlarged to an extent where no further pressure rise is achievable, in analogy to aircraft wings
reaching the stall limit where no further increase of lift can be provided70. The upper operational
limit of a compressor map is called the surge line, representing a condition where large flow
separation prevents further pressure rise. The surge line represents an operational limit for engine
operation, since the occurrence of compressor surge (sometimes also referred to as compressor stall)
leads to a highly unsteady flow field within the engine, quite often also entailing periods of reversed
flow, that is air flowing in the “wrong” direction through the compressor. Surge is associated with
large fluctuations of power output. Furthermore, it is accompanied by increased structural loads
caused by the rapid changes of flow field state. Compressor maps are usually established (either
numerically or by means of testing) for a standard set of inlet conditions. These inlet conditions are
typically derived from simplified installation assumptions and assume a simplified inlet profile with
radial variations only, but uniform in circumferential direction. Intake distortion considerations deal

70 See 71.
 105

with conditions that deviate from these design assumptions and aim to identify the consequences of
these deviations with regard to engine operation.

4.13 Effects of Turbine Temperature

The materials used in the turbine section of the engine limit the maximum temperature at which a
gas turbine engine can operate71. The first metal the hot gases from the combustion section strike is
the turbine inlet. The temperature of the gas stream is carefully monitored to ensure that over
temperature does not occur. Compromises are made in turbine design to achieve the optimum
balance of power, efficiency, cost, engine life, and other factors. As an example, our sample engine
can operate at a higher turbine inlet temperature than previous models due to improved materials
and design. The higher temperature allows for increased power and improved efficiency while
adding higher cost for the direct cooling of the first turbine stage airfoils and other components.
Figure 4.22 shows the temperature, velocity and pressure variation across a gas turbine engine72.
To increase the overall performance of the engine and reduce the specific fuel consumption, modern
gas turbines operate at very high temperatures. However, the high temperature level of the cycle is
limited by the melting point of the materials. Therefore, turbine blade cooling is necessary to reduce
the blade metal temperature to increasing the thermal capability of the engine. Due to the
contribution and development of turbine cooling systems, the turbine inlet temperature has doubled
over the last 60 years. The cooling flow has a significant effect on the efficiency of the gas turbine. It
has been found that the thermal efficiency of the cooled gas turbine is less than the uncooled gas
turbine for the same input conditions (Figure 4.23). The reason for this is that the temperature at
the inlet of turbine is decreased due to cooling and therefore, work produced by the turbine is slightly
decreased. It is also known that the power consumption of the cool inlet air is of considerable concern

Pressure Temperature Velocity

Figure 4.22 Sample engine Perssure, Velocity and Temperature variation

71“Fundamentals of Gas Turbine Engines”, Cast-Safety.org.

72Shahrokh Sorkhkhah, “Gas Turbine Fundamentals”, Faculty of Karaj , Azad University Design Director of Iran
Gas Turbine Company.
 106

since it decreases the net power output of the gas turbine73-74. With this in mind, during the design
phase of gas turbine it is very important to optimize the cooling flow if you are considering both the
performance and reliability. Cooled Gas turbine design is quite complicated and requires not only the
right methodology, but also the most appropriate design tools, powerful enough to predict the results
accurately from thermodynamics cycle to aerothermal design, ultimately generating the 3D blade.
Different cooling methods that are employed depend on the extent of the cooling required. The
cooling flow passes through several loops internally and is then ejected over the blade surface to mix
with the main flow. The mixing of the cooling flow with the main flow alters the aerodynamics of the
flow within the turbine cascade. The cooling flow that is injected into the main flow needs to be
optimized, not only in terms of thermodynamic parameters, but also in terms of the locations to
ensure the turbine vanes and blade surfaces are maintained well below the melting surface. The
spacing between the holes, both in horizontal and vertical direction, affects not only the surface
temperature of the blade, but also the strength of the blade and its overall life.
Performing a 3D analysis for optimizing the flow, spacing, and location of cooling flow is
computationally expensive. One has to resort to reduced order 1D flow and heat network simplifies
the task of not only arriving at the optimal configuration of cooling holes and location, but also in
aerothermal design of the gas turbine flow path and generation of the optimized 3D blades with
reduced overall design cycle time. Designers are faced with the challenge of simplifying the complex
3D cooled blade and accurately modelling it.

Figure 4.23 Turbine Inlet Temperature27

73 Amjed Ahmed Jasim AL-Luhaibi, Mohammad Tariq, “Thermal Analysis of Cooling Effect on Gas Turbine Blade”,
eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308.
74 Posted by: Abdul Nassar, “Optimizing the Cooling Holes in Gas Turbine Blades”, SoftInWay® Incorporated,

2016.
 107

4.14 Compressor and Turbine Characteristics

The compressor has several important parameters. There are the mass flow m͘ , the initial and final
temperatures T02 and T03, the initial and final pressures p02 and p03, the shaft speed ω (also denoted
as N), the rotor diameter D, and so on75. Let’s suppose we’ll be working with different kinds of
compressors. In this case, it would be nice if we could compare these parameters in some way. To do
that, dimensionless parameters are used. By using dimensional analysis, we can find that there are
four dimensionless parameter groups. They are

ṁ√RT02 p03 ωD
, , and η
p02 D2 p02 √RT02
Eq. 4.8
These parameter groups are known as the mass flow parameter group, the pressure ratio, the
shaft speed parameter group and the efficiency. The efficiency can be either polytrophic or
isentropic. (These two efficiencies depend on each other anyway). The relation between the four
dimensionless parameters can be captured in a graph, known as a characteristic. An example of a
characteristic is shown in Figure 4.24. When applying dimensional analysis to a turbine, the same
results will be found. However, this time the initial and final pressures are p04 and p05. The initial and
final temperatures are T04 and T05.
4.14.1 Stall
Let’s examine the air entering the
rotor76. Previously, we have
assumed that this air has exactly
the right angle of incidence “i” to
follow the curvature of the rotor
blade. In reality, this is of course
not the case. In fact, if the angle of
incidence is too far off, then the
flow can’t follow the curvature of
the rotor blades. The other
phenomena associated with Stall is
if there are pockets of low axial
velocity covering one or two blade
passages (see Figure 4.25). This
is called stall and usually starts at
one rotor blade. However, this stall
alters the flow properties of the air
around it. Because of this, stall Figure 4.24 Characteristics Graph of a Compressor
spreads around the rotor. And it
does this opposite to the direction of rotation of the rotor. This phenomenon is called rotating stall.
Often, only the tips of the rotor blades are subject to stall. This is because the velocity is highest there.
This is called part span stall. If, however, the stall spreads to the root of the blade, then we have full
span stall. For high compressor speeds ω, stall usually occurs at the last stages. On the other hand,
for low compressor speeds, stall occurs at the first stages. Generally, the possibility of stalling
increases if we get further to the left of the characteristic. (See also Figure 4.24).

75 MIT OpenCourseWare.
76 See previous.
 108

4.14.2 Compressor Surge77

Let’s suppose we control the mass flow m˙ in a compressor, running at a constant speed ω. The mass
flow m˙ effects the pressure ratio p03/p02. There can either be a positive or a negative relation
between these two. Let’s examine the case where there is a negative relation between these two
parameters. Now let’s suppose we increase the mass flow m˙. The pressure at the start of the
compressor will thus decrease. However, the
pressure upstream in the compressor hasn’t
noticed the change yet. There is thus a higher
pressure upstream than downstream. This can
cause flow reversal in the compressor. Flow
reversal itself is already bad. However, it doesn’t
stop here. The flow reversal causes the pressure
upstream in the compressor to drop. This causes
the compressor to start running again. The
pressure upstream again increases. Also, the
mass flow increases. But this again causes the
pressure downstream to increase. Flow reversal
thus again occurs. A rather unwanted cycle has
thus been initiated. This cyclic phenomenon is
called surge. It causes the whole compressor to Figure 4.26 Classical Compressor Surge Cycles
start vibrating at a high frequency (see Figure
4.26). Surge is different from
stall, in that it effects the entire
compressor. However, the
occurrence of stall can often lead
to surge. There are several ways
to prevent surge. We can blow-
off bleed air. This happens
halfway through the
compressor. This provides an
escape for the air. Another
option is to use variable stator
vanes (VSVs). By adjusting the
stator vanes, we try to make sure
that we always have the correct
angle of incidence i. Finally, the
compressor can also be split up
into parts. Every part will then
have a different speed ω. Figure 4.25 Illustration of the Propagation of a Stall Cell in the
Contrary to compressors, Relative Frame
turbines aren’t subject to
surge. Flow simply never tends to move upstream in a turbine. As an alternative, an interesting read
regarding stall and surge of compressors is presented by [Niazi]78.

77MIT OpenCourseWare.
78Saeid Niazi, “Numerical Simulation of Rotating Stall and Surge Alleviation in Axial Compressors”, A Thesis
Presented to the Academic Faculty of Georgia Institute of Technology, 2000.
 109

4.14.3 Choked Flow

Let’s examine the pressure ratio p04/p05 in a turbine. Increasing this pressure ratio usually leads to
an increase in mass flow m˙. However, after a certain point, the mass flow will not increase further.
This is called choked flow79. It occurs, when the flow reaches supersonic velocities. Choked flow can
also occur at the compressor. If we look at the right side of Figure 4.24, we see vertical lines. So,
when we change the pressure ratio p03/p02 at constant compressor speed ω, then the mass flow
remains constant.

4.15 Other Types of Turbines

Beside gas turbine which was the main concern here, there are other types of turbine used in
industry, namely Wind, Steam and Hydraulic turbines (see Figure 4.1). Their main purpose is to
harness the useful mechanical energy (electricity) from kinetic and potential energies. These can be
characterized as renewable energy category. For types of wind turbine, readers are encourage to
consult the work by [Ragheb]80, or Introduction to wind turbine Aerodynamics, Springer 2014, or
section 2.2 of this publication, among others. For Steam and Hydraulic turbines, an excellent
references are given by Wikipedia.

79See previous.
80Magdi Ragheb and Adam M. Ragheb (2011). “Wind Turbines Theory - The Betz Equation and Optimal Rotor
Tip Speed Ratio, Fundamental and Advanced Topics in Wind Power”, Dr. Rupp Carriveau (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-
307-508-2, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/fundamental-and-advanced-topicsin-
wind-power/wind-turbines-theory-the-betz-equation-and-optimal-rotor-tip-speed-ratio.
 110

5 Primary Research in Turbomachinery

5.1 Research Spectrum
The design of turbomachinery is a complex task due to the complicated flow phenomena and
interaction of multi-disciplines which involves aerodynamics, heat transfer81, structural dynamic,
control theory, materials and manufacture engineering etc. Among these design processes,
aerodynamic analysis is the keystone of the design, which decides the performance of
turbomachinery directly.
While, without numerical
technologies (CFD simulation
and numerical optimization), it
is impossible to meet the
increasing rigorous
requirements of design. Hence,
the research on numerical
aerodynamic analysis and
numerical design of
turbomachinery are
outstandingly important. The
aerodynamic performance of
turbomachinery mainly
depends on the complex
internal flows which usually
are strongly three dimensional,
viscous and unsteady. Figure
5.1 shows the impact of CFD on
SNECMA fan performance over
a 30 year period. The flows in
blade passages may be laminar,
turbulent and transitional, and Figure 5.1 Impact of CFD on SNECMA fan performance, over a
may include wake flow, and period of 30 years
secondary flows etc. In
addition, there also may exist other complicated flow phenomena, such as transition, boundary layer
separation, shock and shock-boundary layer interaction, the unsteady interaction between the blade
rows, the interactions between the blade row and end-wall, etc. In 1999, a NASA report of “Numerical
Simulation of Complex Turbomachinery Flows”82 stated four typical complex flows in
turbomachinery which have been investigated extensively and may remain being the key research
problems of turbomachinery in next few decades. These flows are:

• Unsteady flow
• Turbulence
• Film cooling
• Three dimensional flow in turbine including tip leakage effect

81 Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade
Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit
Brussel July 2010
82 X. D. Wang, Sh. Kang, “Solving stochastic burgers equation using polynomial chaos decomposition”, J. Eng.

Therm., 31(3):393-398, 2010. (In Chinese)

 111

5.2 Application of CFD in Turbomachinery

Accurate and robust turbomachinery off-design performance prediction remains elusive.
Representation of transonic compression systems, most notably fans, is especially difficult, due in
large part to highly three-dimensional blade design and the resulting flow field83. Complex shock
structure and subsequent interactions (with blade boundary layers, end-walls, etc.) provide
additional complications. Surely, turbomachinery design has benefited greatly from advancements
in computational power and efficiency. However, practical limitations in terms of computational
requirements, as well as limitations of turbulence and transition modeling, make it difficult to use
CFD to analyze complex off-design issues. Accurate and robust turbomachinery off-design
performance prediction remains elusive. Representation of transonic compression systems, most
notably fans, is especially difficult, due in large part to highly three-dimensional blade design and the
resulting flow field. Complex shock structure and subsequent interactions (with blade boundary
layers, end-walls, etc.) provide additional complications. Surely, turbomachinery design has
benefited greatly from advancements in computational power and efficiency. However, practical
limitations in terms of computational requirements, as well as limitations of turbulence and
transition modeling, make it difficult to use CFD to analyze complex off-design issues.
For example, CFD analyses have only recently been used to explore the complex flow fields resulting
from inlet distortion through modern multistage fans. The time-accurate investigation by Hah, et al,
1998, which included unsteady circumferential and radial variations of inlet total pressure, is one of
the most complete in the open literature. Even so, Hah’s calculation was limited to two blade passages
with boundary conditions just upstream and downstream of the first rotor of a two-stage fan. As
discussed below, improvements to traditional numerical approaches are needed. With the
development of computer technology, the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations are
developed rapidly since 1980s. In the same time, a couple of turbulence models are proposed
successively to complete RANS model. In most design processes, the steady RANS simulations give
satisfied prediction of overall performance. While in elaborate design processes, unsteady RANS
(URANS) simulations are needed since the flows in turbomachinery are highly unsteady. Respecting
to the approximation level of geometry, CFD simulation of turbomachinery developed from 2D to 3-
D, from planar cascade to annular cascade, from single blade passage to whole ring, from single stage
to multi stages. The increase of model accuracy to the real geometry has significant effects on
turbomachinery design. Figure 5.1 Exhibits the impact of CFD on the performance improvement of
aircraft engine in SNECMA (France) over a period of almost 30 years84. The evolution, from the initial
use of simple 2D potential flow models in the early 1970s to the current applications of full 3D Navier-
Stokes code, has led to overall gain in efficiency close to 10 points85.

5.3 Quasi 3D Flow (Q3D)

The definition Fully 3D methods replace the stream surface calculation of blade-to-blade (S1) and
hub-to-tip (S2) stream surface was introduced by Wu86 , and this viewpoint dominated the subject
until the early 1980s when fully three dimensional (3D) methods first became available. Wu’s static
pressure S1/S2 approach was far ahead of his time in that he saw flow velocity it as a method of

83 Boyer, K., M., “An Improved Streamline Curvature Approach for Off-Design Analysis of Transonic Compression
Systems “, PhD. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001.
84 J. F. Escuret, D. Nicoud, and Ph. Veysseyre,”Recent advances in compressors aerodynamic design and analysis”,

AVT TP/1, RTO/NATO, 1998.

85 Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade

Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije universiteit
Brussel July 2010.
86 Wu, C. H. “A general through flow theory of fluid flow”, NACA paper TN2302, 1951.
 112

solution for fully 3D flow. Wu’s ideas

were considerably simplified by
circumferential distance assuming that
the S1 stream surfaces were surfaces of
revolution (i.e. untwisted) while the S2
stream surfaces were reduced to a single
mean stream surface that could be
treated as an axisymmetric flow (Figure
5.2). The axisymmetric hub-to-tip (S2)
calculation is often called the ‘Through
flow calculation’ and has become the
backbone of turbomachinery design,
while the ‘blade-to-blade’ (S1) calculation
remains the basis for defining the
detailed blade shape. Fully 3D methods
replace the stream surface calculation of
blade-to-blade (S1) and hub-to-tip (S2)
stream surface calations by a single Figure 5.2 Illustration of S1 and S2 surfaces
calculation for the whole blade row. This
removes the modelling assumptions of the quasi 3D (Q3D) approach but requires far greater
computer power and so was not usable as a design tool until the late 1980s. For similar reasons, early
methods had to use coarser grids that introduced larger numerical errors than in the Q3D approach.
Radial equilibrium and through-flow methods determine the meridional variations in the velocity
field, but they assume that the turbomachinery flow field is axisymmetric. Cascade analysis and
blade-to-blade computational methods consider the flow variations across the blade passages, but
they neglect span wise variations and radial flows. These two views of a turbomachine are very useful
and both are essential in the design process, but in reality the flow field in all axial turbomachinery,
to some degree, varies in the axial, radial, and tangential directions.

5.3.1 Stream Surface of Second Kind - Through Flow (S2)

Through flow calculations can be used in design (or inverse) mode to determine blade inlet and exit
angles and velocity variation from a specified span-wise work distribution, or in analysis (or direct)
mode when blade angles are specified and flow angles, work, and velocity distributions are predicted.
Through flow calculation programs are probably the most important tool of the turbine aerodynamic
designer. At the initial design stage a one-dimensional mean line calculation might be used to obtain
estimates of blade height and so to lay out a first approximation to the annulus line. Such mean line
calculations usually include estimates of blade loss and deviation, so that predictions of turbine
performance can be obtained, but these must be based only on the blade geometry mid-height so
high accuracy cannot be expected. Although span wise variations in flow are small for very high
radius ratio turbines these variations become significant at radius ratios below about 0.9. It is well
known that most turbine blades are remarkably tolerant to off-design incidences (compared to
compressor blades), but even so optimum performance, particularly at off-design conditions, cannot
be expected unless the blades are matched to the span wise variation in flow. The main objective of
a through flow calculation is, therefore, to provide a prediction of this span wise variation so that
suitable blade profiles can be selected to cope with the variations in inlet angle, turning, Mach
number, etc. The main problem encountered when developing through flow calculations for turbines,
as opposed to compressors, arises from the need to be able to calculate the flow through stages with
high-pressure ratio and in particular with regions of transonic relative flow. The latter is much more
easily handled by Streamline Curvature methods (SCM) than by stream function methods although
severe difficulties arise even for the former type of method. Time-marching methods are much better
 113

suited to calculating transonic flow but are not yet highly developed further use in through flow
calculations. Problems with calculating transonic flow are currently much more severe in steam
turbines than in gas turbines. The traditional use of streamline curvature method (SCM)
approaches, as most often discussed in the literature during the preliminary design phase, are
discussed in detail in87. The stream surface represented by

s(r, ψ, z) = 0 Eq. 5.1

As depicted in Figure 5.3. The through-flow solver provides a preliminary blade shape, continually
refined through solutions from higher-order and secondary flow models. One way to calculate a 3D
flow field is to solve two sets of equations, one dealing with axis-symmetric flow in the meridional
plane, commonly referred to as the “S2” surface, and the other with blade-to-blade flow on a stream
surface of revolution, the “S1” plane (see Figure 5.2). The traditional formulation for the governing
momentum equation(s) is a first-order velocity gradient representation, one in the radial and one in
the tangential direction approach for off-design analysis along an axis-symmetric S2 surface. It is
generally accepted that any streamline curvature solution technique will yield satisfactory flow
solutions as long as the deviation, losses, and blockages are accurately predicted88.

Figure 5.3 Streamline Curvature Method

5.3.2 Stream Surface of First Kind (Blade 2 Blade – S1)

These methods calculate the flow on a blade-to-blade (S1) stream surface given the stream surface
shape with the objective with an associated stream surface thickness and of designing the detailed
blade profile. The stream surface is best thought of as a stream tube radius which are obtained from
the through flow calculation. Accurate specification of the radius and thickness variation is essential
as they can have a dominant effect on the blade surface pressure distribution. As with through flow
methods the calculation may be in either direct (or analysis) mode, when the blade shape is
prescribed and its surface pressure distribution calculated, or in inverse mode, where the required
blade surface pressure distribution is prescribed and a blade shape is sought. Many different

87 Chung-Hua Wu, “A General Theory of Three Dimensional Flow in Subsonic and Supersonic Turbomachines
of Axial-Radial- and Mixed Flow Types”, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Technical Note, 1952.
88 Boyer, K., M., “An Improved Streamline Curvature Approach for Off-Design Analysis of Transonic Compression

Systems “, PhD. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001.
 114

numerical methods have been developed for this task. Initially streamline curvature (to be
discussed later) and stream function methods were popular, but both have difficulty coping be made
to calculate transonic flows with weak shock with transonic flow and they have now largely been
abandoned. Velocity potential methods can waves but they have seen limited use in turbomachinery.
The numerical methods described above are inviscid and need to be coupled to a boundary layer
calculation if they are to be used to predict blade loss. For com pressor blades the boundary layer
blockage must be included in the inviscid calculation as it significantly affects the blade surface
pressure distribution89. For most turbine blades the boundary layer is so thin that it may be
calculated separately after obtaining the surface pressure distribution from an inviscid calculation. A
recent alternative (N–S) equations which predict the boundary native to coupled inviscid/boundary
layer calculations is the direct solution of the Navier– layer growth as part of the main calculation.
These demand a much finer grid near to the blade surfaces than do inviscid calculations and so are
considerably more ‘expensive’. Nevertheless the N–S equations for blade to-blade flow are now
routinely solved as part of the design process, requiring only a few minutes CPU time on a modern
workstation. There remains controversy about the best turbulence and transition models to use and
about how many mesh points are necessary within the boundary layer.
A variety of blade–to-blade solvers are currently available in the design system. They range from
potential and streamline curvature method up to fully viscous, time marching solvers. The main use
of the blade-to-blade codes is to ensure that the vector diagrams set by thorough Flow are achievable
and within the bounds of blade thickness, loading and efficiencies. For examples, in turbine design
the suction surface diffusion is taken as a primary indicator as to the condition of the boundary layer.
The blade-to-blade code solves for the suction surface velocity ratio, or diffusion factor, and the
geometry is adjusted accordingly. Most of these codes are very similar to those available in other
design systems and have also been described elsewhere. However, three codes (TAYLOR, AEGIS and
NOVAKED2D) are different and worth mentioning90.

5.3.3 Case Study – Turbine Airfoil Optimization Using Inviscid Quasi 3D (Q3D) Analysis Codes
Turbine airfoil design has long been a domain of expert designers who use their knowledge and
experience along with analysis codes to make design decisions. The turbine aerodynamic design is a
three-step process that is pitch line analysis, through-flow analysis, and blade-to-blade analysis, as
depicted in Figure 5.4. In the pitch line analysis, flow equations are solved at the blade pitch, and a
free vortex assumption is used to get flow parameters at the hub and the tip. Using this analysis the
flow path of the turbine is optimized, and number of stages, work distribution across stages, stage
reaction, and number of airfoils in each blade row are determined. In the through-flow analysis, the
calculation is carried out on a series of meridional planes where the flow is assumed to be
axisymmetric and the boundary conditions of each stage are determined. The axisymmetric through-
flow method allows for variation in flow parameters in the radial direction without using the free
vortex assumption and accounts for interactions between multiple stages. In the blade-to-blade
analysis, airfoil profiles are designed on quasi-3D surfaces using a computational fluid dynamics
code.
The primary sources of losses in an airfoil are profile loss, shock loss, secondary flow loss, tip
clearance loss, and end-wall loss. Profile loss is associated with boundary layer growth over the blade
profile causing viscous and turbulent dissipation. This also includes loss due to boundary layer
separation because of conditions such as extreme angles of incidence and high inlet Mach number.
Shock losses arise due to viscous dissipation within the shock wave which results in increase in static

89 Calvert, W. J. and Ginder, R. B., “Quasi-3D calculation system for the flow within transonic compressor blade
rows”, ASME paper 85-GT-22, 1985.
90 Ian K. Jennions, “Elements of a Modern Turbomachinery Design System”, GE Aircraft Engines, One Neumann

Way, MD X409, Cincinnati, OH 45215-6301,United States.

 115

pressure and subsequent thickening of the boundary layer, which may lead to flow separation
downstream of the shock. End-wall loss is associated with boundary layer growth on the inner and
outer walls on the annulus. Secondary flow losses arise from flows, which are present when a wall
boundary layer is turned through an angle by an adjacent curved surface. Tip clearance loss is caused
by leakage flows in the tip clearance region of the rotor blade, where the leaked flow fails to
contribute to the work output and also interacts with the end-wall boundary layer. The objective of
the design is to create the most efficient airfoil by minimizing these losses. This often requires
trading-off one loss versus another such that the overall loss is minimized.
To compute all these losses a 3D viscous analysis is required; however, due to the computational load
of such a code, a quasi-3D analysis code is often used in the design process. Thus the impact of the
blade geometry on 3D losses cannot be determined and only 2D losses can be minimized, that is,
profile and shock losses. A viscous quasi-3D analysis though less computationally intense is still too
expensive for use in design optimization, and an inviscid quasi-3D code is used instead. Consequently,
viscous losses are not computed from the analysis code and airfoil performance is gauged by the
characteristics of the Mach number distribution on the blade surface. The most practical formulation
for low-speed turbine airfoil designs still remains the direct optimization formulation based on 2D
inviscid blade-to-blade solvers.

Figure 5.4 The turbine Design Process

5.3.3.1 Quasi-3D CFD Analysis and Results

A quasi 3D CFD solver is used in the current investigation to analyze the flow on the airfoil, which is
an isentropic that uses the streamline curvature method that computes the Mach Number/Pressure
distribution on the airfoil surface91. In the absence of a viscous code, designers usually estimate the
quality of the airfoil by visually examining the Mach number distribution obtained from an in-viscid
quasi 3D CFD solution. Since optimization techniques are driven by a numerical value of the objective
function, and the visual perspective of the designer is the only proven metric available, it must be
captured in a suitable numerical algorithm to provide a measure of quality of an airfoil. The current

91 Goel, Sanjay,” Turbine Airfoil Optimization Using Quasi-3D Analysis Codes”, University at Albany, USA.
 116

work employs curve fitting coupled with design heuristics to compute quality metrics from the Mach
number distribution and the airfoil geometry.
These metrics are weighted for different designs based on individual designer preferences. Primary
evaluation metrics that have been defined are diffusion, deviation, incidence deviation, and leading
edge crossover. A physical interpretation of these metrics is presented below. Diffusion is defined as
the deceleration of the flow along the blade surface. It is measured as the cumulative aggregate of all
flow diffusions at each point along the airfoil surface. As the flow diffuses, the boundary layer
thickens, and the momentum loss in the boundary layer increases. In this case, the increased drag
causes a significant loss of momentum; flow separation may result, causing much larger losses. Thus,
the objective of the design is to minimize the diffusion effect. Since the impact of diffusion on the
pressure and suction sides is different, separate terms are defined for the suction and pressure sides.
In the test case presented here, a low-pressure turbine nozzle is optimized. The flow-path of the low-
pressure turbine used in the investigation is shown in Figure 5.5. The radial distances in the figure
are measured with reference to the centerline of the engine and the axial distances are measured
with reference to a point upstream of the first stage of the turbine. The horizontal lines in the figure
represent the streamlines of the flow. Thirteen streamlines are shown, the top and bottom of which
coincide with the casing and the hub respectively. The vertical lines represent the edges of the blade
rows and the location of the frame. The turbine has six stages, each stage composed of two blade
rows. The first blade row consists of nozzles and the second blade row consists of buckets. The stages
are numbered from 1 to 6 in the Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5 Flow Path of the Turbine

In the current investigation, stage 5 nozzle was designed using sections from five streamlines equally
spaced along the blade span (hub to tip). Figure 5.6 Shows the approximate locations of the
streamlines for an airfoil in which the first and the last streamlines are shown at the hub and tip. In
reality however streamlines at 5% and 95% span were used instead of streamlines directly on the
hub and tip because Mach number distributions very close to the end walls are distorted by the end
wall effects and not representative of the flow away from the walls. The starting solution for the test
case was obtained by estimating the airfoil shape based on shapes of similar airfoils designed in the
past. All the Mach number and airfoil geometry plots use the same reference radial and axial locations
as shown in Figure 5.7. To ensure slope and curvature smoothness of the geometry, second- order
 117

polynomials were used to represent the radial distribution of geometry parameters.

Figure 5.7 3D model of an

Figure 5.6 Schematics of an airfoil showing stream airfoil showing the passage
lines along the radial direction between adjacent airfoils

5.4 Theory of Radial Equilibrium in Through Flow (Cr = 0)

Consider a small element of fluid of mass dm shown in Figure 5.8 of unit depth and subtending an
angle dθ at the axis, rotating about the axis with tangential velocity, cθ, at radius r. The element is in
radial equilibrium so that the pressure forces balance the centrifugal forces (cr = 0):

(p + dp)(r + dr ) dθ − p r dθ −  p + 1 dp  dr dθ = dmcθ
2
Eq. 5.2
 2  r

Writing dm = ρ r dϴ dr and ignoring terms of 2nd order we obtain:

 118

1 dp cθ2
= Eq. 5.3
ρ dr r
For an incompressible fluid and using
thermodynamic relations the Radial Equilibrium
Equation can be written as:

dh 0 ds
− T = cx x + θ
dc c d
(rcθ ) or
dr dr dr r dr
dc
cx x + θ
c d
(rcθ ) = 0
dr r dr
1 dp 0 1 dp dc dc
= + c x x + cθ θ or
ρ dr ρ dr dr dr
1 dp 0 dc
= cx x + θ
c d
(rcθ )
ρ dr dr r dr
Figure 5.8 Radial Equilibrium
Eq. 5.4
This equation clearly states that equal work is
delivered at all radii and the total pressure losses across a row are uniform with radius. It may be
applied to two sorts of problem: the design (or indirect) problem, in which the tangential velocity
distribution is specified and the axial velocity variation is found, or the direct problem, in which the
swirl angle distribution is specified, the axial and tangential velocities being determined.

5.5 Governing Equation of Rotating Frame of Reference

Accounting for the particular flow situation in turbomachinery, it is necessary to be able to describe
the flow behavior relatively to a rotating frame of reference that is attached to the rotor. Without loss
of generality, it is assumed that the moving part of turbomachinery is rotating steadily with angular
velocity ω around the machine axis along which a coordinate z is aligned. Define u as absolute
velocity, w is relative velocity, and v is as rotating system or blade ω⨯r, we have,

⏟
u = w
⏟ + ⏟
v =w+ω×r
Absolute Relative Coordinates
Eq. 5.5
Introducing this into the mass conversation and after some manipulation we obtain,

∂r ρ
+ ∇. (ρ𝐰) = 0
∂t
Eq. 5.6
Comparing with non-inertia frame of reference, it seems to keep the same expression where
subscript r refers to the rotating frame of reference. Without causing confusion, the subscript r can
be omitted in general. The total derivative (acceleration) is also can be redefined as

Du ∂w ∂v
= + + w. (∇w) + 2 w
⏟× ω + ω ⏟× v
Dt ∂t ∂t Coriolis Centrifugal
Eq. 5.7
 119

The first item on right-hand side expresses the local acceleration of the velocity field within the
rotating frame of reference. The second term and third item denote the angular velocity acceleration
and the convective term within the rotating frame of reference, respectively. While, the fourth item
and last item are the Coriolis acceleration and the Centrifugal acceleration, respectively, which are
fictitious forces produced as a result of transformation from stationary frame to rotating frame of
reference. Figure 5.9 shows the directions of the velocity and the acceleration, and relationship
between the absolute velocity, relative velocity and rotation (Schobeiri, 2005). Substituting the

Figure 5.9 Coriolis and Centripetal forces created by the Rotating Frame of Reference
acceleration in Error! Reference source not found. distinctly, for an incompressible flow equations o
f motion and energy, in rotating frame of reference can be obtained:

 ( w )  ( v)
M omentum: + + w.(w ) + ω  v + 2ω  w = μw − p + F
t t
  w
2
v
2


D ρ h + + 

  2 2 
  p
Energy : = +   (kT ) +   (τ  w ) + w F + q H
Dt t
Eq. 5.8
Which can written in scalar form of (r, ϴ, and z) with the aid of cylindrical coordinates. It should be
noted that WF is the work of body forces in rotating frame of reference, F is the body force, while the
subscript r is omitted here. The detailed derivation process of governing equations in rotating frame
of reference can be found in [Schobeiri]92. Alternatively, we can choose more compact form of
integral representation with arbitrary control volume V and differential surface area dA in a relative
frame of reference rotating steadily with angular velocity ω:

92 M. T. Schobeiri, “Turbomachinery: Flow Physics and Dynamic Performance”, Springer, Berlin, 2005.
 120

dV +  F − G  dA =  S dV where W = ρ , ρu , ρE and

dW
 v = u − rω
T
V dt V

F = [ρv, ρu  v + p I, ρEv + pu]T G = [0 , τ , τ  v + q]T S = [0 , ρω  u , 0]T

Eq. 5.9
Here F, G and S are respectively, the inviscid flux, viscous flux, and source vectors, and τ, I are stress
and identity tensors respectively. In addition, ρ, u, E, and p are the density, absolute velocity, total
enthalpy, and pressure, respectively and v is the relative velocity. Extended details in available in93.

5.6 Efficiency Effects in Turbomachinery94

In the turbomachinery context a large number of efficiencies are defined such as thermodynamic or
mechanical efficiency. In the sections below the focus is put on the thermodynamic efficiencies. For
a given change of state of a fluid the efficiency is defined as the ratio between actual change in energy
to ideal change in energy in case of expansion or the inverse in case of compression,

actual change in energy

Expansion : η =
ideal change in energy
ideal change in energy Eq. 5.10
Compression : η =
actual change in energy
5.6.1 Isentropic Efficiency
Depending on which process is taken as ideal process efficiencies are referred to as isentropic or
polytrophic efficiencies. In case of an isentropic efficiency the ideal process is represented by an
isentropic change of state from start to end pressure, i.e. the same pressures as for the real process.
This is illustrated in Figure 5.11 for an expansion process by means of an enthalpy-entropy diagram
(h-s diagram). In the above depicted process the changes in total energy are referred to, which is
expressed by indexing the efficiency by “tt”, i.e. “total-to-total”. With the aid of h0 = h + (1/2) c2 where
c is the flow velocity, the total-to-total isentropic efficiency (expansion and compression) is thus given
by

93“Simulation of unsteady turbomachinery flows using an implicitly coupled onlinear harmonic balance method”,
Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2011, GT2011.
94 Damian Vogt,” Turbomachinery Lecture Notes”, 2007.
 121

actual change in energy Δh 0 h −h

For Expansion : η tt = = = 01 02
ideal change in energy Δh os h 01 − h 02s
Eq. 5.11
ideal change in energy Δh 0s h 02s − h 01
For Compression : η tt = = =
actual change in energy Δh 0 h 02 − h 01

Figure 5.10 Compression process Figure 5.11 Expansion process

Note: For adiabatic real processes the entropy must always increase during the change of state. Due
to this increase in entropy the real change in energy is smaller than the ideal during expansion. In
other words, you get out less energy from the real process than you could have from an ideal one For
the compression process the increase in entropy signifies that you need to put in more energy to
compress a fluid than you would have in an ideal process Therefore the efficiency is always smaller
or equal to unity The only way to reduce entropy would be to cool a process. However in such case
we do no longer look into adiabatic processes. In certain cases the kinetic energy that is contained in
the fluid (i.e. the amount of energy that is due to the motion) cannot be used at the end of a process.
An example for such a process is the last stage of an energy producing turbine where the kinetic
energy in the exhaust gases is not contributing to the total energy produced. In such case a so-called
total-to-static isentropic efficiency is used, identified by indexing the efficiency by “ts”, i.e. “total-to-
static”. Note that it is necessary to include total and static states in this case. The total-to-total
isentropic efficiency (expansion) is thus given by:

−1
actual change in energy h 01 − h 02 Δh 0 1 c 22 
η ts = = = = +  Eq. 5.12
ideal change in energy h 01−h 2s c 22  η tt 2h 0 
Δh 0s +
2
This relation shows that for values of c2 > 0 the total-to-static efficiency is always smaller than the
total-to-total efficiency. For further detailed aspects of efficiency in turbomachines the readers
should consult with 95-96.

95 S.L. Dixon, B.Eng., PH.D., “Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery”, Senior Fellow at the
University of Liverpool, UK.
96 Damian Vogt, “Efficiencies”, Turbomachinery Lecture Notes, 2007.
 122

5.7 Case Study 1 – Computation of Heat Transfer in Linear Turbine Cascade

The efficiency of a turbine increases in general with an increase of the temperature of the working
gas which was investigated by [Kalitzin, & Iaccarino]97. This gas temperature may well exceed the
melting temperature of the metal walls. Locally high heat transfer can lead to an excessive
temperature and high thermal stresses in the walls, causing an early fatigue of the high pressure
turbine components. Thus, the design of these components requires accurate evaluation of heat
transfer at the walls (Figure 5.12). The prediction of heat transfer at the end wall and the blade
surface requires simulation of the viscous interaction between the boundary layer approaching the
blade and that developing on the blade itself. Secondary flows, horseshoe type vortices, and strong
turbulence generate complex end wall heat transfer distributions with several local maxima
occurring at the end wall and the blade surface. Accurate prediction of these peaks is crucial for the
design of the turbine cooling system. The objective of the present work is to use this database to
evaluate the influence of turbulence models on the accuracy of heat transfer predictions in
complex three-dimensional flows in turbine geometries. The sensitivity of the heat transfer
coefficient prediction to the turbulence model used is analyzed using two different models: the
Spalart-Allmaras one equation model and Durbin's four equation v2-f model. The use of two different
flow solvers, the NASA research code CFL3D and the commercial package FLUENT ©, increases

Figure 5.12 Linear Turbine cascade and computational domain

confidence in the results and allows the elimination of effects related to the numerical discretization
of the equations.

Numerical Methods
The present results have been computed using two different RANS flow solvers: the NASA code
CFL3D and the commercial software Fluent® is a compressible, finite-volume code for multi-block

97 Kalitzin, G. & Iaccarino G., “End wall heat transfer computations in a transonic turbine cascade”, XVII Congresso

nazionale sulla transmissione delcalore, U.I.T, Ferrara, 1999.

 123

structured grids. The mean flow fluxes are computed with the Roe flux difference splitting scheme.
Turbulence models are solved segregated from the mean flow in an elimination of effects related to
the numerical discretization of the equations. The CFL3D is a compressible, finite-volume code for
multi-block structured grids. Turbulence models are solved segregated from the mean flow in an
implicit manner using three-factored Approximate Factorization. The v2-f model has been
implemented in this code in an implicit manner. The resulting linear algebraic system is solved with
a three or two-factored Approximate Factorization scheme. Fluent® solves the time-dependent RANS
equations on structured and unstructured meshes using a control-volume-based technique; the
diffusion terms are discretized using a second-order central-difference scheme while a second-order
upwind scheme is employed for the convective terms. An Euler implicit discretization in time is used
in combination with a Newton-type linearization of the fluxes. The resulting linear system is solved
using a point Gauss-Seidel scheme in conjunction with an algebraic multi-grid method. The additional
equations for the turbulent quantities are solved in a segregated fashion using a 1 st or 2nd order
upwind discretization scheme with explicit boundary conditions.

Mesh Generation
The large scale linear cascade investigated in the experiments consists of twelve blades with an axial
chord of 10.7 cm. A part of the cascade is shown in Figure 5.13 A. The high blade count of the
cascade ensures good periodicity. This allows us to consider only one blade and only the region
between end wall and symmetry plane in the computations. The actual computational domain is
shown in Figure 5.13 B. The block boundaries of the structured 3-block mesh and the boundary
conditions used are highlighted in the Figure 5.12. An O-mesh topology around the blade has been
chosen to ensure a high quality mesh near the blade surface. The two-dimensional mesh consisting
of 48x192 cells has been generated through simple geometric interpolation. After generating the
outer boundary as an arbitrary line between two blades and distributing lines connecting the outer

Shock
Reflection

Figure 5.13 A) Default mesh B) Refine mesh

boundary with the blade, O-lines have been interpolated using a stretching function. The three-
dimensional mesh has been generated by copying the described 2D grid in the span-wise direction
and clustering the grid points at the end-wall. Two meshes, mesh A and mesh B, have been generated
with 40 and 52 cells span-wise, respectively. All block dimensions have been chosen to contain
factors of the power 2 to exploit multi-grid. The mesh has been transformed into an unstructured
 124

mesh for the flow computations with Fluent©. The multi-block decomposition disappears for an
unstructured solver. The height of the first cell above the wall has an average y+ value of about 1. The
height has been adjusted after initial computation.

Heat Transfer Results for 2D & 3D

In the simulation of three-dimensional flow, the computational grid is often a compromise between
a desired resolution and computational accord ability. In two dimensions, however, it is easier to
carry out a complete grid sensitivity study. With this objective in mind, the flow in the symmetry
plane has been computed in a two-dimensional plane. The structured grid or default mesh, for this
report is shown in Figure 5.13(A). It is the same used at each span wise location in the three-
dimensional calculations. It contains 11008 cells. The unstructured grid, shown in Figure 5.13(B)
is obtained through successive refinement in regions with high pressure gradients and large strain
rates like shock waves, boundary layers, and wakes. This mesh contains 71326 cells. The Mach
contours plotted for both grids show a very complex shock wave pattern in the wake of the blades.
The accelerating flow within the passage generates an oblique shock wave on the pressure side of a
blade (see red circles in Figure 5.13). This shock is reflected on the suction side of the successive
blade. It then interacts with the viscous wake of the blade from which it originated. Partly due to
reflection in pressure BC. Somehow the new development by ANSYS© claims that Average Pressure
Specification at Pressure
Boundary which allows the f=0 f = 0.5 (Old)
exit pressure to vary across
the boundary, but
maintains an average
equivalent to the specified
exit pressure value98. It also
claims that it is less
reflective than previous
version with improved
results. The Pressure
blending factor ‘f’ (default
value 0.0) may need to
change f > 0.0 in cases
where stability is degraded.
For f = 0 recovers the fully Figure 5.14 Average Pressure Specification at pressure boundary
averaged pressure, and f = 1
recovers the specified pressure. The results of this improvement displayed in Figure 5.14.
A second shock wave is generated on the suction side near the trailing edge. The default mesh does
not resolve the shock wave the wake. Only the two shocks at the trailing edge are clearly visible. The
heat transfer at the wall depends significantly on the thermal conductivity of the fluid. The effect of
using a constant thermal conductivity at reference temperature is demonstrated with the FLUENT©
results reported in the same figure. The overall Stanton number is under-predicted. This explains the
difference observed between the FLUENT and CFL3D Stanton number distributions at the end wall
reported. It has to be noted that the constant thermal conductivity is the default option in. The
pressure distributions on blade and end-wall are not very sensitive to the grid resolution and inflow
profile for the case considered. Both flow solvers predicted a reasonable agreement with the
experiment as reported in. We note, however, that the pressure distribution on the blade and the
shock structure is sensitive to the treatment of the periodic boundary since it is located relatively
close to the blade surface. In this paper we will focus primarily on the analysis of the heat transfer

98 Ansys Fluent© 16.0 Preview 4.

 125

distribution, on the dependence of the Stanton number distribution on inflow profile and grid
resolution.

Experimental Data
The experimental data for the end-wall show some interesting features that will help to differentiate
the predictive capabilities of the models tested (Figure 5.15). The horseshoe vortex generated by
the rolling up of the incoming boundary layer enhances the wall heat transfer, and its structure is
clearly visible in the higher Stanton number (Region A). A second distinct heat transfer peak is
measured near the stagnation point (Region A). Within the passage, four additional interesting
features are present: the first is a localized peak in the Stanton number related to the impingement
of the suction-side leg of the horseshoe vortex on the blade surface (Region B). The second feature is
the presence of a shock wave on the pressure side near the trailing edge that increases the heat
transfer on the end wall (Region C). Third, there is a gradual increase of heat transfer at the end wall
which is related to the acceleration of the fluid in the passage (Region D). And finally, the presence of
a corner vortex on the suction side of the blade (Region E) is indicated in experiments by a low heat
transfer region. In the wake, a very sharp peak in the Stanton number is measured just downstream
of the trailing edge (Region C). The numerical predictions of the Stanton number show most of the
features observed in the experiments but, in general, fail to predict the quantitative heat transfer on
the end wall correctly.

Figure 5.15 Stanton Number Distribution on End-Wall

Effects of Turbulence
The increased heat transfer beneath the horseshoe vortex is captured by both turbulence models.
The S-A model seems to spread this high Stanton number region and shift it towards the suction side.
Spreading of the horseshoe vortex is related to the turbulence generation in the vortex shear layer.
 126

The v2-f model tends to produce a thinner vortex. The secondary peak on the suction side (Region
B), which is related to the stagnation of high temperature fluid convected by the horseshoe vortex, is
predicted by both models. The v2-f model predicts a higher value for the Stanton number. The SA
model predicts slightly larger values for the gradual increase in heat transfer within the passage
(Region D). The trailing edge peak (Region C) and the low heat transfer region on the suction side of
the blade (Region E) are reproduced by both models. A quantitative comparison of the heat transfer
on the blade surface is shown for three stations in Figure 5.16 for the v2-f and SA model,
respectively.

Figure 5.16 Stanton number Distribution on Blade Surface for 2D Grid

The heat transfer in the stagnation region, the location where span is 0, is accurately predicted by
both models at 25% and 50% span (solid line). Both stations are located outside of the incoming
boundary layer specified at the inlet. The station at 10% span, however, is located well inside of this
boundary layer, and both models over-predict the heat transfer here by 25%. The higher heat
transfer indicates that the turbulence intensity is too high at this location. This observation is
supported by a computation in which the turbulence levels inside the end wall boundary layer have
been reduced by setting the turbulence quantities at the inlet to a uniform value corresponding to
25% turbulent intensity (dotted line). This lowers the Stanton number in the stagnation region to the
value measured in the experiments. In addition, it delays the transition on the upper surface of the
blade. The SA model shows a large sensitivity to the reduced boundary layer turbulence across the
entire span on the pressure side. The heat transfer on the pressure side of the blade is consistently
under-predicted at each station by both models. The same has been observed for the 2D computation
shown in Figure 5.16. At this stage it is not clear whether this is due to the specification of the inlet
conditions or the turbulence model99.

99Kalitzin, G. & Iaccarino G., “Computation of heat transfer in a linear turbine cascade”, Center for turbulence
Research Annual Research Briefs, 1999.
 127

5.8 Case Study 2 - Using Shock Control Bumps To Improve Transonic Compressor
Blade Performance100
Shock control bumps can help to delay and weaken shocks, reducing loss generation and shock-
induced separation and delaying stall inception for transonic turbomachinery components, as
described by [John et al.]101. The use of shock control bumps on turbomachinery blades is
investigated here for the first time using 3D analysis. The aerodynamic optimization of a modern
research fan blade and a highly loaded compressor blade are carried out using shock control bumps
to improve their performance. Both the efficiency and stall margin of transonic fan and compressor
blades may be increased through the addition of shock control bumps to the geometry. It is shown
how shock induced separation can be delayed and reduced for both cases. A significant efficiency
improvement is shown for the compressor blade across its characteristic, and the stall margin of the
fan blade is increased by designing bumps that reduce shock-induced separation near to stall. Adjoint
surface sensitivities are used to highlight the critical regions of the blade geometries, and it is shown
how adding bumps in these regions improves blade performance. Finally, the performance of the
optimized geometries at conditions away from where they are designed is analyzed in detail.

5.8.1 Introduction and Motivation

Shocks are a major source of loss for transonic fans and compressors. They cause entropy generation,
boundary layer thickening and shock induced separation. The impingement of the shock on the blade
suction surface (and the resulting, strong, adverse pressure gradient) can cause the boundary layer

Figure 5.17 Contours Of Casing Static Pressure Beneath A High-Speed Rotor (550 M/S
Tip Speed) With Pronounced Negative Camber. From Prince – Courtesy of [Prince]

100 Alistair John, Ning Qin, and Shahrokh Shahpar, “Using Shock Control Bumps To Improve Transonic
Fan/Compressor Blade Performance”, GT2018-77065.
101 See Previous.
 128

to detach, leading to larger blade wakes, reduced efficiency, lower blade stability and reduced stall
margin. Any method that can be used to alleviate shock strength (and the associated negative effects)
therefore has the potential to significantly improve transonic fan/compressor performance.

5.8.2 Shock Control for Turbomachinery & Literature Survey

Relatively little work on designing geometries directly to weaken the shock waves in transonic
turbomachinery components can be found in the literature, though it has been known for some time
that reducing the pre-shock Mach number of transonic compressors can improve their efficiency102.
It was clear to transonic compressor designers in the 70s and 80s that shock strength was increased
by the amount of convex curvature on the suction side between the leading edge and the shock103.
Nearly flat suction surfaces that minimized the expansion were therefore favored, with the next step
to try designs with concave curvature (often referred to as negative camber). Geometries with
negative camber result in gradual compression along the suction surface which weakens the shock.
The concave curvature of the blade surface and the reduction of flow area in the flow direction leads
to a deceleration of the supersonic flow through compression waves, and therefore a weaker shock.
[Prince]104 designed a rotor with pronounced negative camber (see Figure 5.17). This lead to a rise
in static pressure along the suction surface prior to the shock as intended, but the resulting efficiency
was disappointing due to the strong shock on the pressure surface. [Ginder and Calvert]105 had more
success in designing a rotor with negative camber. With negative camber, the Mach number ahead of
the shock was reduced to 1.4 (compared to 1.5 for the traditionally designed blade) which drastically
reduced the amount of boundary layer separation and loss.
Recently, it was demonstrated by [John et al.]106 how the freeform shaping of a compressor blade can

Figure 5.18 Schematic Of Shock Structures (A) Datum, (B) S-Shaped Design. Courtesy of [John et al.]

102 Ginder, R., and Calvert, W., 1987. “The design of an advanced civil fan rotor”. Journal of turbomachinery,
109(3), pp. 340–345.
103 Cumpsty, N. A., 1989. Compressor aerodynamics. Longman Scientific & Technical.
104 Prince, D. C., 1980. “Three-dimensional shock structures for transonic/supersonic compressor rotors”. Journal

of Aircraft, 17(1), pp. 28–37.

105 Ginder, R., and Calvert, W., 1987. “The design of an advanced civil fan rotor”. Journal of turbomachinery,

109(3), pp. 340–345.

106 John, A., Shahpar, S., and Qin, N., 2017. “Novel compressor blade shaping through a free-form method”. Journal

of Turbomachinery, 139(8), p. 081002.

 129

improve blade efficiency by delaying and weakening the shock and reducing separation. The flexible
parameterization method used allowed an s-shaped design to be generated that included a pre-
compression geometry around mid-span. This s-shaped, pre-compression geometry is similar to the
negative camber designs described above. The effect of the pre-compression geometry on the shock
and separation is described in Figure 5.18. The current work proposes the use of shock control
bumps as an alternative method to reduce shock related loss to those described above. Shock control
bumps have the benefit that relatively small modifications to the original geometry are required to
achieve the desired effect.

5.8.3 Shock Control Bumps

Shock control bumps are bumps added to aerodynamic surfaces to alter the behavior of the shock
and improve aerodynamic performance. One of the earliest examples of 2D shock control bump usage
is in the design of the dromedary foil in the 1970s. This was a modified supercritical airfoil with a
bump added in an attempt to increase its drag-divergence Mach number. The ’hump’ was shown to
weaken the shock wave when implemented in the right position, acting as a localized precompression
ramp. This also demonstrated the importance of shock control bump positioning, as, if the bump was
misplaced, an increase in wave drag was seen. [Ashill et al.]107 found for a 2D airfoil a significant
reduction in drag could be achieved via the correct application of a shock control bump, however
when the shock position changed severe drag penalties were incurred due to secondary shocks and
separation being produced. [Drela and Giles]108 carried out numerical studies into shock control in
1987, describing the behavior of shock-induced separation. [Sommerer et al.]109 optimized shock
control bumps at various Mach numbers. They concluded that the bump height, width and position
of the bump peak are the key parameters. [Collins et al.]110 tested shock control bumps in a wind
tunnel, and analyzed the performance of shock control bumps at off-design conditions.
The EUROSHOCK II project began in 1996 and concluded that shock control bumps had the most
potential out of a range of shock control devices tested. A large amount of research was carried out
into shock control bumps, with both 2D and 3D analysis, although no optimization was undertaken.
[Qinet al.]111 first proposed 3D shock control bumps with a finite width, allowing additional design
complexity. They showed that 3D bump configurations were more robust than 2D bump designs
(where a 2D bump is extended continuously along the span).
The only use of a shock control bump on turbomachinery blades found in the literature is by
[Mazaheri and Khatibirad]112, who tested a 2D shock control bump on a (mid-span) section of the
NASA rotor 67 geometry. They added a bump modelled using the Hicks-Henne function. It was shown
how the interaction of the bump with the original wave structure resulted in a more desirable
pressure gradient, with a weaker compression wave fan and a more isentropic compression field.
The bump design was optimized and was shown to reduce the separation area at an off-design
condition. They describe how this may have the potential to improve the stall properties of the blade

107 Ashill, P., and Fulker, J., 1992. “92-01-022 a novel technique for controlling shock strength of laminar-flow
aerofoil sections”. DGLR BERICHT, pp. 175–175.
108 Drela, M., and Giles, M. B., 1987. “Viscous-inviscid analysis of transonic and low Reynolds number airfoils”.

AIAA journal, 25(10), pp. 1347–1355.

109 Sommerer, A., Lutz, T., and Wagner, S., 2000. “Design of adaptive transonic airfoils by means of numerical

optimisation”. In Proceedings of ECCOMAS, 2000, Barcelona.

110 Colliss, S. P., Babinsky, H., N¨ubler, K., and Lutz, T., 2016. “Vortical structures on three-dimensional shock

control bumps”. AIAA Journal, pp. 2338–2350.

111 Qin, N., Wong, W., and Le Moigne, A., 2008. “Three dimensional contour bumps for transonic wing drag

reduction”. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering,
222(5), pp. 619–629.
112 Mazaheri, K., and Khatibirad, S., 2017. “Using a shock control bump to improve the performance of an axial

compressor blade section”. Shock Waves, 27(2), pp. 299–312.

 130

section. Two optimizations were carried out, one at the design condition and another at 4% higher
rotational speed. Optimal bumps were produced for each condition, with an increase in efficiency of
0.67% for the on-design case and 2.9% in the off design case reported. The optimized geometry for
the design condition is shown in Figure 5.19.
The work by
[Mazaheri &
Khatibirad]113
demonstrated
the benefit that
bumps may
provide at both
on and off-
design
conditions, and
their potential
to improve stall
margin. The
simplified 2D
analysis lacks
accuracy
however as the Figure 5.19 Datum Geometry and Optimized Shock Control Bumps on The Mid-
complex Section of Nasa Rotor 67- From Mazaheri et al..
behavior of
radial and separated flow cannot be predicted. For a thorough understanding of the potential for the
use of shock control bumps, 3D analysis and the design of 3D bumps is needed to truly assess their
effect.

5.8.4 Test Case - NASA Rotor 37

The case studied here is NASA Rotor 37. This has a very strong shock wave (with a relative tip Mach
number of nearly 1.5) which causes large separation, decreasing the blade efficiency. It is a well-
documented case, having been extensively tested and simulated as part of a turbomachinery
validation study. It is a transonic rotor with inlet hub-to-tip ratio 0.7, blade aspect ratio 1.19, rotor
tip relative inlet Mach number 1.48 and rotor tip solidity 1.29. It has historically been a challenge for
CFD simulation. The very high pressure ratio, strong shock wave-boundary layer interaction, large
tip leakage vortex and highly separated flow mean that it poses challenges for turbomachinery
solvers. Rotor 37 has been the subject of review articles that highlight the complexity of matching
experimental and computational measurements and the associated uncertainties.
The CFD setup is shown in Figure 5.20. At the inlet, a radial distribution of total pressure and
temperature (based on the original experimental values) is specified. The inlet turbulence intensity
is 1%. At the outlet, a value for circumferentially mixed-out and radially mean-mass capacity (non-
dimensional mass flow) is used. Periodic boundaries are used to represent full annulus flow.
Stationary walls are treated as adiabatic viscous walls and the rotational speed of the non-stationary
portions of the domain is 1800.01rads􀀀1, as specified in the experiment. Rolls-Royce CFD solver
Hydra is used for all of the simulations presented here, using the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model
(fully turbulent). The 4.27 million cell mesh is generated by PADRAM, has y+ of the order of one on
all surfaces with 30 cells in the tip gap.

113 See Previous.

 131

Figure 5.20 The R37 CFD Domain Used – Courtesy of [John et al.]

5.8.5 Validation
As previously alluded to, many studies have struggled when matching simulations of Rotor 37 to the
experiment. A wide range of work has been undertaken to investigate the discrepancy found between
simulation and experiment, with the primary work being the 1994 ASME/IGTI blind test case study
in which a range of codes were used to simulate the rotor, with no knowledge of the experimental
values. A large variation was seen between the different predictions, prompting analysis by
[Denton]114. Recent work has also been carried out by [Chima]115 and [Hah]116. The differences are
usually attributed to uncertainty in the experimental measurements, the lack of real geometry in the
simulations (e.g. the upstream hub cavity is usually missing) and also the difficulty in fully resolving
the complex flows. The pressure ratio agreement is reasonable across the characteristic, but the
efficiency prediction is about 2% below the experimental value at the design point (98% choke). This
matches the trend of previous results, where the better the PR prediction, the worse the efficiency
match. This ’trade-off’ has been seen in a range of previous simulations. Figure 5.21 gives the radial
profiles of total PR and efficiency at 98% of simulated choke compared to the experimental values at
98% experimental choke. The radial trends have been captured fairly well, although there is an offset
from the experiment for both. The choke mass flow found in the simulations was 20.91kg/s, matching
quite closely the experimental of 20.93kg/s.

114 Denton, J., 1997. “Lessons from rotor 37”. Journal of Thermal Science, 6(1), pp. 1–13.
115 Chima, R., 2009. “Swift code assessment for two similar transonic compressors”. In 47th AIAA Aerospace
Sciences Meeting including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, p. 1058.
116 Hah, C., 2009. “Large eddy simulation of transonic flow field in NASA rotor 37”. 47th AIAA Aerospace

Sciences Meeting including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, p. 1061.
 132

Figure 5.21 Radial Profiles Vs Experimental Data – Courtesy of [John et al.]

5.8.6 Flow Field For the Datum Case

Figure 5.22 shows the flow features of the datum NASA Rotor37 at design point. It can be seen how
the strong shock of Rotor 37 causes complex shock-boundary layer interaction and a large shock-
induced separation (this can be seen by the thickening of the boundary layer and wake shown in
Figure 5.22-b and the orange contour of zero axial velocity in Figure 5.22-a. At the point where
the shock impinges on the suction surface, its interaction with the boundary layer causes it to
separate and a large wake forms. It is at this design point that Rotor 37 will be optimized, as a
reduction in this separation could significantly increase blade efficiency.

5.8.7 Validation
Due to experimental data for this geometry not being available, simulation validation was carried out
using a similar fan blade geometry that has experimental data available. The related blade has very
similar performance parameters, and the simulation set up is identical. The results are given here. A
comparison of the simulations of this related blade against experimental data can be seen in 117. Both
the pressure ratio and efficiency curves match the experimental data well, though there is a slight
offset to the overall values and stall margin. The radial curves show good comparison to experimental
data, although the radial variation in efficiency is underpredicted compared to the experiment.
Overall, the simulation compares well, lying within 1% across the range of flow rates.

117Alistair John, Ning Qin, and Shahrokh Shahpar, “Using Shock Control Bumps To Improve Transonic
Fan/Compressor Blade Performance”, GT2018-77065.
 133

Figure 5.22 (a) 3d Separation (Orange) On The R37 Geometry (Flow Right To Left), (b) Rel. Mach
No. Contour At 60% Span – Courtesy of [John et al.]

5.8.8 Blade Flow Features

To understand the behavior of this blade design and select a point at which to optimize the geometry,
the flow behavior for a range of flow rates was studied. Figure 5.23 shows the flow features of the
blade design as the flow rate is varied (see [John et al.]118. Point A is stalled. For proprietary reasons
the whole RR-FAN blade geometry cannot be shown, hence, flow behavior in just the region of
interest is shown in the following figures. The shock position on the blade surface moves towards the
LE as the operating point moves to the left on the characteristic. As the pressure ratio increases and
flow rate becomes lower, the strength of the shock increases and separation is caused towards stall.
It is this separation (highlighted in orange) that contributes to the full stall of the blade. It can be seen
that the shock-induced separation increases in magnitude and radial extent as the flow rate is
lowered until full separation eventually occurs. These near-stall operating points are a promising
area to investigate the benefit of shock control bumps. It is the shock-induced separation that is
responsible for limiting the operating range of the blade, and if this separation can be reduced then
it is expected that this will extend the stable working range of this fan.

118Alistair John, Ning Qin, and Shahrokh Shahpar, “Using Shock Control Bumps To Improve Transonic
Fan/Compressor Blade Performance”, GT2018-77065.
 134

Figure 5.23 Shock Region Flow Features For RR-Fan At Points A) A, B) B, C) C, D) D, E) E, F) F. Flow
Direction – Courtesy of [John et al.]
RIGHT TO LEFT.

5.8.9 Adjoint Sensitivity Analysis

Adjoint sensitivity analysis is a useful tool that can be used to provide information on the sensitivity
of an objective function to changes in the geometry. Here, the adjoint sensitivity used is the
sensitivity of efficiency (as a percentage) to surface deformation (in mm) normal to the surface. This
can be used to inform which regions of the blade will have the greatest impact when modified, and
are therefore most important to control during an optimization. Hydra Adjoint119 is used to provide
the blade surface sensitivities: A primal Hydra simulation is first used to provide the flow solution,
followed by Hydra adjoint which calculates the flow-adjoint sensitivity and provides the sensitivity
of the objective function to changes in the flow. Once these two relatively expensive simulations are
completed, the mesh sensitivities are then mapped onto the surface. This finds the relationship
between changes in the flow to changes in the blade surface mesh. Combining these provides the
sensitivity (gradient) of the objective function (efficiency) to perturbations of the blade surface. The
adjoint surface sensitivity analysis for Rotor 37 at design point and RR-FAN at point D. It can be seen
that the most sensitive regions of both geometries are focused around the shock on the suction
surface. This indicates that geometry changes in this region will have a significant impact on the blade

119 Duta, M. C., Shahpar, S., and Giles, M. B., 2007. “Turbomachinery design optimization using automatic
differentiated adjoint code”. ASME Turbo Expo 2007: Power for Land, Sea, and Air, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, pp. 1435–1444.
 135

efficiency, and therefore if shock control bumps are applied here some benefit should be found. For
complete details, please consult the [John et al.]120

5.8.10 Shock Bump Parameterization & Optimization

The CST (Class Shape Transformation) method is used in this work to define the bump geometries.
The CST method uses Bernstein polynomials to create smooth (second derivative continuous)
contour bumps. For this project 3rd order CST bumps are used, constructed from four Bernstein
polynomials.
Controlling the
weighting (amplitude)
of these polynomials
modifies the bump
height and asymmetry.
Figure 5.24 shows
how the bump
geometry (solid black
line) to be added to the
blade surface is a sum of
the four Bernstein
polynomials (colored
dashed lines). The CST
bump parameterization
provides a high degree
of flexibility, enabling
the generation of Figure 5.24 Example 2d CST Bump (Solid Line) And The Four Polynomials
Used To Construct It (Dashed Lines) – Courtesy of [John et al.]
smooth, asymmetric
bumps in 2D and 3D.
The CST bump parameterization
technique was implemented inside of
the PADRAM geometry and meshing
software. The technique modifies each
2D radial section of the blade geometry,
adding a bump. The properties of these
2D bumps are smoothly interpolated in
the radial direction from control
sections. The resulting geometry is
controlled by the bump start and end
positions, the four Bernstein
polynomial amplitudes and the span-
wise distribution. This allows 3D
variation of the bumps in the radial
direction. Both continuous (where Figure 5.25 a) Example Individual Bump Geometry
bump amplitudes are smoothly And B) Example Continuous Bump Geometry – Courtesy of
interpolated radially) and individual [John et al.]
(where the bump amplitude returns to
zero periodically in the radial direction) CST bumps were tested. Examples of the blade with
individual and continuous bumps added is shown in Figure 5.25.

120Alistair John, Ning Qin, and Shahrokh Shahpar, “Using Shock Control Bumps To Improve Transonic
Fan/Compressor Blade Performance”, GT2018-77065.
 136

During this work, a study was carried out (not detailed here for brevity) to compare the benefit of
using individual bumps (where a series of discrete bumps is added to the datum geometry in the
radial direction) with a continuous bump (note continuous bumps are still ’3D’ and their shape,
position and amplitude can vary in the radial direction). It was concluded that, for these cases, the
individual bumps needed to have greater amplitude than the continuous bumps to offer the same
benefit, leading to increased separation downstream of the bump position. The continuous bumps
tested offered greater benefit, and therefore only results using the ’continuous’ bump geometry
approach are presented here.

5.8.11 Optimization Method

In this work the Multi-point
Approximation Method (MAM) is
used for the optimization studies. It is
a gradient based method that uses
localized Design of Experiments (DoE)
and trust regions to efficiently search
through the design space. When using
MAM, an initial generation of
simulations (chosen by DoE) is carried
out around the start point. A response
surface is constructed for this region
and the sub-optimal point found. The
search is then moved to this point,
where a new generation is Figure 5.26 Spanwise Slice Of The Datum And Optimized
R37 Geometries At 60% Span – Courtesy of [John et al.]
constructed and the process repeated
until the search converges on the
optimal design. The MAM method has been shown to be an efficient and consistent approach for a
wide range of highly constrained optimization problems, working successfully for design spaces
made up of hundreds of parameters.

5.8.12 Rotor 37 Bump Optimization

For the Rotor 37 optimization, the bump geometry was
controlled at 5 radial heights (to allow radial variation of
the parameters) with the geometry smoothly interpolated
between the control stations using a cubic B-spline.
Towards the tip the bump placement and movement range
are increased in chord-wise position as the shock is sat
further downstream at the tip. The initial design used at
the start of the optimization process had bumps positioned
with approximately 60% of the bump downstream of the
datum shock, as is known to be beneficial from previous
work. The objective function for the optimization was
blade efficiency and the simulations were carried out at
98% simulated choke. The optimizations were carried out
on the Rolls-Royce CFMS cluster using the MAM method.
The geometry of the optimized shock bump can be seen in
Figure 5.26. A slice at 60% span is shown. The 3D Figure 5.27 Optimized R37 Bump
geometry compared to the datum is shown in Figure 5.27. (Blue) Added To The Datum Blade
The bump applied to the datum geometry varies radially, Geometry (Grey)
with the maximum bump amplitude and width localized
 137

between 40 and 60% span. This makes sense as the strongest shock location, largest separation and
maximum adjoint sensitivity occur around mid-span for Rotor 37, and therefore greater shock
control is needed in this region. The resulting variation from hub to tip of the geometry demonstrates
the benefit provided by optimizing the geometry. Without optimization it would be difficult to
manually specify the bump position, width, amplitude and asymmetry, which would result in reduced
benefit.

5.8.13 Analysis of the R37 Optimized Bump Design

The flow features for the resulting, optimized, continuous bump design is compared to the datum in
Figure 5.28. The datum shock position is shown via a white line on the optimized geometry. It can
be seen how the use of bumps has delayed the shock. The reduction in separation for the optimized
design can be seen in Figure 5.30. The delay of the shock position has reduced the separation

Figure 5.28 Datum (Left) And Optimized (Right) Rotor 37 Static Pressure Contours. Flow Direction
Right To Left – Courtesy of [John et al.]

initiation point and the volume of separated flow. The performance of this geometry is compared to
the best individual bumps geometry (not described in detail here) and the datum in Table 5.1. It can
be seen that the efficiency benefit is greatest for the continuous bump design. The efficiency is
increased by 1.48%, while the pressure ratio is also increased. A summary of previous optimization
results for Rotor 37 by various researchers is given by [John et al.]121. The maximum efficiency
benefit achieved by those studies was around 1.7-1.9% (without decreasing PR). These optimizations
were able to modify parameters such as blade camber, thickness, lean and sweep though, so had
greater design flexibility than the current shaping approach. This shows that the efficiency benefit
provided
through the PR Delta PR / % Efficiency / % Delta efficiency / %
application of
shock control Datum 2.05 - 85.45 -
bumps is Individual 2.06 0.51 86.21 0.76
significant, Cont. 2.08 1.2 86.93 1.48
considering
Table 5.1 Rotor 37 Optimized Bump Performance Comparison – Courtesy of [John et
the only
al.]

121 John, A., Shahpar, S., and

Qin, N., 2017. “Novel compressor blade shaping through a free-form method”. Journal
of Turbomachinery, 139(8).
 138

geometry change is the addition

of bumps.
Figure 5.29 shows the passage
flow for the datum and optimized
geometries at 50% span. The
effect of the bump delaying the
shock can be seen, with the datum
shock position shown by the black
line. The shock has been delayed
by over 12% chord at this height.
Just upstream of the shock the
Mach number contour is lower,
suggesting pre-compression has
occurred. The boundary layer
separation that forms the wake,
Figure 5.29 Datum (Left) And R37 Optimized (Right)
highlighted by the dark blue, low Flow Features At 50% Span – Courtesy of [John et al.]
velocity region, has reduced in
width by 26% at the trailing edge
for the optimized design. Figure 5.31 shows the datum and optimized lift plots. It can be seen how
the shock has been delayed. The Cp increases just upstream of the shock, showing that the bump has
carried out pre-compression. The jump in pressure across the shock is also lower for the optimized
design than for the datum, indicating it has been weakened. Because the shock is delayed, it has
become swallowed by the passage, causing an acceleration near to the leading edge on the blade
pressure surface. This can be seen in the lower surface spike on the lift plot.

Figure 5.30 Datum (Left) And Optimized (Right) Rotor 37 Separated Flow Contours (Orange). Flow
Direction Right To Left.

5.8.14 Performance Across the Characteristic for R37

The off-design performance is a key feature of blade aerodynamics. The characteristics for the datum
and optimized designs are shown in Figure 5.32. An efficiency and pressure ratio increase has been
achieved across the characteristic. The choke mass flow does not appear affected, although it is
possible that the choke margin has been modified at other rotor speeds due to the throat area being
reduced by the bump. The simulation results suggest a reduction in stall margin for the optimized
 139

design. This is due to the shock

bump being mis-placed at
conditions away from where it was
designed, leading to increased
separation and thus reduced stall
margin. This section has
demonstrated the benefit that can
be achieved by applying shock
control bumps to a compressor
blade without modifying the entire
blade geometry. This shows that a
significant benefit is possible
through geometry modifications
via bumps just in the shock region.

5.8.15 Conclusion
This work has demonstrated how
shock control bumps can be used Figure 5.31 Lift Plots For The Datum and Optimized
to improve the performance of Geometries at 60% Span – Courtesy of [John et al.]
transonic fan/compressor blades.
Blade geometries that
incorporate shock control
bumps have the ability to
reduce shock loss and
reduce/eliminate shock-
induced separation and
increase both efficiency
and stall margin. Shock
control bumps have the
benefit that only small
modifications to the blade
geometry are required to
achieve these
improvements, compared
to the large changes
required by blade designs
that make use of negative
camber or similar shock
control approaches. It has
been demonstrated that
both the efficiency and Figure 5.32 R37 Optimized Characteristic Vs Datum – Courtesy of [John
pressure ratio of a highly et al.]
loaded compressor blade
can be increased across a
range of flow rates by delaying the shock and significantly reducing the separation and wake. For a
modern fan blade the optimized bump design eliminated the majority of separation, reduced the
thickness of the wake and extended the stall margin. For further and complete info, please consult
 140

the [ John et al.]122.

122 John, A., Shahpar, S., and

Qin, N., 2017. “Novel compressor blade shaping through a free-form method”. Journal
of Turbomachinery, 139(8).
 141

6 Complex Flow in Turbomachinery

6.1 Key Features of Transonic Fan (Turbine) Field
These features include highly 3D flow fields, complex shock systems, and strong interactions between
the shock, boundary layer, and secondary flows (like the tip-leakage vortex). The goal is to provide a
basic understanding so that proper assessment of the chosen numerical approach can be performed.
As suggested by Figure 6.1, the flow fields of fan designs are complex and highly three-dimensional,
and almost always unsteady. The flow-path hub contour shown in Figure 6.1 suggests significant
radial velocity components, especially at the fan entrance and strong interactions between the shock,

Figure 6.1 Complex Flow Phenomena Compressors

boundary layer, and secondary flows (like the tip-leakage vortex). Secondary flows and their
interactions with other phenomena are another major source of flow complexity. Indeed, Denton and
Dawes, 1999, suggest the prediction of blade surface and end-wall corner separations to be one of
the most challenging tasks of 3D, viscous solvers, largely due to the obvious dependence on
turbulence model. Additionally, the use of blade twist, sweep (viewed from the meridional plane)
and lean (observed looking axially through the machine) contributes to the 3D flow effects.
A significant consideration in the design of transonic fan blades is the control of shock location and
strength to minimize aerodynamic losses without limiting flow. Custom-tailored airfoil shapes are
required to “minimize shock losses and to provide desired radial flow components. Figure 6.2 shows
features of the tip section geometry typical of a transonic fan. The shape of the suction surface is key
as it:

• Influences the Mach number just ahead of the leading edge passage shock, and
• Sets the maximum flow rate.
 142

As noted by Wisler, 1987, the cascade passage area distribution is chosen to provide larger-than-
critical area ratios; thus, maximum flow is determined by the first captured Mach wave, location
determined by the forward suction surface (induction surface). This maximum flow condition is often
referred to as leading edge choke, or in cascade parlance, “unique incidence” (note that “unique”
incidence is really a misnomer; here, “choking” incidence will be used). The flow induction surface
and fan operating condition (incoming relative Mach number at the airfoil leading edge) set the
average Mach number just ahead of the leading edge passage shock. A “traditional” convex suction
surface results in a series of Prandtl-Meyer expansion waves as the flow accelerates around the
leading edge. Increasing the average suction surface angle (relative to the incoming flow) ahead of
the shock reduces the average Mach number, and presumably reduces the shock losses. Common for
modern transonic fan tip sections is a concave induction surface, the so-called “pre-compression”
airfoil. As indicated in previous chapter, there are four major area of research going on in
turbomachinery, namely: Unsteady Flow, Film cooling, Turbulence and 3D Flow. We start with the
unsteadiness first.

Figure 6.2 Fan Tip Section Geometry

6.2 Sources of Unsteadiness in Turbomachinery

Turbomachinery flows are among the most complex flows encountered in fluid dynamic practice
(Lakshminarayana,)123. The internal flows within a blade passage of turbomachinery are strongly
three dimensional, viscous flows which may include laminar flow, turbulent flow and transitional
flow. Moreover, they are fully unsteady due to the interactions between blade rows in a stage or
multistage machine. There also exist secondary flows including the flows due to passage vortices in
the end-wall range, radial flow near blade surfaces, and tip leakage flow and leakage vortex, shock
and shock boundary layer interaction in high speed conditions, wakes flows, even some specific
flows, for instance film cooling flows nearby the cooling holes. The complexity is mainly reflected in
the following areas:

123Lakshminarayana, B. “An assessment of computational fluid dynamic techniques in the analysis and design of
turbomachinery”, the 1990 freeman scholar lecture, J. Fluids Engineering Vol. 113(No. 3): 315-352, 1991.
 143

1. Various forms of secondary flow caused by viscosity and complex geometry, which is
dominated by vortex flows: passage, leakage, corner, trailing, horseshoe and scraping
vortices, etc. These form three- dimensional and rotational nature of the flow.
2. Inherent unsteadiness (see below) due to the relative motion of rotor and stator blade
rows in a multi stage environment.
3. The flow pattern in the near-wall region includes: laminar, transitional and turbulent
flows; besides separated flows are often exist.
4. The flow may be incompressible, subsonic, transonic or supersonic; some
turbomachinery flows include all these flow regimes.
5. Due to the limitation of flow space, there are strong interactions of the solid wall surfaces
with above complicated phenomena. Besides, in gas turbines, the use of cooling gas makes
the flow more complex.

A good understanding of the unsteady flow in turbomachinery is necessary for advanced design as it
shown in Figure 6.3 with broad spectrum. According to Greitzer124, the unsteady flow in
turbomachinery can be classified into two groups: inherent unsteadiness and conditional
unsteadiness. The conditional unsteadiness is mainly caused by the sudden changes of the working
condition. For example when turbomachinery is working on the start stage, acceleration stage or off-
design condition, the fluctuation of working condition might lead to the unsteady rotating stall,
surge, flutter and flow distortion of turbomachines. Sometimes, the distortion of inlet flow or the
asymmetric outlet condition of vector nozzle also might lead to the unsteadiness. The inherent
unsteadiness is mainly due to the relative motion and interaction between rotor and stator and,
generally speaking, it could be divided as:

Figure 6.3 Flow Structures with 5 to 6 Orders of Magnitudes Variations in Length and Time
Scales (LaGraff et al., 2006)

124 E. M. Greitzer, “Thermoaldynamics and fluid mechanics of turbomachinery”, AS1/E 9713, NATO, 1985.
 144

1. Interaction of potential flows in adjacent blade rows including Transient Fan.

2. Interaction between the wake flow and blade rows downstream.
3. Interaction between the secondary flows and blade rows.
4. Interaction wake-boundary layer.
5. Un-shrouded tip leakage flow interaction.
6. Film Cooling effects.

6.3 Interaction of Potential Flows in Adjacent Blade Rows

The first part comes from the changing of the relative position of rotor to stator which results in the
periodic fluctuation of the pressure or shocks. This fluctuation is propagated both upstream and
downstream as disturbance waves.

A - Mach
number
contours

B - Install C - Chocking D - Near Pick Effeciency

Figure 6.4 Shock Structure in Transonic Fan

 145

6.3.1 Interactions in Transonic Fan

The shock structure associated with transonic fans is complicated by the 3D nature of the flow field
and operating range over which the fan must operate125. Figure 6.4 (A-B-C) illustrates some typical
features – leading edge oblique shock, aft passage normal shock below peak efficiency, and a near-
normal, detached bow shock near peak efficiency (and higher) loading conditions. Note that
throughout this report, loading refers to flow turning. For high tip-speed fans (inlet relative Mach
numbers greater than 1.4), the trend seems to be to design for an oblique leading edge shock through
higher loading conditions (near and at peak efficiency). This trend seems reasonable given the
continued need to reduce losses. Other flow field considerations in transonic fans include the
interrelationship between the rotor tip-clearance vortex structure and passage shock, high Mach
number stator flow, most notably in the hub region, and strong shock – boundary layer interaction.

6.4 Interaction Between Wake Flow and Blade Rows

The second part, unsteady wake, is a quite common flow phenomenon, not only in turbomachinery.
Due to the thickness of the trailing edge of blade, the flows after the blade generate a high dissipation
region, called wake, which is similar to the flow passed a circular cylinder where a famous wake flow
Von Karman Vortex Street can be observed. When a viscous flow passes a cylinder or an airfoil, a
regular vortex shedding can be found behind the
cylinder, which results in a zone with fully turbulent
flow and high dissipation. The pressure on the
surface of cylinder will fluctuate with the vortex
shedding. A similar flow phenomenon exists in the
bypass flow after a blade. Figure 6.5 (Wang and He,
2001), shows the results of unsteady simulation
performed by Wang and He, in which the
instantaneous pressure contour patterns of wake for
turbulent flow through unsteady simulations are
presented clearly. The wake flow in multi-stage
turbomachinery is more complicated than vortex
shedding after circle cylinder since it will be
distorted and deformed by the blade when flows
through the blade row downstream as shown clearly
in Figure 6.7 by [Smith, 1966; Stieger & Hodson, Figure 6.5 Pressure Contour of Wake Flow
2005]. This unsteady transport process could last to
the next few blade rows and mix with new wake flows to forming highly non-uniform unsteady flow
in blade passage.

6.5 Interaction Between Secondary Flows and Blade Rows

The third part is similar to the second one, in which the second flows are also sheared by the blade
rows downstream during the transport process. The distortion and mixing of these vortices will
enhance the non-uniformity of the flow. [Schlienger et al.] investigated the interaction between
secondary flows and blade rows through experiments on a low speed turbine with two stages. It is
found that the characteristic of the unsteady flow field at the rotor hub exit is primarily a result of
the interaction between the rotor indigenous passage vortex and the remnants of the secondary flow
structures that are shed from the first stator blade row. Moreover, there exist interactions among
secondary flows, wake and blade rows, which results in more complicated unsteady flow.

125Boyer, K., M., “An Improved Streamline Curvature Approach for Off-Design Analysis of Transonic Compression
Systems “, PhD. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001.
 146

[Matsunuma]126 investigated this interaction effect on a low speed turbine of single stage, with the
instantaneous absolute velocity contour pattern at the nozzle exit shown in Figure 6.6. The
experimental results suggest that the secondary vortices are periodically and three-dimensionally
distorted at the rotor inlet. A curious tangential high turbulence intensity region spread at the tip
side is observed at the front of the rotor, which is because of the axial stretch of the nozzle wake due
to the effects of the nozzle passage vortex and rotor potential flow field.

Figure 6.6 Instantaneous Absolute Velocity Contour at Nozzle Exit [Matsunuma, 2006]

6.6 Wake-Boundary Layer Interaction

In low-pressure turbines, the wakes from upstream blade rows provide the dominant source of
unsteadiness. Under low Reynolds number conditions, the boundary-layer transition and separation
play important roles in determining engine performance. An in-depth understanding of blade
boundary layer spatial-temporal evolution is crucial for the effective management and control of
boundary layer transition or separation, especially the open separation, which is a key technology
for the design of low-pressure turbines with low Reynolds number. Thus it is very important to
research the wake-boundary layer interaction. In low-pressure turbines with low Reynolds number,
boundary layer separation may occur as the blade load increases. Rational use of the upstream
periodic wakes can effectively inhibit the separation by inducing boundary layer transition before
laminar separation can occur, so as to control loss generation. A comprehensive and in-depth
research of wake boundary layer interactions in low-pressure turbines is given by [Hodson & Howell

T.Matsunuma, “Unsteady flow field of an axial-flow turbine rotor at a low Reynolds number”, ASME-GT06,
126

number 90013, Spain, 2006.

 147

(2005)]. They summarized the processes of wake-induced boundary-layer transition and loss
generation in low-pressure turbines. The periodic wake-boundary layer interaction process is as
follows (see Figure 6.7):

• When the wake passes, the wake-induced turbulent spots form within attached flows in front of
the separation point, the turbulent spots continue to grow and enter into the separation zone,
and consequently inhibit the formation of separation bubble. The calmed region trails behind
the turbulent spots. It is a laminar-like region, but it has a very full velocity profile. The flow of
the calmed region is unreceptive to disturbances. Consequently, it remains laminar for much
longer than the surrounding fluid and can resist transition and separation. It is the combination
of the calming effect and the more robust velocity profile within the calmed region that makes
this aspect of the flow so important. After the interaction of the wake, boundary layer separation
occurs in the interval between the two wakes.

Figure 6.7 Unsteady Wakes Convecting in Blade Passage

6.7 Un-shrouded Tip Leakage Flow Interaction

The tip leakage flow is important in most turbomachinery, where a tip clearance with a height of
about 1-2% blade span exists between the stationary end wall and the rotating blades. An
unshrouded tip design is widely employed for a low stress and/or a better cooling in modern high-
pressure turbines. Pictorial representation of the tip leakage flow in unshrouded blades is given in
Figure 6.8. The leakage flow over unshrouded blades occurs as a result of the pressure difference
between the pressure and suction surfaces and is dominated by the vortex shed near the blade tip.
The tip leakage flow has significant effects on turbomachinery in loss production, aerodynamic
efficiency, turbulence generation, heat protection, vibration and noise. As a consequence of the
viscous effects, significant losses are generated by the tip leakage flow in regions inside and outside
 148

the tip gap. And the entropy creation is primarily due to the mixing processes that take place between
the leakage flow and the mainstream flow. [Denton (1993)] gave a simple prediction model for the
tip leakage loss of unshrouded blades. So far, there are many researches about the leakage flow
unsteady interactions in compressor. For example, [Sirakov & Tan (2003)] investigated the effect of
upstream unsteady wakes on compressor rotor tip leakage flow. It was found that strong interaction
between upstream wake and rotor tip leakage vortex could lead to a performance benefit in the rotor
tip region during the whole operability range
of interest. The experimental result of
[Mailach et al. (2008)] revealed a strong
periodical interaction of the incoming stator
wakes and the compressor rotor blade tip
clearance vortices. As a result of the wake
influence, the tip clearance vortices are
separated into different segments with higher
and lower velocities and flow turning or
subsequent counter-rotating vortex pairs. The
rotor performance in the tip region
periodically varies in time. Compared with in
compressor, very little published literature is
Figure 6.8 Flow over an unshrouded tip gap
available on the unsteady interactions
between leakage flows and adjacent blade
rows in turbine. [Behr et al. (2006)] indicated that the pressure field of the second stator has an
influence on the development of the tip leakage vortex of the rotor. The vortex shows variation in
size and relative position when it stretches around the stator leading edge.

6.8 General Review on Secondary Flows

The important 3D viscous flow phenomena within a blade passage of turbomachinery are boundary
layers and their separations, tip clearance flows and wakes, which are most responsible of energy
losses existing in blade passage. Hence, the losses in an axial compressor or turbine can be mainly
classified as127:

• Profile losses due to blade boundary layers and their separations and wake mixing; in high
speed condition, shock/boundary layer interaction may exist.
• End-wall boundary layer losses, including secondary flow losses and tip clearance losses.
• Mixing losses due to the mixing of various secondary flows, such as the passage vortex and
tip leakage vortex.

Among all these losses, the most complex one is the secondary flow loss. That is why considerable
research on the secondary flow phenomena has been done in last decades. Secondary flow is
defined as the difference between the real flow and a primary flow, which is related to the
development of boundary layer on end-wall and blade surface, the evolution of vortices in
passage, and detached flows or simply, the secondary flow in a blade row can be defined as any
flow, which is not in the direction of the primary or stream wise flow 128. Based on topology
analysis and experiments, as well as the numerical simulations in recent decades, a couple of
secondary flow models are proposed which are presented below.

127 Sh. Kang, “Investigation on the Three Dimensional within a Compressor Cascade with and without Tip
Clearance”, PhD thesis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, September 1993.
128 Lei Qi and Zhengping Zou, “Unsteady Flows in Turbines”, Beihang University China.
 149

6.8.1 Classical View

The so-called classical secondary flow model, as illuminated in Figure 6.9 (a-b), is proposed by
Hawthorne129 for the first time according to the theory of inviscid flow in 1955. This model presents
the components of vorticity in the flow direction when a flow with inlet vorticity is deflected through
a cascade. The main vortex, so-called passage vortex, represents the distribution of secondary

(a) Classical View

(Hawthorne, 1955)

(b) Secoundary Losses in

presence of secoundary
vortex flow in classical
view

Figure 6.9 Classical Secondary Flow Model

129 W. R. Hawthorne,” Rotational flow through cascades part 1: the components of vorticity.” Journal of Mechanics

and Applied Mathematics, 8(3):266–279, 1955.

 150

circulation, which occurs due to the distortion of the vortex filaments of the inlet boundary layer
passing with the flow through a curved surface. The vortex sheet at the trailing edge is composed of
the trailing filament vortices and the trailing shed vorticity whose sense of rotation is opposite to
that of the passage vortex. The classical vortex model attributes the secondary flow losses to the
generation and evolution of vortex passage. However, this model is relatively simple, in which the
interaction between the inlet boundary layer and blade force was not considered. Moreover, the
vortex system within passage is only single passage vortex in half of the passage height range with
other vortices absences. The secondary flow losses can be visualized by absence/presence of
secondary vortex on Figure 6.9 (b).

6.8.2 Modern View

When a shear flow along the solid wall approaches a blade standing on the wall, the shear flow will
be separated from the wall and roll up into a vortex in front of the blade leading edge. This vortex is
called horseshoe vortex
due to its particular shape.
This well-known
phenomenon is firstly
observed in the flow
around cylinders. The oil
flow visualizations by
[Fritsche]130 show the
evidence of the horseshoe
vortex in accelerating
cascades. In 1966, Klein
presents a finer cascade
vortex model with both
the passage and
horseshoe vortices as
depicted in Figure 6.10 (a) Kline 1966
(a). While, the pioneering
work for detailed analysis
of secondary flow patterns
in turbine cascades in
general is done in 1977 by
[Langston et al.]131 who
proposed the well-known
modern vortex model in
cascade. Three vortices
are presented in this
model, as depicted in
Figure 6.11 (b).
Langston explains the
interaction between the
horseshoe vortex and the
(b) Langston, 1977
passage vortex, and the
Figure 6.10 Modern Secondary Flow Model
development of the

130A. Fritsche. Str¨omungsvorg¨ange in schaufelgittern. Technische Rundschau Sulzer, 37(3), 1955.

131L. S. Langston, “Three-dimensional flow within a turbine blade passage”, Journal of Engineering for Power,
99(1):21–28, 1977.
 151

passage vortex. The big

differences between
Langston’s model and
Klein’s model exist in
twofold132: by Langston
et al133 who proposed the
well-known modern
vortex model in cascade.
Three vortices are
presented in this model,
as depicted in Figure
6.11 (b). Langston
explains the interaction
between the horseshoe
vortex (a) Sharma and Butler, 1987
and the passage vortex,
and the development of
the passage vortex. The
big differences between
Langston’s model and
Klein’s model exist in
twofold134:

• Langston clearly
postulates that
the pressure side
leg of the leading
edge horseshoe
vortex, which has
the same sense of
rotation as the (b) Goldstein and Spores, 1988
passage vortex,
merges with and Figure 6.11 Vortex pattern of Latest Secondary Flows
becomes part of
the passage vortex
• Langston clarifies that the suction side leg of the leading edge horseshoe vortex which rotates
in the opposite sense to the passage vortex, continuing in the suction side end-wall corner,
while the presentation of Klein suggests that this vortex is gradually dissipated in contact
with the passage vortex.

The first point from Langston is supported by the light sheet experiment by Marchal and
Sieverding135 in 1977. While, the results of this experiment also show the counter-rotating vortex,

132 C. H. Sieverding, “Recent progress in the understanding of basic aspects of secondary flows in turbine blade
passages”, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 107(2):248–257, 1985.
133 L. S. Langston, “Three-dimensional flow within a turbine blade passage”, Journal of Engineering for Power,

99(1):21–28, 1977.
134 C. H. Sieverding, “Recent progress in the understanding of basic aspects of secondary flows in turbine blade

passages”, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 107(2):248–257, 1985.
135 P. Marchal and C. H. Sieerding, “Secondary flows within turbomachinery blading’s”, CP 214, AGARD, 1977.
 152

called counter vortex by Langston, in the trailing edge plane on the mid span side of the passage
vortex rather than in the corner, which is not consistent with the second point from Langston.

6.8.3 Latest View

In 1987, [Sharma and Butler]136 proposed a secondary flow pattern which is slightly different to that
from Langston. This pattern, shown in Figure 6.11 (a), demonstrates that the suction side leg of the
horseshoe vortex wraps itself around the passage vortex instead of adhering to the suction side. This
result is similar to the results of [Moore]137 and [Sieverding]138. However, in 1988, another pattern is
given by [Goldstein and Spores]139, shown in Figure 6.11 (b), which is different to Sharma’s again.
Based on mass transfer results, they suggested that the suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex stays
above the passage vortex and travels with it. This flow pattern is similar to that suggested by [Jilek]140
in 1986. The major difference among these three models is the location of the suction side leg of the
horseshoe vortex. Since it is difficult to be detected due to the small size, most literatures cannot
demonstrate develop of this vortex clearly. In 1997, a very detailed secondary flow visualization
study was performed by Wang141. They proposed a more comprehensive but more complicated
secondary flow the passage vortex and travels with it. This flow pattern is similar to that suggested
by Jilek142 in 1986. The major difference among these three models is the location of the suction side
leg of the horseshoe vortex. Since it is difficult to be detected due to the small size, most literatures
cannot demonstrate develop of this vortex clearly. In 1997, a very detailed secondary flow
visualization study was performed by [Wang]143. They proposed a more comprehensive but more
complicated secondary flow pattern, as illustrated in which includes the passage vortex, the
horseshoe vortex, the wall vortex and the corner vortex. The development of the horseshoe vortex
nearby the end-wall is effected by the boundary layer on end wall and the blade surface. In modern
advanced blade, the leading edge radius of blade is so small that can be compared with the thick of
boundary layer. Hence, the separation of boundary layer on end wall generates the multi-vortex
structures at the leading edge of blade. Due to a strong pressure gradient the pressure side leg of the
horseshoe vortex moves toward the suction side after it enters the passage. Meanwhile it entrains
the main flow and the inlet boundary layer forming a multi-vortex leg. In 2001, [Langston]144
reviewed these new models after the [Sieverding’s] review. Laster in the same year, [Zhou and
Han]145 gave a more comprehensive review of all these models. They concluded that the good
understanding of the secondary flow in turbomachinery can help greatly to control the vortices
within passage and decrease the losses, help greatly to control the vortices within passage and

136 O. P. Sharma and T. L. Butler, “Prediction of the end wall losses and secondary flows in axial flow turbine
cascade. Journal of Turbomachinery”, 109:229–236, 1987.
137 J. Moore and A. Ransmayr, “Flow in a turbine cascade part 1: losses and leading edge effects”, ASME, 1983.
138 C. H. Sieverding and P. Van den Bosch,” The use of colored smoke to visualize secondary flows in a turbine-

blade cascade”, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 134:85–89, 1983.

139 R. J. Goldstein and R. A. Spores, “Turbulent transport on the end wall in the region between adjacent turbine

blades”, Journal of Heat Transfer, 110:862–869, 1988.

140 J. Jilek, “An experimental investigation of the three-dimensional flow within large scale turbine cascades”,

ASME-GT86, number 170, 1986.

141 H. P. Wang, S. J. Olson, R. J. Goldstein, and E. R. G. Eckert, “Flow visualization in a linear turbine cascade of high

performance turbine blades”, Journal of Turbomachinery, 119(1):1–8, 1997.

142 J. Jilek, “An experimental investigation of the three-dimensional flow within large scale turbine cascades”,

ASME-GT86, number 170, 1986.

143 H. P. Wang, S. J. Olson, R. J. Goldstein, and E. R. G. Eckert, “ Flow visualization in a linear turbine cascade of

high performance turbine blades”, Journal of Turbomachinery, 119(1):1–8, 1997.

144 L. S. Langston, “Secondary flows in axial turbines: a review”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 934

(Heat Transfer in Gas Turbine System):11–26, 2001.

145 X. Zhou and W. J. Han, “A review of vortex model development for rectangular turbine cascade”, (in Chinese).

Journal of Aerospace Power, 16(3):198–204, 2001.

 153

decrease the losses.

6.8.4 Comparing and Contrasting Secondry Flow in Turbine and Compressors
Another view begins by comparing and contrasting turbine and compressor secondary flows,
together with conclusions on the way forward to design in compressors146. A large amount of
material has been published on secondary flow effects in axial flow turbomachinery, both turbines
and compressors. Only a brief summary of these is given here. As will be seen in the next section,
non-axisymmetric end wall profiling has been pursued in recent years principally in the field of axial
flow turbines. Consequently, it is useful to compare and contrast turbine and compressor secondary
flows.
Comprehensive reviews of
turbine secondary flows are
given in [Sieverding and
Langston], and of secondary
loss generation in [Denton].
Whilst secondary flows are
induced by any total
pressure profile that enters a
blade row and is
subsequently deflected by it,
the clearest understanding
has been obtained for the
case when the total pressure
profile is just due to the
incoming end wall boundary
layers. Figure 6.12 shows a
diagrammatic
representation of turbine
end wall secondary flows
taken from [Takeishi et al.]
(note that the rotation of the
vortices is generally
exaggerated) which has
been describe this more Figure 6.12 Turbine Secondary Flow Model (Takeishi et al.)
fully, but the basic elements
are:

• Rolling up of the inlet boundary layer into the horseshoe vortex at the airfoil leading edge.
The pressure surface side leg of this becomes the core of the passage vortex. The passage
vortex is the dominant part of the secondary flow and beneath it on the end wall a new
boundary layer is formed, referred to as cross-flow "B" in Figure 6.12, which starts in the
pressure side end wall corner.
• Upstream of this the inlet boundary layer is deflected across the passage (over turned),
referred to as cross-flow "A". The end wall separation line marks the furthest penetration of
the bottom of the inlet boundary layer into the passage and divides it from the new boundary
layer forming downstream of it. The dividing streamline between the suction and pressure
side flows is shown as the attachment line in Figure 6.12. It intersects with the separation

146N W Harvey, “Some Effects of Non-Axisymmetric End Wall Profiling on Axial Flow Compressor Aerodynamics.
Part I: Linear Cascade Investigation”, Proceedings of GT2008.
 154

line at the saddle point.

• The new end wall boundary layer, cross-flow "B", carries up onto the airfoil suction surface
until it separates (along the airfoil "separation line") and feeds into the passage vortex. The
suction side leg of the horseshoe vortex, referred to as the counter vortex in Figure 6.12,
remains above the passage vortex and moves away from the end wall as the passage vortex
grows.
• A small corner vortex may occur in the suction surface/ end wall corner rotating in the
opposite sense to the passage vortex. This has the effect of opposing the overturning at the
end wall, although at the cost of additional loss.

One additional source of “classical” secondary flow that must be mentioned is the trailing edge
vorticity that originates as a vortex sheet downstream of the blade trailing edge due to the variation
in circulation along the span of the airfoil (and not shown). The scope for reducing this by modifying
the end wall flows does not appear to be great and has not been part of this study. The basic features
of compressor secondary flows are the same as those in a turbine blade row. However, there are a
number of important differences in the details between the two, [Cumpsty]147:

• The turning in a compressor blade row is much lower; typically 30 – 40 degree , compared to
100 degree in a turbine.
• From classical secondary flow theory, this would be expected to result in lower secondary
flows in a typical compressor row, for a comparable inlet total pressure profile.
• An additional feature, often overlooked, for turbine secondary flows is that once they have
rolled up into vortices any further acceleration of the flow will stretch them feeding in more
kinetic energy (of rotation), [Patterson]. This may have the effect of amplifying the benefit of
anything that delays the initial development of secondary flows on the end walls.
• Since the flow through a compressor blade row diffuses such vortex stretching will not occur.
Rather the diffusion will encourage more rapid mixing out of the vortices. It is suggested that
this is the reason why the smaller vortices (counter and corner) seen in turbine rows are not
often identified for compressor ones. In addition end wall over-turning in a compressor row
will be much more likely to result in flow separation, especially when the static pressure rise
across the row increases if the compressor moves up its characteristic.

6.9 3D Separation
A number of different flow regimes come under the heading of “three-dimensional separation”:

• If the aerodynamic loading is low enough, then the low momentum fluid in the airfoil suction
side/ end wall corner will separate off the blade surfaces (as in turbine secondary flows) but
will still have forward momentum.

• Where the loading is such that reverse flow does occur, then this may initially only be on one
of either the end wall or the airfoil suction surface refers to the former as “wall stall” and the
latter as “blade stall”.

• The combination of these two is known as “corner stall”. The resulting flow patterns are
illustrated in Figure 6.13. where the illustration of formation of hub corner stall together
with limiting streamlines and separation lines, (Lei et al.).

147 Cumpsty N. A.,, (2004), “Compressor Aerodynamics”, Krieger Publishing Company.

 155

Distinct features of this are the

reverse flow on both walls and
the decrease of the chord wise
extent of this flow away from
the end wall. In terms of
secondary loss, it is difficult to
generalize on its magnitude in
compressor rows. This depends
on the details of the design; of
which diffusion factors,
DeHaller numbers and aspect
ratio are just a few. One example
may serve to indicate the
potential for losing
aerodynamic performance.
With a small leakage flow
present, which suppressed the
corner stall, the 54% was
reduced to 13% (about 11% of
the total). For a turbine row
with a similar aspect ratio, the
secondary losses may be Figure 6.13 Illustration of formation of hub corner stall together
expected to be at least 20% of with limiting streamlines and separation lines
the total, but again this depends
on the design details. From the
above it is concluded that the scope
for reducing secondary loss in a well-
designed compressor row at its
design condition (without corner
stall) is likely to be less than for a
typical turbine one. Rather, reducing
or mitigating penalizing features such
as corner stall may be of more
importance to the compressor
aerodynamic designer.
6.9.1 Compressors Example
As an example, consider the small
variations in leading edge geometry,
leading edge roughness, leading
edge fillet, and blade fillet geometry
on the three-dimensional separations
found in compressor blade rows, as
investigated by [Goodhand and
Miller]148. The detrimental effects of
these separations have historically Figure 6.14 Three-dimensional separations: traditional
been predicted by correlations based view and scope of current investigation

148 Martin N. Goodhand and Robert J. Miller, “The Impact of Real Geometries on Three-Dimensional Separations
in Compressors”, Journal of Turbomachinery, 2012.
 156

on global flow parameters, such as blade loading, inlet boundary layer skew, etc., and thus ignoring
small deviations such as those highlighted above. The results show that any deviation which causes
suction surface transition to move to the leading edge over the first 30% of span will cause a large
growth in the size of the hub separation, doubling its impact on loss. The geometry deviations that
caused this, and are thus of greatest concern to a designer, are changes in leading edge quality and
roughness around the leading edge, which are characteristic of an eroded blade. 3D separations
always occur on compressor blades in the corner between the suction surface and the end wall149
(see Figure 6.14). Blades can be designed such that these are relatively small and benign; however,
as loading or incidence is increased, their size and thus detrimental effect can increase significantly.
In practice, it is these separations which limit the total blade loading by their impact on loss, blockage,
and deviation.

6.10 Airfoil End-Wall Heat Transfer

The flow in a gas turbine influenced by the inner hub and outer casings of the airfoils is defined as
secondary or end-wall flows150. These flows often contain vortices that give rise to velocity
components that are orthogonal to the primary flow direction as depicted in Figure 6.15 by the
ribbon arrows, which is specific to vane end-walls151. These flows constitute one of the most common
place and wide spread three-dimensional flows arising in axial flow turbomachinery. In typical
modern day turbine designs, end-wall flows for first stage vanes are responsible for over 30% of the
total pressure loss through a turbine stage leading to a reduction in turbine efficiencies on the order
of 3%. While overall airfoil losses
have been reduced through the use
of three dimensional geometries
that make use of bowed or leaned
airfoils, the end-walls have
remained fairly conventional and
the source of much of the
remaining pressure losses.
The heat transfer consequences
are immense because of the
increased convective coefficients
and mixing out of film-coolant near
the surface. It is clear from a
thermodynamic analysis of a
turbine engine, that to improve
performance, there is a need to
increase the aspect ratio for
turbine airfoils and to increase
turbine inlet temperatures. To
improve a turbine’s performance,
these trends require that end-wall Figure 6.15 Illustration of the near wall flows as taken through
flows be carefully considered in oil and dye surface flow visualization (reproduced with
turbine designs. The end-wall flow permission of the publisher from ASME)
through an airfoil cascade under
isothermal conditions with an approaching two-dimensional boundary layer agrees well with that

149 Gbadebo, S. A., Cumpsty, N. A., and Hynes, T. P., 2005, “Three-Dimensional Separations in Axial
Compressors,” ASME J. Turbomachinery , 127, pp. 331–339.
150 Karen Thole, “Mechanical Engineering Department Penn State University”, Park, PA 16802-1412.
151 Langston, L. S. “Cross flows in a Turbine Cascade Passage,” ASME J of Engineering for Power 102 -1980.
 157

depicted in Figure 6.16-(Top). The flow model shows that the inlet boundary layer separates from
the approaching end-wall to form what is known as a horseshoe vortex. One leg of the horseshoe
vortex, present on the pressure side of the airfoil (concave side), is convected into the passage and is
promoted by the inherent pressure gradient between the two airfoil surfaces. This pressure side leg
of the horseshoe vortex develops into what is known as the passage vortex. The other leg of the
horseshoe vortex, present on the suction side of the airfoil (convex side), has an opposite sense of
rotation to the larger passage vortex and develops into what is known as a counter vortex. The
counter vortex can be thought of as a planet rotating about the axis of the passage vortex (sun). While
this picture represents a time averaged representation, measured data indicates that the vortex is
not steady. While the development of the vortical structures originates in the end-wall regions, the
growth can be such that the passage vortex occupies a large portion of the airfoil exit. This vortical
structure growth extends up to 30-40% of the total span for older vane designs and has been reduced
to approximately 10-15% of the total span
in the last 15 years. The flow patterns
previously described make it difficult to
cool the end-wall, particularly when
considering the near end-wall flow, as
illustrated in Figure 6.16152. The surface
flow visualization in Figure 6.16, achieved
through an oil and surface dye technique,
illustrates the strong cross flows that occur.
The cross flows are driven by the inherent
pressure gradients from the pressure to the
suction side of adjacent airfoils. For
example, these cross flows influence how
the film-cooling jets exit from the holes as
well as influence the end-wall heat transfer
coefficients153.

6.10.1 Theoretical Development of End-

Wall Flows
As the end-wall boundary layer approaches
a turbine airfoil, the flow stagnates,
whereby the total pressure becomes the
static pressure along the span of the vane.
Given that the fluid nearer to the end-wall
has a lower velocity, a stronger deceleration
in the boundary layer occurs for the higher
speed fluid than for the lower speed fluid. As
a result of these differences in the
deceleration, a transverse static pressure
gradient occurs along the vane span causing Figure 6.16 (Top) - Measurements of the Horseshoe
the higher speed fluid to turn toward the Vortex just upstream of the Vane at the Vane-End-Wall
end-wall plate. Subsequently, the formation Juncture (Bottom) - Actual Hardware Showing Effects
of a horseshoe vortex occurs just upstream of the Horseshoe Vortex on a First Vane (Courtesy of
ASME)

152 Friedrichs, S., Hodson, H. P. and Dawes, W. N., “Distribution of Film-Cooling Effectiveness on a Turbine End-
wall Measured Using the Ammonia and Diazo Technique,” J of Turbomachinery 118 -1996.
153 Karen Thole, “Mechanical Engineering Department Penn State University”, Park, PA 16802-1412.
 158

of the turbine vane. One of the legs of the horseshoe vortex wraps around the pressure side of the
vane and the other leg wraps around the suction side of the vane. Figure 6.16 (top) shows
measurements of the horseshoe vortex upstream
of the turbine vane and Figure 6.16
(Bottom)154 shows extreme damage from the
effects of this vortex on actual hardware155.
These measurements were made for a simple
case with an isothermal flow and an approaching
boundary layer that was 9 % of the vane span
(Z/S = 0.09). From the combined contour/vector
plot in Figure 6.16 (top), one can see where the
flow separates from the upstream end-wall and
how the flow is then rolled into a vortex. It is also
clear to see that, if a film-cooling jet were injected
into this region, it would be difficult to maintain
the coolant along the end-wall.
The flow fields discussed thus far have described
the condition for a uniform, isothermal flow field
with an approaching two-dimensional boundary
layer along the end-wall. In practice, this
idealized flow situation rarely happens since an
upstream combustor is present whereby there
can be large variations in the exiting flow. Non-
uniformity of inlet profiles in addition to the
viscous boundary layers along the end-wall are
caused by temperature gradients at the
combustor exit. The development of crossflow
and vortical motions in a curved passage, such as
an airfoil passage, can be understood by
considering flow along two streamlines, as
shown in Figure 6.17. Two idealized cases are
considered: Top) a gradient of velocity due to a
turbulent inlet boundary layer with an Figure 6.17 Illustration of Different Vortical
isothermal flow, Bottom) a linear temperature Patterns that are possible for two idealized flow
gradient typical at the exit of a combustor with a conditions: Top) Isothermal with an Inlet
uniform velocity field156. Assuming steady, Boundary Layer ; and , Bottom) Inviscid Flow
incompressible, inviscid flow with negligible with a Temperature Profile
variation of velocity in the n-direction, the
centripetal acceleration for the streamlines A and B must be balanced by the pressure gradient across
the pitch:
2 2
∂p VSA ∂p VSB
| =ρ , | =ρ
∂n A RA ∂n B RB

154 Friedrichs, S., Hodson, H. P. and Dawes, W. N., “Distribution of Film-Cooling Effectiveness on a Turbine End-
wall Measured Using the Ammonia and Diazo Technique,” J of Turbomachinery,1996.
155 M. Kang, A. Kohli, and K.A. Thole, “Heat Transfer and Flow-field Measurements in the Leading Edge Region of

a Stator Vane End-wall,” J of Turbomachinery,1999.

156 B. Lakshminarayana, “Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery”, (NY: Wiley Inter-science,

1996).
 159

Eq. 6.1
From boundary layer theory ∂p/∂n, for both streamlines from the developing boundary layer on the
sidewalls should be equal. Therefore

∂p ∂p
| = |
∂n A ∂n B
Eq. 6.2
Due to the viscous turbulent boundary layer at the end-wall, it is evident that VsB < VsA. So for the
boundary layer assumption to hold, the radius of curvature of the streamline at B must be reduced.
This creates a crossflow in the boundary layer from the pressure surface towards the suction surface
of the blade, and thus generates secondary flow (flow that is not aligned with the stream-wise
direction) as depicted in Figure 6.17 (top). Now consider Figure 6.17 (Bottom), a constant
velocity profile with linear temperature profile. The same physics hold for this case; however, the
resulting vortex is reversed in direction. In this instance the temperature at A is greater than at B,
therefore ρA < ρB. Now RB must be greater than RA for the normal pressure gradient to balance and
the cross flow is generated towards the pressure side of the adjacent vane row. The change in
streamline curvature would be less severe in this case compared to Figure 6.17 (top) since the
velocity term is squared in the relationship of Eq. 6.1.
As one can see from these simple, idealized flow situations, there can be large variation in the
expected secondary flow pattern that can be derived in a turbine vane passage. The important driver
for how the flow develops in a turbine vane passage is the total pressure profile entering the passage.
As this total pressure profile becomes the static pressure along the vane stagnation, the flow will be
driven from a high pressure region to a low pressure region. In most turbine designs there is a flow
leakage slot between the combustor and the turbine whereby cooler fluid is injected into the main
hot gas path. This leakage can also have an effect on the secondary flow patterns that develop. The
bottom line when considering end-wall flows is
that the profile exiting the combustor, which is
often referred to as the combustor pattern factor
that ultimately enters the turbine, should be
known to fully predict the secondary flows that
will develop in the turbine passage. In practice,
the combustor pattern factor is one of the
parameters used in designing cooling schemes for
the airfoils and their associated platforms.
6.10.2 End-Wall Heat Transfer
The heat transfer coefficients given in Figure
6.18 are represented in terms of a non-
dimensional Stanton number based on exit
velocity. In the region upstream of the vanes,
there is a high heat transfer region that occurs
between the stagnation point and the
reattachment of the flow on the suction side of the
airfoil. This is the area which experiences very
high acceleration. As the flow moves through the
passage, it is apparent that the location of the peak
Stanton numbers (peak heat transfer) is being
Figure 6.18 Contours of Non-Dimensional Heat
swept from the outer pressure surface towards
Transfer Coefficients (Reproduced with
Permission ASME)
 160

the suction side of the central vane157. Note that the heat transfer data shown here were taken with
a two-dimensional inlet boundary layer under low speed conditions, to allow for highly-resolved
data, with matched Reynolds number conditions. There is evidence in the literature that the
secondary flow patterns remain the same at both low and high Mach number conditions. Rather,
these secondary flows are a stronger function of the airfoil geometry and inlet profile conditions that
of Mach number. There is no data in the literature that discusses how the heat transfer on the end-
wall is altered depending upon an inlet flow condition that is relevant to that exiting a combustor. As
was stated previously, it is important to consider that the profile exiting the combustor can vary
greatly from that of a two-dimensional boundary layer assumption. For further info and cooling
effects, please see chapter 7.
6.10.3 Leading Edge Modifications
Because industry is concerned with problems at the vane leading edge-end-wall juncture, a number
of more recent studies have begun to evaluate geometric modifications to airfoils in this region. At
this point there have been three different geometric concepts tested for an asymmetric airfoil
geometry that include the following classifications: fences, fillets, and bulbs. Methods using flow
control such as suction combined with injection have also been reported but are generally not
feasible for gas turbines where gas temperatures exceed airfoil melting temperatures. [Chung and
Simon] first presented their concept for secondary flow control in 1993 that encompassed using a
fence placed in mid-passage between two turbine airfoils158. While their tests indicated a reduction
in strength of the passage vortex, industry’s concern was in cooling the fence and that it acted as a fin
conducting heat to the platform as it was exposed to the hotter main gas path fluid.
Three-dimensional end-wall contouring, which includes a more comprehensive geometric
modification than simply a modification to the end-wall-airfoil leading edge juncture, has also been
investigated computationally by Harvey, et al. and experimentally verified by [Hartland, et al.]159. To
design the end-wall contour, they used a linear
sensitivity matrix in conjunction with superposition
methods prior to applying an inverse design
algorithm. The results of the experimental
verification confirmed a predicted reduction in exit
flow angle deviations. Moreover, the experiments
indicated a 30% reduction in loss, which was higher
than predicted. In a later study, [Brennan, et al. and
Rose, et al.] applied similar computational and
experimental (respectively) methodologies as
[Harvey et al. and Hartland, et al.]. They applied
these methods to a high pressure turbine for a single
stage in both the vane and blade passages. They Figure 6.19 Fillet and Bulb Designs as Shown
reported stage efficiency improvements of 0.59%, by (Becz et al.)
which exceeded their predicted improvement of
0.4%. Using end-wall contouring and leading edge modifications show promise in reducing
secondary flows; however, there are numerous effects that need to be considered. Because this

157 M. Kang, A. Kohli, and K.A. Thole, “Heat Transfer and Flow field Measurements in the Leading Edge Region of
a Stator Vane End-wall,” J of Turbomachinery, 1999.
158 J. T. Chung and T. W. Simon, “Effectiveness of the Gas Turbine End-wall Fences in Secondary Flow Control at

Elevated Freestream Turbulence Levels,” ASME ,1993.

159 J. C. Hartland, P. G. Gregory-Smith, N. W. Harvey, and M. G. Rose, “Non-axisymmetric Turbine End Wall Design:

Part II – Experimental Validation,” J of Turbomachinery 122 (2000), ;Neil W. Harvey, Martin G. Rose, Mark D.
Taylor, Jonathan Shahrokh and David G. Groegory-Smith, “Non-axisymmetric Turbine End Wall Design: Part I –
Three-Dimensional Linear Design System,” J of Turbomachinery, 2000.
 161

modification must be practically feasible, required manufacturing, space limitations, and cooling are
all practical issues that must be addressed. Moreover, some of these designs may be sensitive to the
inlet flow conditions which need to be considered160. See Figure 6.19.

6.10.4 Blade Tip Heat Transfer

The performance of a turbine engine is a strong function of the maximum gas temperature at the
rotor inlet. Turbine blade designers concentrate on finding adequate cooling schemes for high
pressure turbine blades, particularly the tip region where heat transfer is quite high. The clearance
between a blade tip and its associated outer casing, also known as the blade outer air seal, provides
a flow path across the tip that leads to aerodynamic losses and high heat transfer rates along the
blade tip. The flow within this clearance gap is driven by a pressure differential between the pressure
and suction side of the blade, and is also affected by the viscous forces as the fluid comes into contact
with the walls of the gap. A complete description of blade tips and the associated problems is given
by Bunker and is well described by Figure 6.20. Gap size, rotational effects, blade geometries and
Reynolds numbers were all highly influence the heat transfer coefficients.
One method for improving the thermal
environment along the blade tip is to
inject coolant into the tip region. In a
review paper on tip heat transfer, Bunker
states that for blade tips there have been
very few film-cooling studies reported in
the literature even though film-cooling is
widely used18. The discussion given in
this section is relevant to tip film-cooling
(see chapter 7) since that is what is
typically used in industry. Many tip heat
transfer and film-cooling studies have
been completed without rotational
effects. In general, there is evidence in the
literature that supports a widely variable
effect of rotation, which warrants further
studies. One of the first pioneers in this
region is [D. Metzger] where by [Kim et
al.] presents a summary of his work161. In Figure 6.20 CFD Prediction of Streamlines Across a
Blade Tip (Reproduced With Permission From ASME).
addition to concluding that there is only a
weak effect of the relative motion
between a simulated blade and shroud on tip heat transfer coefficient, they stated that there is a
strong dependency of cooling effectiveness for a tip on the shape of the hole and injection locations.
Four hole configurations were discussed by [Kim et al.] that included the following: discrete slots
located along the blade tip, round holes located along the blade tip, angled slots positioned along the
pressure side and round holes located within the cavity of a squealer tip. The studies reported by
[Kim et al.] were performed in a channel that simulated a tip gap, whereby no blade with its
associated flow field was simulated. In comparing the discrete slots to the holes, their data indicated
a substantial increase in cooling effectiveness using the discrete slots for all blowing ratios tested.

160 Karen Thole, “Mechanical Engineering Department Penn State University”, Park, PA 16802-1412.

161Y. W. Kim and D. E. Metzger, “Heat Transfer and Effectiveness on Film Cooled Turbine Blade Tip Models,” J of
Turbomachinery 117 (1995);Y. W. Kim, J. P. Downs, F. O. Soechting, W. Abdel-Messeh, G. Steuber, and S.
Tanrikut, “A Summary of the Cooled Turbine Blade Tip Heat Transfer and Film Effectiveness Investigations
Performed by Dr. D. E. Metzger,” J of Turbomachinery 117-1995.
 162

Injection from the pressure side holes provided cooling levels of similar magnitude to the holes
placed on the tip with better spreading occurring in the case of the pressure side injection. Kim et al.
also reported that an increase in coolant mass flow generally yielded improved cooling with tip
surface holes, but for pressure side holes, increased coolant flow yielded decreased cooling
effectiveness162.

6.10.5 Case Study 1 - Effects of Grid Refinement and Turbulence in 3D Flow Structure and End-
Wall Heat Transfer in Transonic Turbine Blade Cascade
Results of numerical simulation of 3D turbulent flow and end-wall heat transfer in a transonic turbine
cascade are presented by [Levchenya & Smirnov]163. Employing several turbulence models (k-ω
model by Wilcox, Menter SST model, v2-f model by Durbin), an analysis CFD predictability was done in
comparison with
measurements in a linear
cascade at the NASA Glenn
Research Center transonic
turbine blade cascade facility.
It has been concluded in
particular that rather fine
computational grids are
needed to get grid-
independent data on the end-
wall local heat transfer
controlled by complex 3D
structure of secondary flows.
With CFD codes of second-
Figure 6.21 Blade Passage and Slice of The Computational Domain
order accuracy, one should
use grids comprised of about
or more than 2 M cells (for each full blade passage) to get a definite conclusion on preference of one
or another turbulence model for predictions of phenomena under consideration.
6.10.5.1 Problem Definition
The geometry of the linear cascade is that available from the NASA GRC CD-ROM database arranged
by [Giel and Gaugler]164. A fragment of the cascade is illustrated in the Figure 6.21, together with a
slice of the computational domain. At the present computations, the fluid (air) is treated as a perfect
gas with the specific heat ratio γ = 1.4. The governing equations are the Reynolds-averaged Navier-
Stokes equations and the energy equation written for the total enthalpy. A power-law is adopted to
account for the dependency of viscosity on temperature, μ ∼ T 0.76. In order to define proper boundary
conditions at the 3D computational domain inlet section placed one axial chord upstream of the blade
leading edge, the (2D) turbulent flow developing in a parallel-plate channel was computed first,
assuming the adiabatic wall conditions. In the 2D flow computed separately for each of the turbulence
model used, a section was chosen that corresponded to the boundary layer thickness of 3.2 cm. Flow
field data at this section were used to define the total temperature, total pressure, velocity vector
angle and turbulence parameters distributions over the inlet plane of the 3D blade cascade
computational domain. To get the isentropic Mach number required a proper value of static pressure

162 Karen Thole, “Mechanical Engineering Department Penn State University”, Park, PA 16802-1412.
163 Alexander M. Levchenya and Evgueni M. Smirnov, “CFD-Analysis of 3d Flow Structure and End-wall Heat
Transfer in a Transonic Turbine Blade Cascade: Effects of Grid Refinement”, West-East High Speed Flow Field
Conference 19-22, November 2007.
164 Giel, P.W., and Gaugler, R.E., “NASA Blade 1. End-wall heat transfer data. Version 1,” NASA-Glenn Research

Center, Turbine Branch, CD ROM (2001).

 163

was specified at the outlet boundary located one axial chord downstream of the blade trailing edge.
At the solid surfaces of the cascade the no-slip condition was imposed. The constant temperature, Tw,
of 350 K (that would correspond to power of 1560 Watts in the experimental prototype) was
specified on the end-wall, starting from the position of 0.3xCx (Cx referred to axial chord of blade)
upstream of the blade leading edge. Remaining walls were treated as adiabatic. Periodic boundary
conditions were used in the pitch wise direction. For computational purposes, only half of the real
span was considered, with the symmetry boundary condition at mid-span.
6.10.5.2 Computational Aspects
The 3D in house, incompressible/compressible Navier-Stokes code is based on the second order
finite-volume spatial discretization using the cell-centered variable arrangement and body-fitted
block-structured grids. For transonic flow analysis, a high-order version of the Jameson’s H-CUSP
scheme165 is implemented. For the present analysis, a set of 3D non-uniform grids have been
generated assuming the flow symmetry with respect to the passage middle plane. All the grids are of
3-block H-O-H structure (see Figure 6.21). Each mesh covers one half of the blade channel height,
and was obtained by translation of a 2D grid along the span wise direction. Grids of the best
resolution have 45 nodes along this direction, clustered to the end-wall. The distance from the first
cell center to the end-wall was equal to 0.2×10-4 x Сx that produced the area averaged yp + value of 0.8.
As a result of special computations, it has been established that a further grid refinement with respect
to the span wise direction is not necessary.
Below the main attention is paid to the effects of grid refinement in the planes parallel to the end-
wall (in fact, a starting 2D grid refinement), especially in the leading edge region where 3D vortex
structures arise. In order to characterize the grid quality in the LE region, we have introduced an
averaged cell size, Δ*, evaluated for the cells that
are placed in the middle between the saddle Mesh Cell # Δ*/Cx
(separation) point and the blade LE, except the A 360000 0.027
boundary layer region adjacent to the blade. Note
that this cell size is measured in the line of the LE, B 730000 0.022
and the cell aspect ratio in this region did not
exceed 2.0 for all the grids. Table 6.1 covers data C 750000 0.022
for five of the grids, results for which are presented D 760000 0.017
below. For the finest grid, the averaged cell size
introduced is of 1% of the blade axial chord (or E 1200000 0.010
about 5% of the blade LE radius). Note also that the
grid slice given in Figure 6.22 corresponds to grid Table 6.1 Parameters of the Grids Used
B (every second grid line of the grid is omitted
there for clarity).
To ensure a direct comparison of computational heat transfer results with the measurement data,
local Stanton numbers were calculated using the same procedure as developed and justified by [Giel
et. al]166. Remarkably that this procedure results in Stanton numbers that are practically
independent of the surface heat flux rate varied in the experiments. Under the operation conditions
under consideration, the choice of temperature difference used as the driving potential and the
choice of a reference temperature for gas thermos physical properties significantly affects the heat

165 Jameson, A., “Positive schemes and shock modelling for compressible flows”, Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, Vol. 20,
743-776 (1995).
166 Giel, P.W., Thurman, D.R., Van Fossen, G.J., Hippensteele, S.A, and Boyle, R.J., “End-wall heat transfer

measurements in a transonic turbine cascade,” ASME Paper 96-GT-180 (1996).

 164

transfer coefficient. Having performed a comparison of various definitions, [Giel et. al]167 suggested
to define the Stanton number as follows

qw
St =
ρref Uin Cp (Tw − Taw )
Eq. 6.3
where the local adiabatic wall temperature, Taw, is defined as

Taw 1−r
=r+ 2
Tin 1 + 0.5(Υ − 1)Mis
Eq. 6.4
In expression Eq. 6.4 the local isentropic Mach number, Mis, is determined from the wall static
pressure, and the recovery factor, r, is evaluated as r = Pr1/3. The density, ρref, included in Eq. 6.3,
unlike the value used for the Reynolds number is not the actual physical density. It is defined as

pin
ρref = , Tref = Tis + 0.5(Tw − Tis ) + 0.22(Taw − Tis )
RTref
Eq. 6.5
The isentropic temperature, Tis, is evaluated using the local isentropic Mach number and the free-
stream total temperature.
6.10.5.3 Results and Discussion
Flow field computed is illustrated in Figure 6.22. Here, as an example, results obtained with grid B
and the SST version of the Menter model (M-SST) are given. It should be emphasized, however, that
for the Mach number field and the static pressure distribution over the blade all other combinations
of grids A to E and the turbulence models (introduced above) produced practically identical results.
Figure 6.22 shows mid-span Mach
number contours. The distributions
computed are in an excellent agreement
with the NASA GRC experimental data. The
strong affection of the span wise location on
the static pressure distribution over the
suction surface is well reproduced in the
CFD-analysis. Near the trailing edge the
computations predicts an increase in
pressure on the suction side that is due to
the flow overexpansion and viscous-
inviscid interaction phenomena in the
trailing edge region. In contrast to the blade
surface pressure distribution,
computational results for local end-wall
heat transfer are very sensitive both to the
turbulence model and the grid quality.
Figure 6.23 presents Stanton number
Figure 6.22 Computed Mid-Span Mach Number
distributions over the end-wall computed Distribution
with three turbulence models in

167Giel, P.W., and Gaugler, R.E., “NASA Blade 1. End-wall heat transfer data. Version 1,” NASA-Glenn Research
Center, Turbine Branch, CD ROM (2001).
 165

comparison with the measurement data. These distributions were obtained using grid B. Generally
one can conclude that all the models capture the main trends in formation of the local heat transfer
pattern under action of 3D vortex structure developing in the blade passage. However, there are
pronounced distinctions in the blade LE region where spots of enhanced heat transfer are observed.
In particular, the k - ω model predicts a zone of the highest Stanton numbers that adjoins directly the
leading edge, but the latter is in contradiction with the measurements. Both the M-SST model and the
v2-f model predict crescent zones of extreme heat transfer placed slightly upstream of the blade LE.
Such a crescent zone is seen in the experimental Stanton number distribution as well. At that, the v2-
f model gives a Stanton number distribution that is much more non-uniform as compared with the
measurement data. All the models did not predict a spot of enhanced heat transfer observed in the
experiments at the blade suction side not far from the leading edge. As a whole, the MSST model has
prediction superiority among the turbulence models examined.

Figure 6.23 End-Wall Stanton Number (103) Distributions Computed with Grid B in Comparison
with the Measurement Data: (1) k-ω Turbulence Model, (2) M-SST, (3) v2-f, (4) Experiment

6.10.5.4 End-Wall Heat Transfer Sensitivity w.r.t Grid and Turbulence Models
Now we concentrate at analysis of grid-sensitivity of local end-wall heat transfer. This analysis is
performed for the k-ω and the M-SST turbulence models taking into account that currently they are
rather popular in predictions of wall-bounded flows. Our computations have shown that the k-ω
 166

model prediction results are considerably less sensitive to grid refinement as compared with the
MSST model. With the k-ω model, grids B to E produced practically identical results. Small
distinctions in the end-wall Stanton number distributions are observed only when comparing results
obtained using the initial grid (grid A) with those of one of the finer grids as we discuss the reasons
of relatively week grid-sensitivity of the k-ω model results for the problem under consideration.

Figure 6.24 Effect of Grid Refinement on the End-Wall Stanton Number (x103) Prediction with the
M-SST Turbulence Model: (1) Grid С, (2) Grid D, (3) Grid E, (4) Experiment.

Figure 6.24 illustrates the effect of grid refinement on the end-wall Stanton number distributions
computed with the M-SST turbulence model (in order to sharpen the effect, in this figure the upper
limit of the color legend is decreased as compared with Figure 6.23). The simulation results are very
sensitive to the grid quality in the region placed upstream of the blade LE, where horseshoe vortex
structures arise. Grid refinement results in formation of two crescent zones of extreme heat transfer
(see the St maps for grid D and E), whereas only one such a zone was observed when using coarser
grids. Remarkably that even for grids C and D, comprised of about same numbers of cells, there is a
considerable difference between the results for zones of high Stanton numbers. Grid E produces the
 167

most detailed pattern of the Stanton number distribution. It should be recognized however that the
grid refinement has not resulted in a considerably better agreement between the computational and
measurement data. In particular, as in the coarser grid case, the finest grid computations do not
predict the high-St spot observed in the experiments at the blade suction side not far from the leading
edge. As well, the St values are underestimated at the pressure side near the blade trailing edge.
Let’s discuss now the reasons of considerable distinctions between the end-wall heat transfer
prediction results obtained for the blade LE region with the k-ω turbulence model and the M-SST
model. A detailed analysis of the flow structure in the end-wall boundary layer just upstream of the
blade LE has shown that the k-ω model produces a much simpler flow topology than the M-SST
model, provided fine grids are used in both the cases. For the M-SST model case, Figure 6.25 (A)
presents a pattern of limiting streamlines on the end-wall computed with grid E. One can see trails of
a number of well-resolved vortex structure determining the end-wall heat transfer peculiarities in
the blade cascade under consideration. The section A-A marked in the blade LE region was used for
visualization (see Figure 6.25 (B)) of the near-end-wall flow topology in the normal plane. With a
fine grid, the MSST model predicts a complicated vortex structure: with the main horseshoe vortex,
a counter rotating secondary vortex located closer to the end-wall and a tertiary vortex. Application
of a similar visualization technique to the flow field computed with the k-ω model has shown that a
structure with one horseshoe vortex is predicted, and intensity of this vortex is reduced as compared
with the main vortex predicted by the M-SST model.

(A) End wall streakline visualization

(B) Streamline topologies in plane A-A

Figure 6.25 End-Wall Streak Line Visualization

Previously, such a kind of distinctions was reported by [Levchenya et al]168 when analyzing numerical
simulation results for the 3D turbulent flow and end-wall heat transfer in a cascade of thick vanes. In
that contribution it was reported also that, at least in the region of the horseshoe vortex formation,
the k-ω model produces a higher level of the eddy viscosity than the M-SST model, and it is a main
reason of distinctions in the flow topology upstream of the blade leading edge.

168Levchenya, А.М., Ris, V.V., and Smirnov, E.M., “Testing of turbulence models as applied to calculations of 3D
flow and end-wall heat transfer in cascades of thick vane blades”, Proc. 4th Russian National Heat Transfer Conf.,
MPEI Publishers, Moscow, Russia, Vol.2, 167-170 (in Russian, 2006)
 168

6.10.5.5 Summary
With an finite-volume Navier-Stokes code of second-order accuracy, effects of computational grid
refinement have been investigated. The problem of 3D turbulent flow and end-wall heat transfer in
a linear transonic turbine cascade with a large turning angle. Three turbulence models were used at
the computations (k-ω model by Wilcox, Menter SST model, v2-f model). The main attention for the
grid-sensitivity aspects was paid to the cases of the k-ω and the M-SST since currently they are rather
popular in predictions of wall bounded flows. It has been established that the M-SST model prediction
results are considerably more sensitive to grid refinement as compared with the k-ω model,
especially for the flow and heat transfer region placed upstream of the blade leading edge, where
horseshoe vortex structures arise. A less grid-sensitivity of the k-ω model is due to the fact that
generally it produces a higher level of the eddy viscosity, and it results in prediction of a simplified
flow topology as compared with the M-SST model169. Other similar studies were performed by
[Ivanov et al.]170 and [V.D. Goriatchev, et al.]171.

6.10.6 Case Study 2 - Comparison of Steady and Unsteady RANS Heat Transfer Simulations of Hub
and End all of a Turbine Blade Passage
The necessity of performing an unsteady simulation for the purpose of predicting the heat transfer
on the end wall surfaces of a turbine passage is addressed by [El-Gabry and Ameri]172. This is
measured by the difference between the two solutions obtained from a steady simulation and the
time average of an unsteady simulation. The heat transfer coefficient (Nusselt number) based on the
adiabatic wall temperature is used as the basis of the comparison. As there is no film cooling in the
proposed case, a computed heat transfer coefficient should be a better measure of such difference
than, say, a wall heat flux. Results show that the effect of unsteadiness due to wake passage on the
pressures and recovery temperatures on both hub and casing is negligible. Heat transfer on the end
walls, however, is affected by the unsteady wake; the time-averaged results yield higher heat
transfer; in some regions, up to 15% higher. The results for the end wall heat transfer were compared
with results in open literature and were found to be comparable.
6.10.6.1 Introduction
Gas turbine heat transfer remains an important topic of concern as turbine inlet temperatures
continue to rise and combustor exit profiles continue to flatten with the goal of maximizing power
output and efficiency. This in turn means higher gas-side heat transfer to the hot gas path
components, including the vane and blade and, in particular, the end walls, which are now
experiencing temperatures nearly as high as the peak temperatures near the midspan.
Of importance to understanding the end wall heat transfer is describing and characterizing end wall
flows. As early as 1976, [Langston et al.]173 wrote that “the literature is certainly not lacking in
experimental studies of end wall flows in turbine cascades” but is lacking a “complete analytical
solution” of the end wall flows. In this 1976 paper, [Langston et al. ] cited the potential of numerical

169 Alexander M. Levchenya* and Evgueni M. Smirnov, “CFD-Analysis of 3d Flow Structure and End-wall Heat
Transfer in a Transonic Turbine Blade Cascade: Effects of Grid Refinement”, West-East High Speed Flow Field
Conference 19-22, November 2007.
170 Nikolay Ivanov, Vladimir Ris, Evgueni Smirnov, and Denis Telnov, “Numerical Simulation Of End-wall Heat

Transfer In A Transonic Turbine Cascade”, Conference On Modelling Fluid Flow (CMFF’03) The 12th
International Conference On Fluid Flow Technologies Budapest, Hungary, September 3-6, 2003.
171 V.D. Goriatchev1, N.G. Ivanov2, E.M. Smirnov2, V.V. Ris2, “CFD Analysis of Secondary Flows and Pressure Losses

in a NASA Transonic Turbine Cascade”, 1- Department of Mathematics, Tver State Technical University, 170026
Russia; and 2- Department of Aerodynamics, St.-Petersburg State Polytechnic University, 195251, Russia.
172 Lamyaa A. El-Gabry, Ali A. Ameri, “Comparison of Steady and Unsteady RANS Heat Transfer Simulations of

Hub and End wall of a Turbine Blade Passage”, Journal of Turbomachinery, JULY 2011.
173 Langston, L. S., Nice, L. M., and Hooper, R. M., 1976, “Three Dimensional Flow Within a Turbine Cascade

Passage,” ASME Paper No. 76-GT-50.

 169

models to fill in that gap, which, one can argue, has yet to be entirely filled, which, that is, where the
present research and other papers on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of end wall flow
and heat transfer continue to play an important role in our understanding of this critical region of
the turbine passage.
[Langston et al. ] used ink to visualize flow near the end walls of a cascade and measured pressures
and velocities at axial locations within the passage. [Gregory-Smith et al.]174 presented the flow
visualization of the end wall and made measurements in a cascade with the goal of calculating the
vorticity in the passage.
There have also been several review papers that survey literature on secondary flows in turbine
passages and that highlight results of turbine end wall aerodynamics and heat transfer studies. The
dominant secondary flow structures highlighted include the cross-passage flow that crosses from the
pressure side to the suction side and what is commonly referred to as the horseshoe
vortex that forms at the stagnation point on the leading edge, where the flow separates into a
pressure side and a suction side leg. There are additional forms of secondary flow, including corner
vortices. There are three “corners”: the first is between the pressure side surface and the hub, the
second is between the suction side surface and the hub, and the third is between the leading edge
surface and the hub.
Near the blade tip, the dominant secondary flow feature is the tip leakage vortex that manifests itself
along the suction side of the airfoil. The losses due to tip leakage flow can account for up to 1/3 of the
total stage losses, as suggested by [Boyle et al.]175, making them important from an aerodynamics
perspective as well as their impact on heat transfer. Research in the topic of near-tip flows and heat
transfer started with basic research using very basic geometry to represent flat and grooved
rectangular tip models. These studies, among other things, established that the effect of relative
motion between the blade and casing on heat transfer is negligible, which was consequently followed
by a series of linear cascade tests using three-blade, four-blade, and five-blade cascades to measure
static pressure and local heat transfer distribution on the airfoil, tip, and casing surfaces for a variety
of tip geometries.
Experimental data obtained in stationary cascades offer detailed measurements; however, results
may not scale to the actual engine conditions or be truly representative of a true rotating blade in an
engine. Therefore, experimental data have also been obtained at engine conditions in rotating rigs.
[Haldeman and Dunn]176 at the Ohio State University Gas Turbine Laboratory measured the heat
transfer for the vane and blade of a rotating high pressure turbine stage operating at design corrected
conditions using a large shock-tunnel facility.
For the blade, Stanton number is reported at 20% and 96% spans at the blade tip and on the shroud.
[Polanka et al.]177 also made pressure and heat flux measurements on the tip and shroud under
rotating conditions at the U.S. Air Force Turbine Research Facility, which is a full scale rotating rig.
These test setups are far more representative of engine conditions, however, the test data are sparse
and a limited number of discrete measurements are available as compared with the cascade tests.
In addition to the experimental research on end wall aerodynamics and heat transfer, there have
been a number of computational studies on the subject, several of which complement the

174 Gregory-Smith, D. G., Graves, C. P., and Walsh, J. A., 1988, “Growth of Secondary Losses and Vorticity in an Axial

Turbine Cascade,” ASME J. Turbomachine, 110, pp. 1–8.

175 Boyle, R. J., Haas, J. E., and Katsanis, T., 1985, “Predicted Turbine Stage Performance Using Quasi-Three-

Dimensional and Boundary Layer Analyses,” J. Propulsion Power, 1, pp. 242–251.

176 Haldeman, C. W., and Dunn, M. G., 2004, “Heat-Transfer Measurements and Predictions for the Vane and Blade

of a Rotating High-Pressure Turbine Stage,” ASME J. Turb., 126, pp. 101–109.

177 Polanka, M. D., Hoying, D. A., Meininger, M., and MacArthur, C. D., 2003, “Turbine Tip and Shroud Heat Transfer

and Loading—Part A: Parameter Effects Including Reynolds Number, Pressure Ratio, and Gas-to-Metal
Temperature Ratio,” ASME J. Turb., 125, pp. 97.
 170

experimental work. The 9H tip heat transfer experiments of [Bunker et al.]178 were modeled using in-
house Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes _RANS_ codes and the OSU tests were modeled
using the commercial CFD code STARCD _17_ and an in-house GE-developed code Tacoma . [Polanka
et al.]179 presented a comparison between numerical predictions and experimental results of
[Polanka et al.].
The conclusions were that the agreement between the test and the CFD is “very good” on the airfoil
and “moderately good” on the end walls and tip; the tip heat transfer was overpredicted by the CFD
and although the shroud pressure distribution was accurately predicted with the 3D RANS solver,
the heat transfer there was overpredicted by a factor of 2.
Wake effects and unsteadiness were investigated by [Pullman]180, who used test measurements to
show the vortex formation at the stator exit and their development within the rotor passage to the
rotor exit. Using the experimental measurements at the stator exit as boundary conditions to a rotor
CFD model, the predictions of the aerodynamic losses _using steady and unsteady analyses are
calculated and the flow field at the rotor exit is predicted and compared with test data. The steady
simulation predicted 10% less loss in the rotor row than the unsteady simulation.
The present work focuses on the effect of unsteadiness due to wake passage on the end wall heat
transfer as well as pressures and
temperatures as predicted using an
unsteady 3D RANS solver. The vehicle
for this computational study is the E3
high pressure turbine blade, which has
been reported extensively in literature.
Time-resolved test measurements are
not available for the E3 HPT blade;
therefore, qualitative comparisons of the
CFD results will be made with HPT data
in open literature, to serve as a check on
the CFD results. The primary question
this research seeks to answer is whether
an unsteady analysis gives the same
answer as a steady analysis. For this size
model ∿2x106 nodes, it takes 500 clock
hours to reach a converged steady state
solution. Also, it takes the same model
25,000 clock hours to converge the
unsteady simulation. The question is: Is
the added time and complexity of Figure 6.26 Grid on the Solid Surfaces of the Geometry
running unsteady worth it?
6.10.6.2 Computational Method
A 3D RANS code developed at the NASA Glenn Research Center has been used to predict pressures,
temperatures, and heat transfer in a single blade passage of the GE-E3 gas turbine. The code was

178 Bunker, R. S., Bailey, J. C., and Ameri, A., 2000, “Heat Transfer andFlow on the First-Stage Blade Tip of a Power
Generation Gas Turbine: Part 1—Experimental Results,” ASME J. Turb., 122, pp. 263–271.
179 Polanka, M. D., Clark, J. P., White, A. L., Meininger, M., and Praisner, T. J., 2003, “Turbine Tip and Shroud Heat

Transfer and Loading Part B: Comparison Between Prediction and Experiment Including Unsteady Effects,” ASME
Paper No. GT2003-38916.
180 Pullman, G., 2004, “Secondary Flows and Loss Caused by Blade Row Interaction in a Turbine Stage,” ASME

Paper No. GT2004-53743.

 171

Glenn-HT and was described in detail by [Ameri et al.]181. It uses a finite volume discretization
scheme and is second order accurate in time and space. The turbulence model used in the calculations
was the low Reynolds number k-ω model by [Wilcox], which is integrated to the wall; a
nondimensional grid spacing y+ of near 1 is maintained on all wall surfaces, including the blade and
end walls. The code was run on 48 processors of a Xeon Linux Cluster using message passing interface
for parallel processing.
The E3 gas turbine has 46 vanes and 76 blades and the blade rotates at 8400 rpm. The blade tip
clearance is 2% of the blade span. The present research focuses on the effect of the upstream vane
wake on the blade. The domain of this computation is restricted to a single blade passage; this
simplification of using a vane/blade ratio of 1 is based on a separate preliminary study, which showed
that for purposes of computing average heat transfer, the wake frequency for a 1:1 ratio produces a
very similar result as compared with a 2:3 ratio. The 2:3 ratio is an approximation to the actual
vane/blade count, which was 46:76.
The inlet of the domain is located at 15% axial chord upstream of the blade leading edge _midway
between the vane trailing edge and the blade leading edge_ and the exit of the domain is at 50% axial
chord downstream of the blade trailing edge. To create the multiblock structured grid needed for the
solver GRIDPRO™, commercially available software for generating structured meshes was used.
shows the surface mesh on the solid airfoil and hub. Figure 6.27a shows the grid on the casing
surface highlighting the multiblock structure of the grid blocks. Figure 6.27b shows the grid
structure on the hub surface. The grid consists of 164 blocks and a total of 1.8 x 106 nodes. There are
65 nodes across the tip clearance gap in the radial direction and 101 nodes from the hub to tip of the
blade. The grid independence of the solution was established.

Figure 6.27 (a) Casing surface mesh showing multiblock structure and (b) hub surface mesh showing
multiblock structure

A dimensionless time step of 0.005 was used based on earlier investigations in which the time step
was varied from 0.001 to 0.01. For the selected time step of 0.005, 320 steps were required to
complete one period; (i.e., the passing of a wake across a single blade passage), which is sufficiently

181 Ameri, A. A., Steinthorsson, E., and Rigby, D., 1998, “Effect of Squealer Tips on Rotor Heat Transfer and
Efficiency,” ASME J. Turbomachine., pp. 753–759.
 172

fine, a resolution for purposes of this study. Based on the selected time step, blade count, and RPM,
there were 320 time steps over the period of one wake passage.
6.10.6.2.1 Boundary Conditions
A separate computation of the vane flow was used to establish the inlet boundary conditions used in
the present blade analysis. The total pressure and temperature at the vane exit were calculated using
the same code and methodology and the wake profile is taken from the midspan of the vane
computation and used for the entire span of the inlet section to the blade. The total pressure in the
vane wake was approximated with a trigonometric function

pt,θ (0, θ) = p0,bg {1 − 0.15sin[nθ/2 + πt/τ]10 }

Eq. 6.6
Likewise, the total temperature wake behind the vane was approximated using a second
trigonometric function

Tt,θ (0, θ) = T0,bg {1 − 0.05sin[nθ/2 + πt/τ]10 }

Eq. 6.7
Figure 3 shows the normalized inlet total temperature and total pressure wakes as applied to the
blade inlet. The wake turbulence and length scale were similarly obtained and approximated with
trigonometric functions and specified at the blade inlet. The background level for turbulence
intensity was 2% and the amplitude was 5% for a peak value of 7%, i.e.,

Tu(t, θ) = Tub,g + Tuamp {sin[nθ/2 + πt/τ]6 }

Eq. 6.8
The wake turbulence length scale was also fitted with the same function, where the background
length scale was set to 10% axial chord and the peak length scale was set to 25% axial chord. To
simulate the near wall boundary layer effects, a boundary layer profile for the inlet total pressure
and temperatures is applied at the inlet section that extends to 1% span from the hub and casing. At
the exit of the domain, a constant static pressure boundary condition is applied at the hub and a radial
equilibrium is enforced. No-slip boundary conditions are applied to all solid surfaces in the domain,
including airfoil, hub, and casing. The heat transfer coefficient is defined as

Qw
h=
Taw − Tw
Eq. 6.9
where Qw is the wall heat flux, Tw is the wall
temperature, and Taw is the adiabatic wall
temperature. Therefore, in order to calculate heat
transfer coefficient defined as such, it is necessary to
run two separate analyses; one in which the walls
have zero heat flux in order to determine the
adiabatic wall temperatures and a second with a
prescribed wall temperature in order to calculate the
heat flux. For the runs with a prescribed wall
temperature, a constant temperature of 0.7
(normalized using inlet total temperature) is applied Figure 6.28 Total temperature (T0) and
to all walls. The steady state boundary conditions are total pressure (P0) at the blade inlet
based on the average of the unsteady computations.
 173

6.10.6.3 Results and Discussion

Figure 6.29 shows the instantaneous pressure distribution on the hub surface at equal times over
the period of one wake passage. The image outlined with the dashed line shows the time-averaged
pressure distribution. These time-averaged results are compared with a steady simulation in which
there is no wake at the inlet. The inlet boundary condition for the steady simulation is the area
average of the unsteady boundary condition in Figure 6.28.

Figure 6.29 Instantaneous and time-averaged „dashed… hub surface

pressure for a wake passing

The instantaneous pressure distributions in Figure 6.29, particularly the position and extent of the
low pressure region on the suction side, illustrate the effects of the wake passage. This region of
minimum pressure is indicative of a vortex that is traveling along the suction side (perhaps the
suction side (SS) leg of the horseshoe vortex). As time passes from t=0 to t=T/4, this low pressure
region moves along the SS edge and extends in the blade to blade direction. As it approaches the
trailing edge (TE), it appears to move away from the SS edge toward the pressure side (PS) trailing
edge and begins to diffuse. At some time between T/4 and 3/8T, a second low pressure region
emerges near the leading edge before the high point of curvature (high-C) that also moves along the
SS edge extends and diffuses as before. The periodic growth, diffusion, and movement of this low
 174

pressure region indicate an interaction between the end wall secondary flows and the upstream
wake.

Figure 6.30 Instantaneous and time-averaged (dashed) hub heat transfer distribution for a wake
passing

Likewise, the instantaneous heat flux images in Figure 6.30 suggest an interaction between the
wake passage and the end wall heat transfer on the hub. In discussing the pressure, we focused on
the low pressure region along the suction side and noted the presence of two low pressure regions
at the same time during part of the period: one region is diffusing into the passage near the trailing
edge and one is beginning to grow as it moves along the SS edge near the leading edge. In Figure
6.30, let us focus our attention on the high heat transfer regions shown in red. At the leading edge,
there is high heat transfer due to stagnation that extends along the PS edge and grows. There is a low
heat transfer region between the passages that moves along the SS edge and grows then diffuses
across the passage to PS edge. In doing so, it mixes with the high heat transfer fluid and reduces the
heat transfer, resulting in what appears to be a break in the high heat flux zone along the PS edge.
The latter piece of the high heat transfer region along the PS edge shrinks in extent and decreases in
magnitude as it diffuses and appears to “shed” at the trailing edge.
 175

The pressure
distribution on the
casing and hub surfaces
is plotted in Figure
6.31 and Figure 6.32,
respectively,
nondimensionalized by
the inlet total pressure.
Figure 6.32 is actually a
repeat of the time-
averaged contour plot in
Figure 6.30 outlined
with a dashed line. The
airfoil outline shown in
Figure 6.31 and Figure
6.34 and other casing
images to follow is the
projection of the tip
surface on the casing.
On the casing surface, Figure 6.31 Time-Averaged Casing Pressure
there is a region of high
pressure in the forward
part of the passage
above the pressure side
surface of the airfoil
whose outline is shown
in Figure 6.31. This
high pressure
corresponds
to the stagnation region
of the airfoil near the tip.
There is a low pressure
region near the trailing
edge of the airfoil, which
likely corresponds to
higher tip flow speeds.
On the hub surface
Figure 6.32, the
stagnation region at the Figure 6.32 Time-Averaged Hub Pressure
leading of the airfoil
results in a high
pressure zone that extends into the passage along the pressure side. On the suction side is a low
pressure region just past the high-C _curvature_ of the airfoil that increases along the passage likely
to correspond with the suction side leg of horseshoe vortex forming at the leading edge and growing
as it moves through the passage and interacts with the cross-passage flow.
Contour plots of pressure on the casing and hub surfaces were also obtained from a steady state CFD
model and compared with the time-averaged distributions. There was no discernable difference
between the time-averaged and steady state contours that could be identified from the contour plots.
Therefore, the difference between the time-averaged and steady state local pressures is plotted
instead in Figure 6.34 and Figure 6.33.
 176

Figure 6.34 shows

the difference
between the time-
averaged and steady
state pressure results
on the casing surface
as a percentage of the
time-averaged results.
Clearly, there is
negligible difference
between the two
solutions; the largest
difference is on the
order of 2% and is
located slightly
forward of the high-C
point on the casing
surface and further aft
at the high-C point on
the hub surface. Figure 6.34 Difference in casing pressure distribution between the time-
However, a 2% averaged and steady results
difference is not
significant enough to
justify/warrant a transient CFD analysis.
Figure 6.35 and Figure 6.36 show the
adiabatic wall temperature distribution
on the casing and hub surfaces,
respectively, nondimensionalized by the
inlet total temperature. Note that the
two figures are not plotted at the same
scale to illustrate trends and enable
discussion. In Figure 6.35, the adiabatic
wall temperature on the casing surface
exceeds the inlet total temperature (i.e.,
the dimensionless Taw exceeds 1); this
occurs at the stagnation region and along
the pressure side edge of the airfoil tip.
The rise in adiabatic wall temperature
Figure 6.33 Difference in hub pressure distribution
can be attributed to work processes in between the time-averaged and steady results
the near-tip region, where energy is
imparted from the rotating fluid in the
tip gap to the stationary casing, thereby increasing the total temperature at the casing surface.
The rise in adiabatic wall temperature on the casing surface was noted by [Thorpe et al.]
experimentally and numerically: “In the tip gap, the stagnation temperature is shown to rise above
that found at stage inlet by as much as 35% of stage total temperature drop.” A similar finding is
ascertained from Figure 6.35, which shows the maximum adiabatic wall temperature to be 1.06 and
the exit adiabatic wall temperature to be 0.84; therefore, the rise in adiabatic wall temperature 0.06
is about 1/3 of the total temperature drop for the rotor passage.
On the hub surface Figure 6.36, there are no regions where the dimensionless adiabatic wall
temperature exceeds unity since there are no rotating/stationary frames of references in the hub
 177

wall unlike the casing. The

adiabatic wall temperature
decreases along the flow
passage because work is
extracted from the stage.
The low pressure region of
Figure 6.32 discussed
earlier as being
attributable to
recirculation in the horse
shoe vortex results in a
region of minimum
adiabatic wall
temperatures at the high-C
point and aft. The
adiabatic wall temperature
results in Figure 6.35 and
Figure 6.36 are obtained
through the time-
averaging of the transient Figure 6.35 Time-averaged casing adiabatic wall temperature
CFD solutions and are
compared with steady
state results. Figure 6.37 and
Figure 6.38 use the same scale and
show the difference between the
time-averaged and steady state
adiabatic wall temperatures as a
percentage of the temperature
difference between the adiabatic
wall and the isothermal wall, i.e.,

̅aw − Taw
T
̅aw − Tw
T
Eq. 6.10

Figure 6.36 Time-averaged hub adiabatic wall temperature

 178

This is a more physical representation of the difference as the denominator is indicative of the driving
temperature for heat transfer. Figure 6.37 shows that the time-averaged casing surface adiabatic
wall temperatures are about 4-6% lower than the steady results. For the hub surface, Figure 6.37
shows that the time-averaged hub surface adiabatic wall temperatures are up to 8% lower than those
predicted by a steady state simulation. The region of largest difference is in the forward region of the
hub surface.

Figure 6.37 Difference in casing adiabatic wall temperature distribution between the time-averaged and
steady results

The dimensionless wall heat flux, as defined

in the nomenclature, is plotted in Figure
6.39 and Figure 6.40. Figure 6.39 shows
the time averaged wall heat flux distribution
on the casing surface. The area of highest
heat transfer is the region of the casing
above the pressure side edge of the airfoil
tip due to the entry of tip leakage flow into
the clearance gap, consistent with Figure
6.35.
The heat transfer rates at the hub surface
shown in Figure 6.40 repeat of the dash- Figure 6.38 Difference in hub adiabatic wall
outlined image in Figure 5.30 are lower temperature distribution between the time-averaged
than those found on the casing surface and steady results
Figure 6.39. The area of highest heat
transfer is on the hub surface near the leading edge in the stagnation region and penetrates at a lower
magnitude along the pressure side surface aft toward the trailing edge. The heat transfer rate on the
end walls obtained through time averaging is compared with the steady state-predicted heat fluxes
 179

and the difference between the time-averaged and steady results for the casing and hub are shown
in Figure 6.41 and Figure 6.42, respectively.
On the casing surface Figure 6.41, the time-averaged solution predicts up to 10% higher heat
transfer in some regions, specifically in the region above the SS edge of the tip. The streaks of large
positive and large negative differences past the trailing edge in the wake of the blade can be
neglected; they likely indicate a slight offset in the distribution rather than a fundamental difference
in the prediction.
On the hub surface Figure 6.42, the
unsteadiness increases the heat
transfer by up to 10%; the largest
difference is at the leading edge and
along the pressure side edge into the
passage. Generally, there are larger
differences in the local heat transfer
prediction on the hub surface than
on the casing surface with the effect
on the casing being highly localized
to the region past the suction side
and nearly zero difference
everywhere else.
Figures 18 and 19 of [El-Gabry and
Ameri]182, shows the Nusselt Figure 6.39 Time-averaged casing heat transfer rate
number distribution on the casing
and hub surfaces, respectively, while
Figure 6.43 show the difference
between the time-averaged and
steady state Nusselt numbers.
The region of highest Nusselt
number on the casing surface is also
the region of highest heat transfer
Figure 6.39 and highest adiabatic
wall temperature Figure 6.35,
which is above the pressure side
edge of the blade tip. Not
surprisingly, the region showing
significant difference in the effect of
time-averaging is at the same
location, where there were Figure 6.40 Time-averaged hub heat transfer rate
significant differences in the heat
flux predictions Figure 6.41; the
effect of the wake on adiabatic wall temperature for the casing surface was shown to be negligible
Figure 6.37.

Lamyaa A. El-Gabry, Ali A. Ameri, “Comparison of Steady and Unsteady RANS Heat Transfer Simulations of
182

Hub and End wall of a Turbine Blade Passage”, Journal of Turbomachinery, JULY 2011.
 180

On the hub surface, the region of

highest Nusselt number is at the
stagnation region along the airfoil
leading edge, as shown in figure 19
of [El-Gabry and Ameri]183, this was
also the region of highest heat flux
per Figure 6.40. Whereas the
casing surface adiabatic wall
temperatures were unaffected by
the wake; the hub surface
temperatures were lower when the
unsteadiness due to wake passage
was considered. The heat flux
distribution on the hub was also
influenced by the wake passage.
Therefore, one finds that the Nusselt
number, which is driven by heat flux
Figure 6.41 Difference in casing heat transfer rate between
and temperature difference, is the time-averaged and steady results
influenced by wake passage, as
shown.
The largest effect unsteadiness due
to wake passage has on Nusselt
number is along the leading edge of
the airfoil but also along the
pressure side surface. The
unsteadiness increases the local
Nusselt numbers by up to and above
10%.
6.10.6.4 Heat Transfer
Comparison With Open
Literature
As previously mentioned, there are
no experimental results for end wall
pressures, temperatures, or heat
flux for the GE-E3 HPT blade.
However, there are other results for
other engine blades in open
literature that can serve as a
qualitative comparison to ensure Figure 6.42 Difference in hub heat transfer rate between the
that the trends predicted by the CFD time averaged and steady results
are sensible.

Lamyaa A. El-Gabry, Ali A. Ameri, “Comparison of Steady and Unsteady RANS Heat Transfer Simulations of
183

Hub and End wall of a Turbine Blade Passage”, Journal of Turbomachinery, JULY 2011.
 181

6.10.6.4.1 Comparison of Casing Heat Flux With [Epstein et al.]

[Epstein et al.]184 measured the time-resolved static pressure and heat flux to the casing wall in a
blow down turbine test rig. The turbine tested was a transonic high pressure turbine scaled from a
Rolls Royce engine. A detailed quantitative comparison with the casing measurements of Epstein et
al. can be found in Ref.185. A key finding of that research is that a large percentage of the total casing
heat flux, nearly 45% of the total heat
load, comes from the flow over the
rotor blade tip; the tip area
represents about 30% of the total
casing area and contributes 45% of
the total heat flux. Similarly, the
present results for the E3 show that
the above rotor tip region constitutes
about 12% of the total casing surface
area and contributes about 22% of
the total heat casing heat load.
A comparison of Fig. 22 (Not shown)
viewing the experimental results for
the casing heat flux on data from Ref.
186and Figure 6.39 showing the

CFD-predicted nondimensional heat

flux for the E3 show similar trends;
the region of high heat transfer is in
the over tip region above the
pressure side edge and decreases Figure 6.43 Difference in hub Nusselt number between the
toward the trailing edge. A region of time averaged and steady results
slightly higher heat flux extends from
the leading edge toward the inlet. The heat flux decreases along the passage and reaches a minimum
at the rotor wake region.
6.10.6.4.2 Comparison of Hub Heat Transfer With Tallman et al.
[Tallman et al.]187 presented contour plots of the hub Stanton number using a RANS solver. Figure 23
of [El-Gabry and Ameri]188, shows the CFD-predicted Stanton number. The test data are shown in Ref
189; however, the measurements are sparse on the hub surface and insufficient to generate a contour

plot. Therefore, the CFD results will be used for comparison.

Notable features in the Stanton number distribution include the high heat transfer region at the
leading edge and the moderate to high heat transfer along the pressure side edge of the passage.

184 Epstein, A. H., Guenette, G. R., Norton, R. J. G., and Yuzhang, C., 1985, “Time Resolved Measurements of a
Turbine Rotor Stationary Tip Casing Pressure and Heat Transfer Field,” AIAA Paper No. 85-1220.
185 Ameri, A. A., Rigby, D. L., Steinthorsson, E., Heidmann, J., and Fabian, J. C., 2008, “Unsteady Analysis of Blade

and Tip Heat Transfer as Influenced by Upstream Momentum and Thermal Wakes,” ASME Paper No. GT2008-
51242.
186 See 165.
187 Tallman, J. A., Haldeman, C. W., Dunn, M. G., Tolpadi, A. K., and Bergholz, R. F., 2006, “Heat Transfer

Measurements and Predictions for a Modern High Pressure, Transonic Turbine, Including End walls,” ASME Paper
No. GT2006-
90927.
188 Lamyaa A. El-Gabry, Ali A. Ameri, “Comparison of Steady and Unsteady RANS Heat Transfer Simulations of

Hub and End wall of a Turbine Blade Passage”, Journal of Turbomachinery, JULY 2011.
189 R. F., 2006, “Heat Transfer Measurements and Predictions for a Modern High Pressure, Transonic Turbine,

Including End walls,” ASME Paper No. GT2006-90927.

 182

[Figure 24 (Not shown here)]190 presents the time-averaged Nusselt number distribution for the hub
surface of the E3 blade; the data is identical to [Fig. 19 (same source)] presented earlier; however,
the range has been modified to better highlight features and draw comparisons to the Stanton
number distribution for the hub in [Fig. 23]. The contours in [Figs. 23 and 24]191 are similar: The
heat transfer peaks at the leading edge due to stagnation and decreases with a relatively high heat
transfer region along the PS edge. There is a much narrower low heat transfer region along the
suction side, similar to the blade analyzed.
6.10.6.5 Conclusions
The end wall pressures, temperatures, and heat transfer have been computed using an unsteady
RANS calculation, time averaged, and compared with steady state predictions to evaluate the effect
of unsteadiness due to wake passage.
Results obtained using the k-omega turbulence model show that the effect of unsteadiness on the
average end wall pressures on both hub and casing is negligible; the unsteadiness increases the
pressure prediction in some areas by up to 2%. The area, where the pressure is most affected by
unsteadiness, is on the suction side part of the passage for both hub and casing and the effect of
unsteadiness seems to extend over a slightly larger area on the hub than the casing.
The contribution of unsteadiness due to wake passage on the recovery temperature on the casing is
negligible over most of the surface. On the hub surface, the time-averaged results yield lower
recovery temperature predictions in the forward region of the passage.
Heat transfer on the end walls is affected by the unsteady wake more than the pressures and
temperatures. The time-averaged results yield higher heat transfer; in some regions, the increase is
up to 15%. On the casing surface, the increase in heat transfer is more localized and appears on the
suction side region of the passage, where the peak pressure difference between the time averaged
and steady results occurred. The effect on the hub surface is less localized and the increase in heat
transfer predictions can be seen all along the pressure side edge and penetrate well into the passage.
As there are no experimental data available to validate the CFD results for the E3, the results for the
end wall heat transfer were compared with results in open literature. For the casing, the results were
comparable to experimental measurements of [Epstein et al.] quantitatively in terms of the influence
of the above-rotor tip area to the overall shroud heat flux and qualitatively in terms of the pattern of
heat transfer on the surface. For the hub surface, the results were compared with results from
[Tallman et al.] and were also found to be similar, thereby verifying the unsteady Reynolds-averaged
Navier-Stokes (URANS) calculations of the present work.

190 See Previous.

191 See Previous.
183
 184

7 Blade Cooling
As the turbine inlet temperature increases, the heat transferred to the turbine blade also increases.
The level and variation in the temperature within the blade material, which cause thermal stresses,
must be limited to achieve reasonable durability goals192. The operating temperatures are far above
the permissible metal temperatures. Therefore, there is a critical need to cool the blades for safe
operation. The blades are cooled with extracted air from the compressor of the engine. Since this
extraction incurs a penalty on the thermal efficiency and power output of the engine, it is important
to understand and optimize the
cooling technology for a given turbine
blade geometry under engine
operating conditions. Gas turbine
cooling technology is complex and
varies between engine manufacturers.
Figure 7.1 shows the common cooling
technology with three major internal
cooling zones in a turbine blade as film
cooling in the leading edge, pressure
and suction surfaces with Vanes, and
blade tip region. The leading edge is
cooled by jet impingement with film
cooling, the middle portion is cooled
by serpentine rib-roughened passages
with local film cooling, and the trailing
edge is cooled by pin fins with trailing
edge injection. Interested readers are
referred to several recent publications
that address state-of-the-art reviews
of turbine blade cooling and heat
transfer.
The first high pressure stage of a
modern gas turbine operates at very Figure 7.1 The Schematic of a Modern Gas Turbine Blade
high temperatures that require with Common Cooling Techniques (Courtesy of Je-Chin Han)
complex blade-cooling systems to
guarantee high performance and efficiency of the gas turbine while maintaining a very low level of
energy losses, though using compressed air for cooling193. An accurate and efficient Conjugate Heat
Transfer (CHT) solver is thus necessary to compute the flow and temperature fields of the air within
the cooling channels and of the gas around the blades by means of the Navier Stokes and energy
equations as well as the blade temperature field, by means of the heat conduction equation. Due to
the very high geometrical complexity of the cooling channels within the blades, generating a body
fitted mesh for the three domains air, gas and blade is extremely difficult and time consuming. And
Nevertheless, many turbine blade cooling simulations have been performed with success, though at
large computational cost194.

192 Je-Chin Han, “Recent Studies in Turbine Blade Cooling”, International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 2004.
193 D. De Marinisa, M. D. de Tullioa, M. Napolitanoa,* and G. Pascazioa, “A conjugate-heat-transfer immersed-
boundary method for turbine cooling”, Energy Procedia, 2015.
194 Luo G. and Razinsky E. H., “Conjugate heat transfer analysis of a cooled turbine vane using the V2F turbulence

mode,l” Journal of Turbomachinery, (2007).

 185

[Mahmood and Acharya]195 considered adding fillets at the junction of end wall and blade/vane
leading edge in the cascades. The blade cascade operates at low speed atmospheric conditions while
the vane cascade operates at high speed conditions with the exit Mach number near to 1.0.

7.1 Film Cooling Effects

According to the theory of Carnot cycle, increasing the inlet temperature of gas turbine is an effective
way to increase the efficiency and capacity of a turbine. In order to enhance the performance of jet
engine and gas turbine, the temperature of the gas flowing into a turbine blade passage has been
raised continually in recent years, which might result in the damage of blades, especially the leading
edge (LE) which is exposed to the hot gas directly. Although new high temperature materials have
been investigated and used constantly, it is obvious that they couldn’t follow the rising pace of the
inlet temperature.
Four types of cooling methods, such as

➢ Convection cooling,
➢ Impingement cooling,
➢ Film cooling,
➢ Effusion cooling,

and their hybrid methods are used in practical

engineering. Usually, the effusion cooling can
provides the best cooling among these four
methods, while it is seldom used because it will
weaken the structure strength of blades
greatly. Convection cooling and impingement
cooling are usually used in conditions where
the temperature is lower than 1600˚K since
they cannot provide protection to the surface of
blades. Film cooling is the only way can be Figure 7.2 Typical high-pressure turbine stage
used in whole range of the temperature is showing rim seal and wheel-space
higher than 1600˚K. Figure 7.2 [Owen,
2009], illustrates a typical high-pressure gas turbine stage showing the rim seal and the wheel-space
between the stator and the rotating turbine disc. It is curved downstream under the press and friction
of hot main flow colored in pink in the figure, then forms a thin cooling film on the surface which
separates the blade surface from hot gas. Meanwhile, it takes the sporadic flames and radiant heat to
downstream. Hence, it can protect the blade surface effectively. In the next section we divert our
attention to the Secondary Flow which is another cause of unsteadiness and complication in
Turbomachinery.

7.1.1 Fundamentals of Film Cooling

Film cooling primarily depends on the coolant-to hot mainstream pressure ratio (Pc/Pt), temperature
ratio (Tc/Tg), and the film cooling hole location, configuration and distribution on a film cooled airfoil.
The coolant-to-mainstream pressure ratio can be related to the coolant-to-mainstream mass flux
ratio (blowing ratio) while the coolant-to main stream temperature ratio can be related to the
coolant-to-mainstream density ratio. In a typical gas turbine airfoil, the Pc/Pt ratios vary from 1.02 to
1.10, corresponding blowing ratios approximately from 0.5 to 2.0, while the Tc/Tg values vary from

195Gazi I. Mahmood, Sumanta Acharya, “Blade and Vane Leading Edge Fillet on End wall Cooling in Linear
Turbine Cascades”, Proceedings of the 15th International Heat Transfer Conference, IHTC-15 August 10-15,
2014, Kyoto, Japan.
 186

0.5 to 0.85, corresponding density ratios approximately from 2.0 to 1.5. Both pressure ratio (Pc/Pt),
and temperature ratio (Tc/Tg), are probably the most useful measure in quantifying film cooling
effectiveness since these ratios essentially gives the ratio of the coolant to hot mainstream thermal
capacitance.
In general, higher the pressure ratio, better the film cooling protection (i.e., reduced heat transfer to
the airfoil) at a given temperature ratio, while lower the temperature ratio, better the film cooling
protection at a given pressure ratio. However, too high of pressure ratio (i.e., blowing too much) may
reduce the film cooling protection, because of jet penetration into the mainstream (jet lift-off from
the surface). Therefore, it is important to optimize the amount of coolant for airfoil film cooling under
engine operating conditions (Reynolds number 106, Mach number0.9 at exit conditions). For
designing a better film cooling pattern of an airfoil, turbine cooling system designers also need to
know where heat is transferred from hot mainstream to the airfoil.
As mentioned earlier, these film-hole pattern (i.e., film hole location, distribution, angle and shape)
would affect film cooling performance. There are many film cooling papers available in the open
literature. This paper is limited to review a few selected papers to reflect recent development in
turbine blade film cooling. Specifically, this review focuses on the following topics: rotor blade film
cooling, nozzle guide vane film cooling, airfoil end wall film cooling, as well as airfoil leading edge and
blade tip region film cooling.
Several papers for rotator blade, stator
vane, and end wall film cooling, under
representative engine flow conditions,
are reviewed and discussed. Some
parametric studies for large-scale
cascade blade, cascade vane, cascade
end wall, simulated blade tips and
leading edge region film cooling under
low speed flow conditions are also
reviewed and discussed.
Figure 7.3 shows the schematic of
film cooling concept. Typically, the
heat load to the surface without film Figure 7.3 Schematic of Flm Cooling Concept
cooling is represented as heat flux q’=
h0(Tg- Tw), where h0 is the heat transfer coefficient on the surface with wall temperature Tw and
oncoming gas temperature (Tg). When coolant is injected on the surface, the driving temperature is
Tf, film temperature, which is a mixture of gas (Tg) and coolant temperature (T), q"= h(Tf- Tw), where
h is the heat transfer coefficient on the surface with film injection. Also, a new term film effectiveness
0/) is introduced, where
Tg − Tf
η=
Tg − Tc
Eq. 7.1
The η values vary between 0 and with as the best film cooling effectiveness. Therefore, the heat flux
ratio can be written as:

q" h Tf − Tw h Tg − Tc
=( )[ ] = ( ) × {1 − η [ ]}
q"0 h0 Tg − Tw h0 Tg − Tw
Eq. 7.2
To obtain any benefit from film cooling, the heat load ratio, q"/q’, should be below 1.0. The heat
transfer coefficient ratio (h/ho) is enhanced due to turbulent mixing of the jets with the mainstream
 187

and is normally greater than 1.0. The temperature ratio (Tf- Tw)/(Tg- Tw), which is related to the film
effectiveness should be much lower than 1.0 such that the heat load ratio is lower than 1.0. The best
film cooling design is to reduce the heat load ratio (i.e., smaller h/ho enhancement with greater η) for
a minimum amount of coolant available for a film cooled airfoil 196.
7.1.1.1 End-Wall Film-Cooling
One method of combating the high heat transfer coefficients along the end-wall is through the use of
film-cooling holes whereby cooler air is injected through discrete holes in the end-wall. Film-cooling
hole placement, particularly in the end-wall region, has traditionally been based upon designer
experience whereby a number of design variables are considered. For example, one should take into
account leakage from a slot at the combustor turbine interface whereby cooler gases leak into the
main gas path (combustor film-cooling carryover). Most turbines are designed such that pressures
outside the main gas path are higher than those found
in the main gas path to insure that the hot
combustion gases are not ingested below the
platform. If designed properly, this leakage flow
could be relied upon as a source of coolant. It is also
important to remember that the secondary flows that
develop are affected by the leakage flows at the vane
inlet, as indicated by the previous discussion in this
section.
Other design variables include roughness effects,
film-cooling migration (as will be discussed), film-
cooling limitations resulting from internal cooling
schemes, and cooling hole manufacturing.
Manufacturing of cooling is generally done through
the use of electro-discharge machining (EDM) or
laser drilling with both being subjected to access
limitations. Generally, EDM is more expensive than
laser drilling and conversely laser drilling can tend to Figure 7.4 Measured Adiabatic Wall
be more limited in terms of hole geometries that can Temperatures for Coolant Exiting a
be manufactured. Consider a leakage slot flow Combustor/Vane Leakage Slot (reproduced
between the combustor and turbine whereby the with permission from ASME)
coolant is 0.75% of the core flow. The cooling to the
end-wall that can be provided is shown in Figure 7.4. Coolant exits across much of the width of the
slot albeit in a very non-uniform manner. This non-uniform slot flow arises from the static pressure
distribution and secondary flow development along the end-wall. Although there is a large uncooled
region, often referred to as a bow wake, around much of the vane at the leading edge and along the
pressure side of the airfoil, there is also a well-cooled region in the center of the passage. As the slot
flow increases, the cooling potential also increases to a point after which the benefit is small197.
As was previously mentioned, end-wall film-cooling has largely been based on designer experience.
One difficulty in designing the film-cooling hole pattern is knowing before-hand the local static
pressure along the end-wall, which varies greatly along the end-wall as the flow accelerates through
the passage. If one considers that a single supply feeds all the film-cooling holes and inviscid flow
through the holes, it can be shown that a global, ideal (loss-free) blowing ratio for all the film-cooling
holes is given by the following equation,

196 Je-ChinHan and Srinath Ekkad, “Recent Development in Turbine Blade Film Cooling”, International Journal of
Rotating Machinery, 2001, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 21-40.
197 Karen Thole, “Mechanical Engineering Department Penn State University”, Park, PA 16802-1412.
 188

ρc Uc ρc Po,c - ps,in
Mglobal = √ .
ρin Uin ρin Po,in - ps,in
Eq. 7.3
where Po,in and ps,in are defined at the inlet to the turbine. If one then wants to compute the local, ideal
blowing ratio for each cooling

ρc Uc ρc Po,c - ps,∞
M= =√ .
ρin Uin ρin Po,in - ps,∞
Eq. 7.4
hole (now taking into consideration that the local velocity varies), the following equation can be used
where ps,∞ is the local static pressure defined at the exit of the cooling hole. Eq. 7.4 indicates that the
same blowing ratio will occur for each hole placed along a constant static pressure line. Designing an
end-wall cooling pattern to achieve a uniform blowing ratio is one methodology that some companies
have used. Figure 7.5 (a) shows a cooling hole pattern whereby the holes in the passage were placed
along a constant static pressure line. Figure 7.5 (b) shows an end-wall cooling hole pattern with
holes that were placed on lines parallel to the incoming flow direction. The end-wall in Figure 7.5
(b) also provides the space for including a mid-passage gap that occurs between vanes as the vanes
are mated on the turbine disk. Vanes are generally cast in either doublets or singlets and then placed
in a turbine disk with some type of seal between the vane platforms. Generally, relatively low levels
of coolant leak from this mid-passage gap (less than 0.3%). Figure 7.5 (c) shows the same film-
cooling hole pattern as that in Figure 7.5 (b) with the exception being the mid-passage gap is
present in Figure 7.5 (c). The coolant flow conditions for all three vanes shown in Figure 7.5 are
the same with 0.75% of the core flow exiting in the form of coolant from the upstream slot, 0.5%

Figure 7.5 Contours of Adiabatic Effectiveness for Two Film-Cooling Hole Patterns (left and center)
With a Mid-Passage Gutter for the Cooling Hole Pattern in the Center (Right) (Reproduced With
Permission From the Publisher of ASME)
 189

coolant exiting the film-cooling holes and no net coolant flow through the mid-passage gap for Figure
7.5 (c). The contours plotted in Figure 7.5 represent the non-dimensional adiabatic wall
temperatures. As discussed in the previous section, adiabatic surface temperatures represent the
local fluid temperature. From all three contour plots in Figure 7.5, it is clear that the upstream slot
can definitely be an important part of cooling mid portion of the end-wall. In comparing Figure 7.5
(c) to the rest, however, it is also seen that the mid-passage gap limits the area of the cooling present.
The mid-passage gap provides a convective coolant trough through which coolant from the upstream
slot enters and passes through the gap along the mid-passage before exiting the gap near the trailing
edge of the airfoil.
The streamlines superimposed upon the experimental measurements of the adiabatic wall
temperatures presented were computed using CFD. These streamlines were extracted from the CFD
simulations at a location very near to the end-wall (less than 2% of the span). The streamlines, for
the most part, can be used to predict the trajectory of the coolant flow exiting the cooling holes. There
are some regions, however, where the streamlines differ from the jet trajectories, such as at the
entrance to the passage closer to the pressure side. In comparing all of the cooling hole patterns in
Figure 7.5, it is clear that more uniform cooling can be achieved by placing cooling holes along
constant static pressure lines as in Figure 7.5 (a). All three patterns illustrate the difficulty of cooling
the end-wall along the pressure side of the vane and along the leading edge-end-wall juncture. In
general these are very difficult areas to cool because of the secondary flows that were described
previously. The horseshoe vortex in the stagnation region can lead to coolant being swept upstream
of the holes at low blowing ratios, whereas at high blowing ratios the coolant separates from the end-
wall and impacts the vane surface rather than the end-wall surface. Despite the cooling holes injecting
coolant towards pressure side of the vane, the sweeping motion of the passage vortex prevents
cooling at the juncture between the pressure side of the vane and the end-wall198.

7.2 Blade Cooling Using Vanes in Blades

Depending on the type of machine, physical and geometrical effects have to be taken into account. A
complicating factor is that it is necessary to carry out parametric studies considering several
geometric options in the process of
designing the cooling systems. This
normally takes a lot of time to generate
mesh models due to the mesh resolution
required in the boundary layer. This task
can be achieved with CAD embedded
technology and automatic meshing to
significantly reduce the overall simulation
time and allow them to frontload their
design process, as argued in [Rubekina et,
al.]199. The locations of vanes and their
characteristics are most important. More
recently there was an inquiry by [ Jasim et
al.]200 where it was mainly focused on gas
turbine blade heat transfer analysis and Figure 7.6 Vane Section with Ten Cooling Channels and
Temperature Distribution Computed

198 Karen Thole, “Mechanical Engineering Department Penn State University”, Park, PA 16802-1412.
199 A.V. Rubekina, A.V. Ivanov, G.E. Dumnov, A.A. Sobachkin (Mentor Graphics Corp., Russia); K.V. Otryahina
(PAO NPO Saturn, Russia), “Keeping it Cool in Gas Turbines”, Mentor Graphics white paper.
200 Hadeel Raheem Jasim, Narsimhulu Sanke and Khaled Al-Farhany, “Heat Transfer Simulation of Gas Turbine

Blade with Film Cooling”, International Journal of Modern Engineering and Research Technology, 2018.
 190

effect of increasing the number of external film cooling holes rows.

7.2.1 Vane NASA C3X

The first case is the NASA C3X Vane Experiment. The experimental object was represented as a linear
array. Each cascade employed three vanes, characteristic of a first-stage turbine (see Figure 7.6).
Geometry parameters of vane and cooling channels were taken from [Hylton et al. (1983)]. Each of
the vanes was cooled by an array of ten radial cooling holes. The vanes were fabricated of ASTM type
310 stainless steel, which has a relatively low thermal conductivity201. The average heat transfer
coefficient for each cooling hole was calculated from empirical relation of Nusselt Number with
Reynolds and Prandtl Numbers as:

NuD = F(0.022. Pr 0.5 . Re0.8

D )
D
= α.
λ
Eq. 7.5
Where D is the hole diameter, λ is
thermal conductivity. The Re for
each cooling channel was
determined from the measured flow
rate, the cooling hole diameter, and
viscosity based on the average
coolant temperature. F is a function
of Pr, ReD, and x/D, which corrects
the Nu expression for a fully Figure 7.7 Surface Temperature Distribution on the Suction
developed thermal boundary layer Side (Left) and The Pressure Side (Right) of the Vane

cooling air temperature solid temperature on the pressure side

Figure 7.8 Flow Streamlines Colored Cooling Air Temperature into Passages

A.V. Rubekina, A.V. Ivanov, G.E. Dumnov, A.A. Sobachkin, “ Using Modern CAD-Embedded CFD Code For
201

Numerical Simulation Of Heat Transfer In Vanes And Blades”, Mentor Graphics White Paper.
 191

to account for thermal entrance region effects. Each of the vanes was cooled by an array of ten radial
cooling holes.
Another test cases with more vanes is the Convective Heat Transfer in The Steam Turbine Vane as
depicted in Figure 7.7. The investigations on the thermal efficiency potential of steam cooling, have
been carried out experimental work [Bohn et al (2002)]. Geometrical configuration consists of a
rectangular duct containing a three-vane cascade. The central vane can be convectively cooled by
supplying steam to 22 straight radial cooling passages202.

7.2.2 Showered Film Type Cooling

The second case consisted of a showerhead film cooled vane, five rows of staggered cylindrical
cooling holes is used in [Nasir et al (2008)]. The vane cascade consists of four full vanes and two
partial vanes. The number of cooling holes on the stagnation region row is 17. Cooling flow is injected
at 90° angle to the freestream and 45° angle to the span of the vane. Overview and dimensions of the
test vane, as well as, Gas temperature distribution is presented in Error! Reference source not f
ound. 203.

7.2.3 Complex Network of Vanes

The final case is a rotor blade used by NPO Saturn. The detailed description of similar blade can be
found in [Vinogradov et al]. The blade is made of heat-resistant alloy ZS32. Ceramic coating (a
thickness of 0.02-0.03 mm with thermal conductivity k=2-3 W/(m ·K)) serves to insulate components
from large and prolonged heat loads by utilizing thermally insulating materials. Relatively cold air is
passed through the passages inside the turbine blade. Complicated internal cooling system includes
serpentary channels with rib tabulators. Then coolant goes out the blade through holes located on
the blade tip. The remaining coolant is ejected from the trailing edge of the profile. As for previous
test cases evaluation of the temperature distribution of the blade was made by means of conjugate
heat transfer simulation. Ceramic heat barrier coating was taken account as the thermal resistance
with equivalent parameters. Numerical simulation included modeling of mainstream gas flow, air
flow through the internal channels of the blade as well as heat transfer in solid and between fluid and
solid by convection. Shown in Figure 7.8 cooling air temperature distributions along flow
streamlines as well as surface metal temperature field on both side of the blade are in a good
concordance with qualitative evaluates. Recently there was an investigation by [Hasanpour et al.]204
regarding hole configuration effect on turbine blade cooling, where first one of the commonly used
cooling hole geometry is investigated; cylindrical holes and then two other configurations are
simulated. The average temperature magnitude in mid-plan section of each configuration is obtained
and finally the lower temperature value is selected such as best arrangement.

7.3 Conjugate Heat Transfer

In CHT problems, the URANS equations are solved at all internal fluid cells, whereas the heat
conduction equation is solved at all internal solid cells using the same spatial discretization and time
marching numerical algorithm; the interface boundary conditions require that both the temperature
and heat-flux are the same for the fluid and the solid at all boundary points:

202 A.V. Rubekina, A.V. Ivanov, G.E. Dumnov, A.A. Sobachkin, “ Using Modern CAD-Embedded CFD Code For
Numerical Simulation Of Heat Transfer In Vanes And Blades”, Mentor Graphics White Paper.
203 Explanation of Figure 7.6 - (top left) and section view of stagnation row of holes (top right), as well as Gas

temperature distribution (bottom left), cooling air streamlines with the Mach number distribution (bottom
right)
204 A.Hasanpour, M. Farhadi and H.R. Ashorynejad, “Hole Configuration Effect on Turbine Blade Cooling”, World

Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 49 2011.

 192

Tw,f = Tw,s , k sTs .n w = k f Tf .n w Eq. 7.6

where the subscripts s and f refer to solid and fluid respectively, k indicates the thermal conductivity,
and nw is the unit vector normal to the wall. In order to impose the boundary conditions above, at the
solid interface cells the effect of the boundary conditions imposed by the flow upon the temperature
and heat-flux at the body surface has to be accounted for, exactly as the same conditions are to be
enforced at the fluid-interface cells. A direct coupled solution of the URANS and heat conduction
equations is unfeasible. Thus, an iterative procedure is to be employed. A first-order-accurate
approximation is obtained as:

Tf .n w,f = (Tint,f - Tw,f )  f

m m-1

Eq. 7.7
where m is the current iteration and βf is the inverse of the distance between the fluid interface cell
and the wall Eq. 7.7 provides the heat fluxes (apart from the thermal conductivity) at all fluid cells.
Such values are then used to provide those pertaining to all Solid Cell Projection Point (SCPP) by
means of a distance-weighted interpolation and then, the Neumann condition at all SCPPs205.

7.3.1 Case Study - Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the P. S. of Turbine Blades
Heat transfer in separated flows on the pressure side of a typical high lift turbine profile is
numerically investigated by [De La Calzada, et, al.] . The numerical code was first validated on
attached flows in turbine blades. To obtain flow separation cases, the profile is subject to large
negative incidences so that a separation bubble is obtained at the pressure side. The numerical
results are compared to available experimental data for code validation. The aim of the present
investigation is to perform a detailed numerical study of the heat transfer phenomena in separated
flows at flow conditions representative of LPT airfoils. A comparison with experimental data is
performed, hence allowing the validation of the code and the confirmation of the main flow features.
The relationship between the dynamic and thermal boundary layers and their importance of the
velocity component perpendicular to the wall in creating injection of flow towards the wall or
ejection of flow from the wall and their effect in the heat transfer is analyzed.
7.3.1.1 Literature Survey
Much attention has been paid to the investigation of large flow separation in simple cases, including
both velocity related measurements and heat transfer measurements. These include experimental
investigations of backward-facing steps as [Vogel and Eaton]206 or [Sparrow et, al.]207, where the
relationship between the separation region and the heat transfer features was studied.
Corresponding numerical investigations have been performed on similar configurations like the one
by [Kaminejad et al.]208 where only laminar conditions and very low Reynolds numbers are
considered. The effect of turbulence was taken into account for example by [Rhee and Sung]209, where
good agreement with experimental data was also found for very low Reynolds numbers. More

205 D. De Marinisa, M. D. de Tullioa, M. Napolitanoa, and G. Pascazio, “A conjugate-heat-transfer immersed-

boundary method for turbine cooling”, Energy Procedia 82 ( 2015 ) 215 – 221.
206J. C. Vogel and J. K. Eaton, “Combined Heat Transfer and Fluid Dynamic Measurements Downstream of a

Backward-Facing Step “, Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 107, pp. 922-929, 1985.
207 E. M. Sparrow, S. S. Kang, and W. Chuck, Relation Between the Points of Flow Reattachment and Maximum

Heat Transfer for Regions of Flow Separation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 1237-1246, 1987.
208 H. Kazeminejad, M. Ghamari, and M. A. Yaghoubi, “A Numerical Study of Convective Heat Transfer from a

Blunt Plate at Low Reynolds Number”, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 125-133, 1996.
209 G. H. Rhee, and H. J. Sung, “A Low-Reynolds Number, Four Equation, Heat Transfer Model for Turbulent

Separated and Reattaching Flows”, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow, vol. 18, pp. 38-44, 1997.
 193

recently, Rhee and Sung also investigated the effect of local forcing on the separation and reattaching
flow. However, very little attention has been paid to the heat transfer in large separated flow regions
in turbine representative conditions. [Bassi et al.]210 present CFD results on the separated flow region
of a HPT airfoil with cutter trailing edge with no cooling ejection, but only a short discussion about
the separated flow physics is included. Regarding experimental investigations, [Rivir et al.]211 have
measured the flat plate heat transfer in a region of turbulent separation, and [Bellows and Mayle]212
have measured the heat transfer on a blunt body leading edge separation bubble both for cases of
high Reynolds number213. More recently, [Calzada and Alonso]214 performed a numerical
investigation of large flow separation region at the pressure side of a turbine profile but not
comparison with experimental results was included. [Lutum and Cottier] presented a similar
investigation, but results indicated that simulations were not able to reproduce experimental heat
transfer results at the pressure side separation region especially for low turbulence levels. From
experimental investigations, it is known qualitatively that separated flow regions are characterized
by large and rapid variations of the heat transfer (e.g., Rhee and Sung). Furthermore, the heat transfer
presents a local minimum and a local maximum in the vicinity of separation and reattachment points
respectively, with regions where the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) is much larger than that of
attached flows215. Taking into account that separated flow regions are usually characterized by high
turbulence levels and large scale unsteadiness, there is a tendency in the heat transfer community to
explain the heat transfer phenomena in separated flows in terms of the generation of turbulence
rather than in terms of the dynamic and thermal boundary layers relationship216.
7.3.1.2 CFD Modeling
A CFD solver used based on [Jameson et al]217 been used. Convective terms are discretized using a
cell vertex scheme, and the viscous terms are computed by means of the Hessian matrix. Integration
in time is performed using an explicit five stage Runge-Kutta scheme where the viscous and artificial
dissipation terms are evaluated in the first, third, and fifth stages. The code runs on unstructured
meshes which are built by a quasi-structured layer all along the walls, where viscous effects are
expected to be dominant and by a fully triangular unstructured mesh in the rest of the flow domain
obtained by Steiner triangulation218. For turbulence simulation, the two equations κ-ω model from

210 F. Bassi, S. Rebay, M. Savini, S. Colantuoni, and G. Santoriello, “A Navier-Stokes Solver with Different
Turbulence Models Applied to Film-Cooled Turbine Cascades”, Paper No. 41, AGARD-CP-527, 1993.
211 R. B. Rivir, J. P. Johnston, and J. K. Eaton, “Heat Transfer on a Flat Surface under a Region of Turbulent

Separation”, Turbomachinery, vol. 116, pp 57-62, 1997.

212 R.J. Bellows and R. E. Mayle, “Heat Transfer Downstream of a Leading Edge Separation Bubble,”,

Turbomachinery, vol. 108, pp. 131-136, 1986.

213 W. Merzkirch R. H. Page, and L. S. Fletcher, “A Survey of Heat Transfer in Compressible Separated and

Reattached Flows”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 144-150, 1988.
214 P. De La Calzada and A. Alonso, “Numerical Investigation of Heat Transfer in Turbine Cascades with Separated

Flows”, Turbomachinery, vol. 125, no. 2, pp. 260-266, 2003.

215 R. B. Rivir, J. P. Johnston, and J. K. Eaton, “Heat Transfer on a Flat Surface under a Region of Turbulent

Separation”. Turbomachinery, vol. 116, pp 57-62, 1997.

216 P. De La Calzada, M. Valdes, and M. A. Burgos, “Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of

Turbine Blades”, Industria de Turbopropulsores S. A., Spain.2007.

217 A. Jameson, W. Schmidt, and E. Turkel, “Numerical Solution of the Euler Equations by Finite Volume Method

using Runge-Kutta Time Stepping Schemes”, AIAA, Paper 81-1259, 1981.

218 R. Corral and J. Fernandez-Castañeda, “Surface Mesh Generation by Means of Steiner Triangulation”, Proc.

29th AIAA Fluid Dynamics Conference, vol. 39, pp. 176-180, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1998.
 194

Wilcox219 is implemented. More details of the numerical code can be found in Corral and Contreras220.
Numerical results are post processed to obtain heat and mass transfer relevant parameters at the
walls. This is performed by computing velocity and temperature variation in the direction
perpendicular to the wall so that heat transfer and friction coefficient as well as Stanton number can
be computed, as defined below. The local Stanton number is the equivalent for the temperature to
the local skin-friction coefficient for the velocity. Although the local Stanton number variations do
not represent variations in heat flux alone but also take into account the local velocity value, it is the
most adequate parameter to describe the thermal boundary layer behavior and to develop special
correlations for heat transfer estimation (i.e., Reynolds-Colburn analogy).

 T 
− k 
HTCx  n  w τw
Ch x = = , Cf x = Eq. 7.8
ρ e C p u e (T0 − Tw )ρ e C p u e 1
ρ e u e2
2
Note, that the total temperature is used in the definitions instead of the adiabatic wall temperature,
even though compressible effects and therefore viscous dissipation may be important since the
representative cases for LPT usually imply an exit Mach number of around 0.5, as we have in our
study. However, the difference between the aforementioned coefficients and the corresponding
compressible definitions can be kept sufficiently low if the wall temperature for the computations is
properly chosen. In our particular cases, the total temperature is defined as in the experiments and
the wall temperature is taken around 25 K higher than the fluid temperature, which keeps the
difference between compressible and incompressible heat and mass transfer coefficient values lower
than 2% even at regions with Mach numbers around 0.5. This wall temperature value also develops
a thermal boundary layer whose magnitude is large enough to avoid high sensitivity to any random
numerical errors in the resolution of the temperature field around the wall.
7.3.1.3 Description of the Blade Computational Grids and Results for Attached Flow
The T106-300 blade section has been used as a generic geometry representative of a typical highly
loaded LPT airfoil221 (see Error! Reference source not found.). In this investigation, the blade profile i
s subject to extremely large negative incidences in order to have a large separation bubble on the

219 D. C. Wilcox, “Reassessment of the Scale Determining Equation for Advanced Turbulence Models”, AIAA J.,
vol. 26, pp. 1299-1310, 1988.
220 R. Corral and J. Contreras, “Quantitative Influence of the Steady Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions on Blade-

to-Blade Computations”, Proc. 45th ASME Gas Turbine and Aero engine Congress, Exposition and Users
Symposium, ASME Paper 2000-GT-515, Munich, 2000.
221 H. Hoheisel, “Test Case E/CA-6, Subsonic Turbine Cascade T106, Test Cases for Computation of Internal Flows

in Aero Engine Components”, AGARD-AR-275, 1990.

 195

pressure side. Mach and Reynolds numbers are

varied around typical LPT values. The generated
grid is hybrid in nature with higher definition in
regions adjacent to the wall, trailing edge and
leading edge, as shown in Figure 7.9. Due to the
expected flow separation at the pressure side
when the profile is subject to high negative
incidence, on this investigation the viscous mesh
is extended to a region larger than attached flows
would require for this Reynolds number. The
objective of this large region with high definition
is to capture the shear layers and flow features on
the pressure side large bubble. However, in order
to avoid any mesh sensitivity the same grid
consisting of 8,623 nodes was kept unchanged for
all cases, including the attached flow achieving a
range of y+ values at the pressure side in the Figure 7.9 2D Hybrid Mesh around the T106
order of y+< 3. Results at design conditions are Blade
shown pressure distribution is considered to
match well with the experiments, in particular on the major part of the suction side.
Since we are interested mainly in the flow along the pressure side, no attention will be paid to the
separation bubble at the back suction surface that the code does not predict probably due to a too
soon turbulence generation and boundary layer transition. Although the level of pressure achieved
by the numerical results at the pressure side of the profile is lower than the experimental data, the
heat transfer level matches well with the experiments. However, more HTC oscillations are found in
the experiments compared with the smoother results predicted by the numerical simulation. It is
interesting to note that the heat transfer measurements at the acceleration region of the leading edge
decrease to lower values than the CFD results. This might indicate that the profile is subject to a
slightly larger negative incidence in the experiments, hence creating an acceleration-deceleration
behavior achieving a higher final pressure as shown by the results. The final acceleration region
towards the trailing edge has a more pronounced effect on the numerical simulation, where the heat
transfer value shows higher increase due to the expected thinning of the boundary layer with the
increase in the external velocity.
7.3.1.4 Separated Flow with Large Separation Bubble
 196

Results at the extreme conditions of 37.7° negative incidence (i.e., inlet angle β1 = 90°) are shown
first. The comparison between numerical and experimental results in terms of pressure distribution
along the airfoil is presented in Figure 7.10. The separation region is characterized by low velocities
and a fairly constant pressure distribution. However, at the reattachment region the static pressure
increases reaching a local maximum (i.e., local minimum value of Cp in Figure 7.10), which indeed
indicates the reattachment point. The experimental results indicate, to some extent, a shorter
separation bubble which reattaches earlier, hence starting earlier also the acceleration towards the
trailing edge. This may be related to the already identified higher pressure at the pressure side
predicted by the CFD, which might indicate some slight difference in local incidence angle between
the experiments and the simulations 222.

Figure 7.10 Blade Profile vs. Pressure Coefficient (Courtesy of De La Calzada et al.)

Some more detail about the flow can be identified by comparing experimental and numerical heat
transfer results shown in Figure 7.10. Both experimental and numerical results show two local
minima and maxima between the extreme values achieved at leading and trailing edges (these
extreme values are not shown in the graph). The first minimum occurring at around 0.03 x/L
corresponds to the expected reduction in heat transfer rate. In Figure 7.11 (A-D) the Mach number,
total Pressure, Temperature, Velocity vectors fields are plotted where the large bubble at the
pressure side can be clearly identified. Helped by the streamlines traces, the multiple bubble
configuration can be also identified. In this particular case, two bubbles appear. As confirmed in
Figure 7.11(D) by the velocity vectors, one small bubble is stretched towards the pressure wall,
developing at the center of the full separation region whose vortex is rotating counterclockwise, and
one large bubble, rotating clockwise is extending up to the external shear layer along the major part
of the pressure side, having its vortex core at the rear part of the separation region while extending
its vortex influence also to the front part. Detail of the temperature field and flow velocities in the
regions of flow separation and reattachment are plotted in Figure 7.11 (C-D). At points 1 and 3, the

222P. De La Calzada, M. Valdes, and M. A. Burgos, “Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of
Turbine Blades”, Industria de Turbopropulsores S. A., Spain, 2007.
 197

flow is separating and a large component of the velocity perpendicular and directed away from the
wall exists. This flow configuration takes heat from the side walls and ejects it, creating an ejection
stagnation or fountain-like region where the wall thermal field is penetrating the main flow helped
by the perpendicular component of the velocity, hence increasing the effective thermal boundary
layer and decreasing the heat transfer rate.
This phenomena is particularly clear in front of point 3, where the increase in the thermal boundary
layer thickness can be easily identified by the extension of the high temperature region close to the
wall in Figure 7.11. Point 3 corresponds to the separation of an internal second bubble, which must
also exist in the experiment configuration since the local minimum can be also identified in
measurements in Figure 7.11. Points 2 and 4 correspond to reattachment points where there is an
important component of the velocity perpendicular and towards the wall, hence taking fresh fluid to
the wall and creating an injection stagnation region where the thermal boundary layer is reduced
and heat transfer is increased. To further investigate the thermal boundary layer developing through
the separation region the temperature profiles developing along straight lines perpendicular to the

(B) Pressure Contours

(A) Mach No.

(C) Temperature (D) Velocity vectors

Figure 7.11 Flow Field at the Front and Middle Parts of the Separation Bubble (Courtesy of De La
Calzada et al.)
 198

wall, marked a-d in Figure 7.11 (B). Note, that the y coordinate is non-dimensionalized with the
thermal boundary layer thickness, which is basically coincident with the thickness of the separated
region. Dotted lines represent the temperature distribution of the corresponding adiabatic wall case
where static temperature only varies as a result of the velocity profile (being the stagnation
temperature fundamentally constant), while solid lines show the temperature distribution within the
re-circulation region at different distances from the wall in the case with heat transfer and heated
wall223.
The lowest wall temperature gradient is obtained at the leading edge separation point 1 (line a),
where even with the thermal boundary layer being relatively thin the fluid temperature shows a low
gradient specially close to the wall driven by the ejection of heated flow from the wall through the
ejection stagnation region configuration. On the contrary, the highest heat flux is achieved at the main
bubble reattachment point 4 (line d) where, additionally to the thin thermal boundary layer
thickness, the fluid temperature variation is mainly concentrated at the wall in a region about 10%
of that thickness, hence increasing the temperature gradient at the wall. This reduction of the
effective boundary layer thickness is driven by the injection stagnation region configuration, where
the velocity component perpendicular to the wall is forcing the thermal boundary layer to be
squeezed towards the wall. As an additional proof showing that there is low coupling between the
dynamic and thermal boundary layers and their gradients in separated regions, the relationship
between the velocity parallel to the wall and temperature gradients at the wall is investigated. It is
widely accepted that the Reynolds-Colburn analogy is only reliable in attached flows only for modest,
near-zero, pressure gradients, and with a constant wall temperature. The computed local skin-
friction coefficient (absolute value), the Stanton number, and the Reynolds-Colburn analogy are
shown in Figure 7.12 to further demonstrate that the analogy between dynamic and thermal
boundary layer is not valid for separated flows even when no pressure gradient exists. Only at the
rear acceleration region where attached flow is ensured, the Reynolds analogy tends to follow the
correlation showing a conventional relationship between dynamic and thermal boundary layers and

Figure 7.12 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Different Negative Incidences (Courtesy of Calzada et al.)

223P. De La Calzada, M. Valdes, and M. A. Burgos, “Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of
Turbine Blades”, Industria de Turbopropulsores S. A.,.Spain, 2007.
 199

their gradients at the wall. Furthermore, unlike the Stanton number, the skin friction approaches
zero not only at the separation and reattachment regions but also along the major part of the
separated flow region, hence confirming that the Reynolds-Colburn analogy is not applicable. This is
clear proof that there is a very weak coupling between velocity parallel to the wall and thermal
boundary layers in separated flows. On the contrary, it is the convective transport of fluid in a
direction normal to the wall and the fluid conduction effects in low velocity regions what drive the
heat transfer phenomenon, hence supporting once again the prime role of the stagnation region
configurations on the heat transfer mechanism.
7.3.1.5 Inlet Flow Angle Effects
Inlet flow angles of 90°, 100°, 110° (i.e., -37.7, -27.7°, and -10.7° incidence angle, all with separated
flows at pressure side), and 127.7° (i.e., 0° incidence angle, with pressure side attached flow) have
been simulated for the nominal isentropic exit Re = 1.5 x 105 and an isentropic exit Mach number of
0.5. The results in terms of HTC and Stanton number are presented in Figure 7.12 and Figure
7.13224. As expected, the size of the bubble is decreasing with the reduction of the negative incidence
angle as can be concluded from the location of the maximum values of Stanton numbers in Figure
7.13. All the I separated flow cases show relatively large bubbles varying the reattachment points
from 0.5 x/L for -17.7° incidence up to 0.6 x/L for -37.7° incidence. Unlike the HTC whose local
maximum value at reattachment point is maintained almost constant along the attached acceleration
region up to the trailing edge region, the Stanton number clearly generates a more pronounced local
maximum value at the reattachment point driven by the combination of maximum heat flux and static
pressure (i.e., minimum external velocity).
It is noticeable that in all separated flow cases the same multiple bubble configuration is obtained as
indicated by the presence, within the separated region, of one additional local minimum and one
additional local maximum in heat transfer parameters although it is less evident in the slight negative
incidence case (i.e., -17.7° incidence). Generally, it can be concluded that the separated region always
generates a redistribution in the heat flux by decreasing the value at the front separation region and

Figure 7.13 Stanton Number for Different Negative Incidences (Courtesy of De La Calzada et al.)

P. De La Calzada, M. Valdes, and M. A. Burgos, “Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of
224 224

Turbine Blades”, Industria de Turbopropulsores S. A., Spain, 2007.

 200

by increasing it at the rear reattachment region. The higher or lower surface averaged effective value
will depend on the particular geometry and conditions.

7.3.1.5.1 Reynolds Number Effect

Reynolds number effect is investigated by simulating different cases with the same incidence and exit
Mach numbers but different fluid conditions so that the Reynolds number is changed. In order to
achieve the required effect in the simulations, only the pressure level is modified. Figure 7.15 and
Figure 7.14 present the results when the Reynolds number is varied between 150,000 and 400,000.
The dependence of heat flux on Reynolds number at separating and impingement regions can be
obtained analytically on simple cases. At impingement points the case of plane and axisymmetric
laminar flows can be integrated to obtain the known dependence of the heat flux on the Reynolds
number to the power of 0.5225. Similarly, at separating points expansion equations can be obtained
which also show a dependence on Reynolds number to the power of 0.5 in simple cases as wedge and
Howarth's decelerating flow 226. However, these methods are of difficult application to complex cases
as presented here where a shear flow impinges on the wall with an inclination angle (i.e., the bubble
reattachment occurring in our case), or where the separation occurs within a region of already
separation bubble (i.e., the secondary bubble appearing in our case).
In our simulation cases, the HTC (i.e., heat flux) also increases with Reynolds number as expected.
However, the maximum values at the reattachment point in these cases increases with an exponent
approximately equal to 0.3. It is interesting to note that the Stanton number varies inversely with the
Reynolds number, as shown in Figure 7.14. By applying the definition relationship between HTC
and Stanton number Ch, it can be seen that the ratio HTC/Ch must retain a dependence on Reynolds
to the power of 1. Therefore, the Stanton number dependence on the Reynolds number should vary
with and exponent of -0.7 in these cases according to the exponent 0.3 found for the HTC, which is
indeed confirmed by the maximum values at the reattachment point shown in Figure 7.14.

Figure 7.14 Stanton Number vs. Reynolds Numbers (Courtesy of De La Calzada et al.)

F. M. White, “Viscous Fluid Flow”, McGraw-Hill, pp. 162 and 248, 1991.
225

H. W. Kim and D. R. Jeng, “Convective Heat Transfer in Laminar Boundary Layer Near the Separation Point”,
226

ASME Proc. of the 1988 National Heat Transfer Conference, vol. 3, pp. 471-476, 1988.
 201

One interesting feature is that, for all Reynolds numbers investigated, the size of the bubble and the
internal structure (i.e., multiple bubble configuration) is the same, as can be concluded from the
location of local maxima and minima in the figures. Although it could be expected that increasing the
Reynolds number would reduce the size of the separation bubble, in this particular case the
reattachment is driven by the acceleration of the flow and the role played by the Reynolds and the
corresponding boundary layer instability and potential transition is expected to be very minor. This
is a completely different behavior compared to cases in which there is no flow acceleration, and the
reattachment is driven by boundary layer transition.
In these latter cases, the increase of turbulence produces an early transition and reattachment and
an increase in heat flux due to the stronger reattachment vortex on a blunt flat plate subject to
pulsating conditions. Although the implemented numerical turbulence model was able to produce
high turbulence and the corresponding boundary layer transition on the suction surface to avoid the
back surface separation, at the pressure side the turbulence generation is concentrated on the
external shear layer and from there it is convected downstream to the trailing edge and the
downstream wake. Therefore, it is thought that in cases like this the turbulence is not a strong enough
mechanism to force sufficient flow entrainment and perturbation to the shear layer to produce an
early reattachment of the boundary layer, and it is then expected that the size of the separation
bubble will depend weakly on the Reynolds number and turbulence. See Figure 7.15.

Figure 7.15 Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number (Courtesy of Calzada et al.)

7.3.1.6 Concluding Remarks

A better understanding of the flow physics and the heat transfer mechanisms in large separated flow
regions have been achieved by means of a numerical investigation on the T106-300 typical LPT airfoil
subject to large negative incidence. Flow separation is characterized by a pronounced reduction in
HTC at the separation region, close to the leading edge where the minimum value is achieved, and by
an increase at the reattachment region where the maximum value is achieved. Those are extreme
values, much lower and higher than the ones obtained for attached flows. It is concluded that the
velocity component perpendicular to the wall is the main contributor to the generation of ejection
 202

and impingement stagnation configurations, where the flow is taken from or towards the wall, hence
affecting the thermal field in those regions and contributing to create a lower or higher temperature
gradient at the wall and the corresponding HTC values.
By analyzing the Reynolds-Colburn analogy all along the pressure side of the profile, the low coupling
between the velocity component parallel to the wall and the thermal field and their gradients within
the separation region is confirmed. Additionally, it is also shown that an important variation in HTC
values can occur within the separation region due to the presence of secondary separation bubbles
which can create additional separation and reattachment points. This is confirmed by both numerical
and experimental results for the high negative incidence (i.e.,-37.7° incidence), which show the
presence of one additional local maximum and one local minimum in HTC values that must indicate
the presence of additional corresponding reattachment and separation points, hence indicating the
presence of and the additional secondary separation bubble. Moreover, it is also shown by the
numerical results that the multiple bubble configuration is found for all separated cases investigated
here (i.e., negative incidence varying from -17.7° to -37.7°). Finally, the variation of the heat transfer
with the Reynolds number is investigated. The numerical results show no variation of the separation
bubble size with Reynolds number varying from 150,000 to 400,000. A dependence of the HTC on
the Reynolds number to the power of 0.3 is obtained in the separation region, in particular at the
maximum value occurring at the main bubble reattachment point on the rear part of the separation
bubble227.

227P. De La Calzada, M. Valdes, and M. A. Burgos, “Heat Transfer in Separated Flows on the Pressure Side of
Turbine Blades”, Industria de Turbopropulsores S. A., Madrid, Spain.
 203

8 General Perspectives on Turbulence Consideration

Recent advancements in turbulence modeling have brought CFD improvements in turbulence
improvements to the forefront of turbo-machinery design and analysis. Today, 3D Euler, Quasi-3D
viscous, and 3D full Navier-Stokes analyses are integral parts of turbo-machinery design. Fan rotors
are designed using viscous 3D CFD models using these models the blade geometry is tailored to
control shock location, boundary layer growth, and end-wall blockage. The complexity of the turbo-
machinery flow field, so far, limits CFD simulations to Reynolds averaged (RANS) approximations.
The flow field of a transonic fan over its entire operating range is particularly troublesome; it contains
all the flow aspects most difficult to represent; boundary layer transition, separation, shock-
boundary layer interactions, and large flow unsteadiness. Multistage configurations extends the
complexity as “neither in the stator nor rotor frame of reference are steady in time”. Direct Numerical
Simulations (DNS) and Large-Eddy Simulations (LES) are not currently practical for the
fan/compressor flow field. The DNS explicitly solves for the instantaneous flow field and requires
extremely fine gridding to resolve the smallest length scales; on the order of Re9/4. Thus, state-of-the-
art turbo-machinery CFD involves solution of the RANS equations and hence, some modeling of the
physics. The Reynolds-averaging process-the decomposition of the instantaneous flow field into
mean and fluctuating components and subsequent temporal averaging introduces more unknowns
than available equations for solution. Key modeling aspects are associated with this so-called
“turbulent closure problem.” To obtain mathematical closure, the Reynolds stress terms must be
related to mean flow properties either empirically or through a flow model which allows calculation
of this relationship (eddy “viscosity,” mixing length, transport equations). The large majority of
computational schemes for turbomachinery currently involve the use of the linear (Boussinesq)
relationships between stresses and strains,

∂ui ∂uj 2
−ρu′i u′j = μT ( + ) − ρκδij
∂xj ∂xi 3
Eq. 8.1
coupled with algebraic expressions or, at most, differential equations for the turbulent velocity and
length scales to which the turbulent viscosity is related. This framework is accepted as being
adequate for thin shear flows and is able to reproduce transition in simple boundary layers, if
combined with appropriately constructed and calibrated transport equations for the variation of the
scales in low-Reynolds-number conditions. However, it fails to resolve turbulence anisotropy and to
represent correctly the effects of normal straining and curvature on the turbulent stresses.
As an example of 1st order turbulence models, [Simões, et. al.]228 compare different turbulence
models available in commercial codes such as κ-ε, κ-ω and Mentors SST. It was concluded that the
SST model was the most accurate results among the three models evaluated, when comparing them
to the experimental data of the compressor performance as depicted in Figure 8.1. The principal
aerodynamic characteristics of most turbomachine flows are governed mainly by a balance between
pressure gradient and convection, while turbulence here tends to affect mainly secondary flow
features and the losses229. This is at least so in low-load conditions in which the boundary layers are
relatively thin and attached. In high-load and off design conditions, however, turbulence can
contribute substantially to the aerodynamic balance and is thus a process of major practical interest.
In such circumstances, the boundary layers grow rapidly, separation can ensue on both suction and

228 Marcelo R. Simões, Bruno G. Montojos, Newton R. Moura, and Jian Su,” Validation of Turbulence Models For
Simulation of Axial Flow Compressor”, Proceedings of COBEM 2009.
229 W.L. Chen, F.S. Lien, M.A. Leschziner, “Computational prediction of flow around highly loaded compressor

cascade blades with non-linear eddy-viscosity models”, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 19, 1998.
 204

pressure sides (depending on the blade geometry and the incidence angle) and stream wise vorticity
is intense. The sensitivity of major mean flow features to turbulence is especially high when the flow
enters the blade passage at an angle which departs materially from the design value, thus causing
leading-edge separation and high flow displacement, followed by transition in the separated shear
layer. More generally, transition tends to be a highly influential process in the majority of off-design
flows in that details of the location and evolution of transition can dictate the sensitive response of
the boundary layers to pressure gradients.

Figure 8.1 Pressure Ratio by Normalized Mass Flow (Courtesy of Simoes)

This framework is accepted as being adequate for thin shear flows and is able to reproduce transition
in simple boundary layers, if combined with appropriately constructed and calibrated transport
equations for the variation of the scales in low-Reynolds-number conditions. However, it fails to
resolve turbulence anisotropy and to represent correctly the effects of normal straining and
curvature on the turbulent stresses. The last two deficiencies are especially important in blade flows;
first, because the state of turbulence at the leading-edge impingement region is crucially important
to the transitional behavior further downstream, and second, because the blade curvature causes
significant damping or augmentation of turbulence transport in the boundary layers on the suction
and pressure sides, respectively. It is now generally accepted that the substantial variability in the
strength of the interaction between different strain types and the turbulent stresses can only be
resolved, in a fundamentally rigorous sense, through the use of second-moment closure, in which
separate transport equations are solved for all Reynolds-stress components. In particular, the very
different stress-generation terms contained in these equations give rise to that closure's ability to
resolve anisotropy and hence the influence of curvature, rotation and normal straining on the
stresses. However, this type of closure is complex, poses particular challenges in respect of its stable
integration into general computational schemes and is costly to apply in practice [Lien and
Leschziner]230. A simpler and more economical alternative, though one which rests on a weaker
fundamental foundation, is to use nonlinear stress/strain relations which can be made to return,
upon the introduction of physical constraints and careful calibration, some of the predictive
capabilities of 2nd moment closure.

230Lien, F.S., Leschziner, M.A. “Second-moment closure for three dimensional turbulent flow around and within
complex geometries”. Computers and Fluids 25, 237, 1996.
 205

8.1.1 Case Study - Turbulence Comparisons for a Low Pressure 1.5 Stage Test Turbine
In a gas turbine engine, secondary flows have a unfavorable effect on efficiency. This phenomena was
investigated by [Dunn et al.]231. The current numerical study is aimed at determining which
turbulence model in a commercially available CFD code is best suited to predicting the secondary
flows. Experimental validation is used to determine the appropriateness of the model. It was found
that the Baldwin-Lomax, Spalart - Allmaras and κ-ε predicted the magnitude of the velocity well, but
did not capture the velocity magnitude profile well. The κ-ω and the SST κ-ω captured the profile
better, but did not predict the average value as well as the other models tested. As evident with
reference to the data, Baldwin-Lomax is still one of the best all-purpose models for turbomachinery.
The SST k-ω shows some promise as it predicted the velocity magnitude reasonably well, but the
Baldwin-Lomax predicted the radial and tangential velocities better. Due to the complex nature of
secondary flow it may still be sometime before computational hardware and the numerical models
are such that the complexities can be appropriately modelled. Until such time it is important that new
models be investigated and validated against experimental data. It is also recommended that the
computational expense be carefully weighed against the required accuracy.

231Dwain Dunn, Glen Snedden, and T.W. von Backström, “Turbulence Model Comparisons for a Low Pressure 1.5
Stage Test Turbine”, ISABE-2009-1258.
 206

9 Rotor-Stator Interaction Treatment (RST)

9.1 Physical Perspectives
Turbomachinery flows are naturally unsteady mainly due to the relative motion of rotors and stators
and the natural flow instabilities present in tip gaps and secondary flows232. Full scale, time
dependent calculations for unsteady turbomachinery flows are still too expensive to be suitable for
daily design purposes. One of the reasons for this large cost is the fact that in practical
turbomachinery of these reduced order models requires that the engineer/designer be aware of a
method's capabilities as well as its limitations. The key trade off in the computation of unsteady
turbomachinery flows is between the accuracy of the method and the cost or computational
efficiency with which a solution can be obtained. Highly accurate and well resolved models tend to
be limited by the available computing power, while most reduced-order models usually neglect a
significant amount of the physics and are therefore not credible for the evaluation of the performance
and heat transfer characteristics of a turbomachine. A balance between these extremes is clearly
desirable. In order to include the unsteady effects while keeping the computational requirements
reasonable, two types of approximations can be distinguished. The first approach involves rescaling
the geometry (typically by altering the blade counts and their chords to maintain solidity) such that
periodicity assumptions hold in an azimuthal portion of the domain that is much smaller than the full
annulus. A second alternative involves the use of the original geometry but compromises the fidelity
of the time integration method233. Figure 9.1 shows a schematics of 3D point of view in either case.

Figure 9.1 Schematics of 3D Concept at IGV/Rotor/Stator Interface

232 Xiaodong Wang, “CFD Simulation of Complex Flows in Turbomachinery and Robust Optimization of Blade
Design”, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering Doctor of Philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit
Brussel July 2010.
233 Arathi K. Gopinath, Edwin van der Weidey, Juan J. Alonsoz, Antony Jamesonx, Stanford University, Stanford,

CA 94305-4035, Kivanc Ekici {and Kenneth C. Hallk, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0300, “Three-
Dimensional Unsteady Multi-stage Turbomachinery Simulations using the Harmonic Balance Technique”
 207

All of these approximations can be considered to be

different variations of reduced-order models. In Steady Un-Steady
order to use the same solver, the flows in stator and Mixing Plane Sliding Mesh
rotor should be calculated in the stationary frame of Frozen Rotor Harmonic Balance
reference and the rotating frame of reference, Time Transformation
respectively. However, a critical problem is how to
transfer the information downstream and upstream Table 9.1 Rotor/Stator Interaction
at the interface of stator and rotor. The quality of the Schemes
flow predictions for multistage turbomachinery
strongly depends on the treatment of rotor/stator interaction. Figure 9.2 illustrates the interface
between them. Two general approaches as steady and unsteady interactions are available as detailed
in Table 9.1.

Figure 9.2 Interface Between Rotor/Stator

9.2 Multi-Passage vs. Multi-Stages

Before going any further, it is worth mentioning two terminology which is been used often in
literature. They are Multi-
Stage and Multi-Passage. The
difference been best explain
through the Figure
9.3. It could thought of a matrix
notation. While passages are
the column of matrix and
usually treated the same in
terms of gridding and analysis,
the rows are stages and treated
another way as they have
usually different geometry and
conditions.
Adjacent blade rows contain
unequal numbers of blades and Figure 9.3 Difference between Passage and Stages
shape, therefore, in principle, a
 208

proper simulation requires solution of all blades in each row. However, some vendors such as
ANSYS© has developed a suite of tools that enables more efficient solution for a number of analysis
types. The key attribute of these tools is that the full wheel solution can be obtained by solving only
one or at most a few blades per row234.

9.3 Case for Mixing Plane Model

The quasi-steady methods based on mixing models which have been widely applied to flow
computations of multi-stages turbomachinery, such as the work done by [YaLu et al.]235 , [Pengcheng
& Fangfei]236 , and [Wang]237. In the interim, the unsteady numerical simulation has also been used
due to its ability in obtaining time-dependent flow solutions. Through-flow method, mixing model,
passage-averaging and unsteady computation are the typical approaches for numerical simulation of
multi-stage turbomachinery flow. The through-flow method, proposed by [Wu]238 , decomposes the
three-dimensional turbomachinery flow into a pair of two-dimensional flows, by which the flow
solutions can be iteratively obtained. The mixing model method, first proposed by [Denton]239,
employs an interface, called mixing plane, between adjacent blade rows, where the circumferentially
averaged flow solutions on each side are exchanged. This method transfers the inherent unsteady
flow of multi-stages into a quasi-steady one, resulting in a balance between the significantly reduced
computational cost and the fidelity of flow solutions. However, in the situations with plenty of blade
rows or small axial gap between adjacent blade rows, the flow solutions by mixing models deviate
from the experiments, or even no converged results can be obtained.
The passage-averaging method, developed by [Adamczyk]240 , transfers the unsteady flow into the
time-averaged one in a single blade passage by introducing three averaging operators in the Navier-
Stokes equations. However, it is rarely applied due to the complexity and difficulty to close the
correlated terms. By solving the unsteady Euler, unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
(URANS) equations, more flow details can be obtained. Furthermore, the turbulence flow in
turbomachinery is rather complex and demonstrates a strong non-equilibrium turbulent transport
nature, it is still a challenge for predicting the flow correctly. Hybrid LES/RANS could give more
reasonable results and can be used to investigate the flow mechanism, but with enormous
computational cost. At present, the mixing model method is the most popular one in the flow
computations of multi-stages. The crucial issue of mixing model method is the appropriate model
used to simulate the flow mixing process on the interface between adjacent blade rows. In order to
match the flow mixing process as far as possible, a practical mixing model should be able to :

234 Turbomachinery Simulation, ANSYS blog.

235 ZHU YaLu, LUO JiaQi & LIU Feng, “Flow computations of multi-stages by URANS and flux balanced mixing
models”, Science China, Technological Sciences, July 2018 Vol.61 No.7: 1081–1091.
236 Du Pengcheng and Ning Fangfei, “Validation of a novel mixing-plane method for multistage turbomachinery

steady flow analysis”, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2016), 29(6): 1563–1574.

Ding Xi Wang, “An Improved Mixing-Plane Method for Analyzing Steady Flow Through Multiple-Blade-Row
Turbomachines”, Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Ltd., Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7FD, UK.
236 Wu C H. “A general theory of three-dimensional flow in subsonic and supersonic turbomachines of axial, radial,

and mixed-flow types”, NASA TN 2604, 1952.

236 Denton J. D. “The calculation of three dimensional viscous flow through multistage turbomachines”, 1990.
236 See 148.
237 Ding Xi Wang, “An Improved Mixing-Plane Method for Analyzing Steady Flow Through Multiple-Blade-Row

Turbomachines”, Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Ltd., Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7FD, UK.
238 Ding Xi Wang, “An Improved Mixing-Plane Method for Analyzing Steady Flow Through Multiple-Blade-Row

Turbomachines”, Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Ltd., Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7FD, UK.
239 Denton J. D. “The calculation of three dimensional viscous flow through multistage turbomachines”,1990.
240 Adamczyk J J, Mulac R A, Celestina M L. “A model for closing the inviscid form of the average-passage

equation system”. ASME, 1986. 86-GT-227.

 209

➢ Keep strong conservation of flow solutions across the interface, such as mass flow rate,
momentum, total enthalpy, etc.;
➢ Obtain the aerodynamic parameters with little deviation from the experiment;
➢ Be robust by employing non-reflective boundary conditions on the interface and special
interface treatments for reversed flow.

A popular class of simple mixing models simulate the flow mixing process by simply circumferentially
averaging the flow variables on the interface. Since there are only five independent flow variables in
three-dimensional compressible flow, different selections of the independent flow variables result in
different simple mixing models. In the past decade, some novel mixing models have also been
proposed. All the results demonstrate that different mixing models have various effects on the
computation robustness, flow solution conservation and thus the flow details. However, no
comparative investigation of the aforementioned novel mixing models has been carried out in the
open literatures. With the development of computer capacity, more emphases are put on URANS. The
unsteady computation methods for multi-stages include the phase-lagged method, blade scaling
technique, time-inclined method and frequency domain methods, such as nonlinear harmonic
method and harmonic balance method. Due to the eases of implementation and extension to multi-
stages, the blade scaling technique has been widely applied in the unsteady turbomachinery flow
computations. The exchange of two-dimensional flow fields on the interface between adjacent blade
rows is the most crucial issue for unsteady flow computation of multi-stages because of the non-
matched grid points between the two sides of the interface and the relative motion between rotor
and stator. In such cases, it is necessary to develop an interpolation method strongly maintaining the
conservation and continuity of flow variables across the interface.

9.4 Steady Treatment of Interface (Mixing Plane)

The simplest treatment of R/S interface is the stage or Mixing Plane method proposed by [Denton]241.
This method assumes the exiting flows of stator become uniform flows before entering the inlet of
domain of rotor. A block computational domain of Rotor, Guided Vanes, Mixing Planes and applied
boundary is shown in Figure 9.4. A pitch wise averaging of the flow solution is needed at R/S
interface before transferring the information of
both sides. The essential idea behind the
mixing plane concept is that each fluid zone is
solved as a steady-state problem242. At some
prescribed iteration interval, the flow data at the
mixing plane interface are averaged in the
circumferential direction on both the stator
outlet and the rotor inlet boundaries. The
averaging process could be choice of three types
of averaging methods: Area-weighted averaging,
Mass averaging, and Mixed-out averaging. By
performing circumferential averages at
specified radial or axial stations, "profiles'' of
boundary condition flow variables can be
defined. These profiles, which will be functions Figure 9.4 Block Computational Domain for a
of either the axial or the radial coordinate, Rotor with guiding Vanes

241 J. D. Denton, “The calculation of three-dimensional viscous flow through multistage Turbomachinery”,
Journal of Turbomachinery, 114(1):18–26, 1992.
242 Release 12.0 © ANSYS, Inc. 2009-01-22.
 210

depending on the orientation of the

mixing plane, are then used to update
boundary conditions along the two
zones of the mixing plane interface. In
the examples shown in Figure 9.5
profiles of averaged total pressure (P0),
direction cosines of the local flow
angles in the radial, tangential, and axial
directions (αr, αt, αz), total temperature
(T0), turbulence kinetic energy (k), and
turbulence dissipation rate (ε) are
computed at the rotor exit and used to
update boundary conditions at the
stator inlet. Likewise, a profile of static
pressure (Ps), direction cosines of the
local flow angles in the radial, Figure 9.5 Axial Rotor/Stator Interaction (Schematics
tangential, and axial directions (αr, αt, Illustrating the Mixing Plane concepts)
αz), are computed at the stator inlet and
used as a boundary condition on the rotor
exit. Note that the meshes on both sides of
the interface should cover the same range
in span wise, the averaging is performed
along the same azimuthal mesh lines.
However, a full non-matching mixing
plane243 can be used to overcome this
limitation. Better, the isolated simulation
on single stator or rotor, the interaction of
potential flows in considered in this
method. However, the impact of secondary
flows and separation flow are erased. This
physical approximation tends to become
more acceptable as rotational speed is
increased. The mixing plane method is by
far the most often used R/S modeling in
industry design and optimization.
Figure 9.6 A Compressor Pressure Distribution on a
Unfortunately it doesn’t capture the whole
Surface using a Mixing Plane
physics. This is usually evident by visual
inspection of in interface (mixing) plane as
an imaginary line between the cascades. Figure 9.6 displays a compressor Pressure Distribution on
a surface at constant radius half way between the hub and the casing using a Mixing Plane
computation.

9.4.1 Losses Across the Interface of Mixing Plane

In a CFD-based steady flow field analysis for a multiple-blade-row turbomachine, one blade passage
is usually used for one blade row, and there is an artificial interface, also called mixing plane,
between adjacent blade rows244. The one-to-one correspondence of corresponding points on such an

NUMECA International, Brussels, “Fine/Turbo User Manual V8”, October 2007.

243
244Ding Xi Wang, “An Improved Mixing-Plane Method for Analyzing Steady Flow Through Multiple-Blade-Row
Turbomachines”, Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Ltd., Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7FD, UK.
 211

interface and in two adjacent blade-row domains is lost completely in such an analysis. This raises
the issue of how to transfer solution information across such an artificial interface in a steady flow
field analysis.
In reality, upstream wake mixes out gradually when it is transported downstream. The mixing loss is
also expected to rise gradually. With a mixing-plane treatment, the strong circumferential non-
uniformity of an upstream wake mixes out significantly across an interface, leading to a nearly
circumferential uniform flow field on the downstream side. Consequently, across an interface from
its upstream side to its downstream side there is an abrupt rise of loss. Independent research shows
that the artificial mixing loss across the interface of a turbine stage by a steady mixing-plane analysis
is significant, thus leading to higher overall loss for the turbine stage in comparison with the loss
from an unsteady sliding-plane analysis. However, some research demonstrates that the artificial
mixing loss can be trivial, leading to lower overall loss than that by an unsteady sliding-plane analysis.
Nevertheless, investigations by both [Fritsch and Giles]245 and [Pullan]246 indicate that the loss by a
steady mixing-plane analysis grows at a slower rate through the downstream blade row in
comparison with that by an unsteady sliding-plane analysis. Modern multiple-blade-row
turbomachines usually have a small inter row gap. This situation makes it not only desirable but also
necessary for a mixing-plane method to be non-reflective. Otherwise artificial reflections from a
mixing plane very close to a blade leading edge or a blade trailing edge can deter convergence and
spoil solution. Apart from conservation and non-reflectiveness, as pointed out in247, an ideal mixing-
plane method should also be robust so that it can handle reverse flow, which can exist either in a
solution process or in a converged flow field.

9.4.2 Principles of Flux Conservation

An artificial interface between two adjacent blade rows is normally a revolution surface, which is a
single curve connecting the hub contour and the casing contour in the meridional plane as shown in
Figure 9.7248. The conservation law states that the fluxes of mass, momentum, energy, and other

Figure 9.7 Schematic of an Artificial Interface Between a Rotor and a Stator (left) and the Virtual
Control Volume Formed by Displacing Two Adjacent Domains (right)

245 Fritsch, G., and Giles, M. B., “An Asymptotic Analysis of Mixing Loss,” ASME J. Turbomachines, 1995.
246 Pullan, G., 2006, “Secondary Flows and Loss Caused by Blade Row Interaction in a Turbine Stage,” ASME J.
Turbomachine., 128, pp. 484–491, July 2006.
247 Holmes, D. G., “Mixing Planes Revisited: A Steady Mixing Plane Approach Designed to Combine High Levels of

Conservation and Robustness,” ASME Paper No. GT2008-51296, 2008.

248 Ding Xi Wang, “An Improved Mixing-Plane Method for Analyzing Steady Flow Through Multiple-Blade-Row

Turbomachines”, Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Ltd.,

Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7FD, UK.
 212

scalar quantities through an arbitrary segment of the interface from the domain on one side of the
segment should be equal to those into the domain on the other side of the segment. This can be easily
understood through forming a virtual control volume, the hatched part as shown in Figure 9.7, by
displacing the two adjacent domains in the stream wise direction. There is no flux through the upper
and lower sides of the control volume; therefore, the flux entering the control volume from one
domain must equal the corresponding flux exiting the control volume into the other domain in a
steady flow analysis. For an arbitrary segment with the length of ds as shown in Figure 9.7, the
fluxes of mass, momentum, energy, and scalar quantities through the segmental revolution surface
are defined as follows:
2π

Mass Flux: F1 = ∫ ρvn dsrdθ

0
2π

Axial Momentum Flux: F2 = ∫ (ρvn vx + p. nx )dsrdθ

0
2π

Tangential Momentum Flux: F3 = ∫ (ρvn vx + p. nx )dsrdθ

0
2π

Radial Momentum Flux: F4 = ∫ (ρvn vr + p. nr )dsrdθ

0
2π

Total Energy Flux: F5 = ∫ ρvn H dsrdθ

0
2π

Arbitary Scalar Quatitity F6 = ∫ ρvn ∅ dsrdθ

0
Eq. 9.1
The area of the segmental surface is given by

2π

S = ∫ dsrdθ
0
Eq. 9.2
Dividing Eq. 9.1 by this area gives the circumferential area averaged fluxes. It is obvious that, for a
fully converged steady solution of a multiple-blade-row turbomachine, circumferential area
averaged fluxes of mass, momentum, energy, and other scalar quantities across an arbitrary segment
of an interface, as defined in Eq. 9.1/Eq. 9.2, should be conserved. It should be noted the
circumferential area averaged fluxes as defined in Eq. 9.1/Eq. 9.2 can be calculated over a pitch
angle that is less than 2π. Before a solution converges, the fluxes calculated using flow variables from
domains on its two sides of an interface are usually not conserved or equal. The task of a mixing-
plane method is to make use of the fluxes to drive the differences to zero. Two existing methods will
be explained with the proposition of a new method later. To get the flow primitive variable
 213

differences, 3 methods is been proposed by [Wang]249. The differences of the three methods lie in
how to calculate the incoming flow disturbances according to circumferential area-averaged flux
terms on two sides of an interface. For further information, please consult 250.

9.4.3 Case Study 1 - Comparison of Flux

Balanced Mixing Models on Q-1.5 Steady Mixing Model Nomenclature
Stage Rotor 67 Momentum-Averaged MA
To study the performance of flux balanced Entropy-Averaged EA
mixing models on simulating the complex Flux Balanced MA
flow, such as shock wave and reversed (FBMA)
Flux Balanced
flow on the interface, the quasi-1.5-stage Flux
Rotor 67 with small geometric Balanced EA (FBEA)
modification is then investigated . An Experiment:
TA
artificial step of about 6% span is imposed Time-Averaged
on the casing contour ahead of the second Experiment:
MP
interface to produce reversed flow on the Total Pressure Ratio
interface. The designed and modified
casing contours are shown in Figure 9.8. Table 9.2 Nomenclature for different Mixing Models
The grid with the same topology and cell Used in Study
number used for flow solver validation is
generated. Table 9.2 lists the nomenclature for Mixing models for steady computation. For a listing
of relative deviations of flow variables across the 1st and 2nd interfaces of the modified quasi-1.5
stage Rotor 67 vs. the circumferential velocity, see [YaLu et al.]251. On both interfaces, the unsteady
computation has an absolute
advantage on the flow
conservation over all the
mixing models. Compared
with the simple mixing models,
the relative deviations of most
of flow variables are decreased
by the flux balanced models.
By the flux balanced models,
the total temperature ratio
across all the interfaces is
almost strictly maintained,
demonstrating the superior
performance of flux balanced
mixing models on flow
conservation.
Compared with other flow
variables, the relative Figure 9.8 Sketch of Casing Treatment of Rotor 67 (Courtesy of 157)
deviation of tangential velocity
across the first interface is extremely large, especially for MA and EA models. This is because the
tangential velocity on the interface is quite small. The entropy by MA and EA models decreases across

249 Ding Xi Wang, “An Improved Mixing-Plane Method for Analyzing Steady Flow Through Multiple-Blade-Row
Turbomachines”, Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Ltd., Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7FD, UK.
250 See Previous.
251 ZHU YaLu, LUO JiaQi & LIU Feng, “Flow computations of multi-stages by URANS and flux balanced mixing

models”, Science China, Technological Sciences, July 2018 Vol.61 No.7: 1081–1091.
 214

the first interface,

violating the physical rule of
entropy production. It is
supposed to be induced by the
large deviation of tangential
velocity. The total pressure ratio
by FBEA model slightly increases
across the first interface, also
violating the physical rule. It is
supposed to be induced by the
slightly increased entropy
production across the interface.
Figure 9.9 shows the span-wise
distributions of total pressure
ratio and total temperature ratio
on the first interface. The span-
wise distributions of total
pressure ratio by the mixing
models perform rule-less Figure 9.9 Span-Wise Distributions of Aerodynamic Parameters
variations, whereas the on the 1st Interface of Modified Rotor 67- (a) Total Pressure Ratio;
deviations from time-averaged (b) Total Temperature Ratio (YaLu et al.)
ones are slight. The span-wise
distributions of total temperature ratio by the simple mixing models are far away from the time-
averaged distribution, whereas the ones obtained from flux balanced mixing models are almost the
duplicates of time-averaged distribution. The discrepancies of flow variables among the present
methods on the middle and upper spans are associated with the shock wave. The shock wave
originated from the leading edge of rotor blade injects onto the first interface, which can be
illustrated by the contour of relative Mach number at 50% span in Figure 9.10. The position of
shock wave on the interface can also be clearly displayed by the contour of static temperature in
Figure 9.11. The shock wave injects onto the interface from 20% to 75% spans, where the span-

Figure 9.10 Contour of Relative Mach Number and Iso-Surface of Axial Velocity of Modified Rotor 67
 215

wise distributions of flow variables by different computation methods are not consistent with each
other as shown in Figure 9.9. Although the positions of shock wave on the interface are almost the
same for all the methods, the detailed shock wave patterns are slightly different as indicated by the
zones with low static temperature in Figure 9.11. The shock wave patterns by MA and EA models
are similar, and those by FBMA and FBEA models are also close, which are consistent with the span-
wise distributions of total pressure ratio and total temperature ratio. However, none of shock wave
patterns by the mixing models matches well with that of unsteady computation. The patterns of
rarefaction waves after the shock waves perform the similar variations.

Figure 9.11 Temperature Contours on the 1st Interface of Modified Rotor 67 - (a) FBEA ; (b) FBMA ; (c)
EA ; (d) MA ; (e) TA (Courtesy of YaLu et al.)

9.4.4 Case Study 2 - Modeling of Secondary Flows in Single Blade Rows using Mixing Plane
Approach
A computational modeling of secondary flows in single blade rows and a performance assessment in
3D turbine stages computations using wall functions were made by [Xisto et al.] 252 . The analysis of
the flow in turbine blades has been extended from 2D to 3D, and from pure Euler equations to Navier-
Stokes modeling, including turbulent flow. This later has only been possible due to fast development
of computer power of modern desktop computers. Most of these analyses were carried out for
isolated blade rows. However, this approach is not accurate in many circumstances, due to a strong
coupling and interaction between the several blade rows. To fully account for the rotor-stator
interaction, a 3D unsteady Navier-Stokes analysis is required, but such an analysis is too CPU-
intensive and expensive in terms of computing power, so we will restrict our approach to the mixing
plane model . The mixing plane approach is applied at the blade row interface between the stator-
rotor. It can also be applied to several stages in series. In this approach one assumes that the flow is
totally mixed out and is axis-symmetric between the blade rows. Actually, it can only include the
effects of radial variation in an approximate way and cannot account for any circumferential
variations, such as those created by wakes, leakage or secondary flows. Although this, it is important
to clarify that the pitch wise averaging does not affect the span wise variation in flow. Actually, the
span wise variation of pressure, velocity, flow angle, etc., at all stations between hub and tip is
obtained from the full 3D Navier-Stokes computation.
The computation of the flow, for a single blade row, can nowadays routinely be made using a low-Re

252Carlos M. C. Xisto , José C. Páscoa e Emil Göttlich, “Computational modeling of secondary flows in single blade
rows and performance assessment in 3D turbine stages computations using wall functions”, November 2009.
 216

turbulence model and resolving the boundary layer, even with desktop computers. The computation
of a whole stage is more computing demanding and, at least with our current capabilities, can only
be accomplished with the use of wall functions. This introduces the reason for the current work,
which is to analyze the performance assessment limitations when using wall functions, for turbine
stage computations, instead of resolving the boundary layer. A major problem that arises in the
design and performance analysis of axial turbines is the understanding, analysis, forecasting and
control of secondary flows . A pioneer work in the understanding of this phenomenon could be found
in . Here Langton presents the evolution of a tree-dimensional flow in a turbine cascade. Were at the
end wall of the cascade the inlet boundary layer separates at the saddle-point and forms the
horseshoe vortex. The pressure leg of this vortex will become the passage vortex and the suction leg
will become the counter-vortex and as an opposite sense of rotation to the passage vortex, see
Figure 6.11.

9.4.4.1 Transonic Turbine Stage Meshing and Flow Details

A high level of detail for the geometry was considered, including the fillets at hub and tip sections and
the rotor gap. The stator comprises 24 blades and the rotor has 36 blades, which represents a ratio
of 2:3 between the stator and rotor blades. In our case, using the mixing plane model we can perform
the computation using only one blade for the stator and rotor rows. The first phase of the
computations performed for the stage was made using isolated blade rows for the stator and rotor.
By solving each flow in an isolated blade row we were able to detect any flow convergence problems,
typically created by poor mesh quality. After this fine tuning of the mesh we proceed into the full
stage computation. For this test case we solved the Navier-Stokes equations using the Spalart-
Allmaras turbulence model. In this computation an implicit discretization using double precision
was retained. The computations started using a first-order discretization in space and later on were
toggle to second order accuracy. The mesh comprises 15 H blocks, with 8 blocks in the stator and 7
in the rotor. The overall mesh comprises 224136 nodes, these were 131136 for the stator and 93000
for the rotor. The stator blade
comprises 49 points in the
inter blade region and 93
points in the axial flow
direction, with 65 points used
to define the blade surface.
For the radial direction we
have distributed 30 points.
For the rotor blade 29 points
were applied in the inter-
blade zone and 93 on the axial
direction, with 65 points used
to define the blade geometry.
In the radial direction 30
points were used, the mesh
can be seen in Figure 9.12.
The flow field at inlet of the
stator is completely subsonic,
transonic flow is restricted to
minor zones around the
stator trailing edge. Thus, at Figure 9.12 Mesh for Transonic Turbine Stage - Upper Image
stage inlet we have imposed Depicted the Mesh at the Hub Surface while the Lower Image
stagnation pressure and Represented Mesh used for the Blade Span
temperature with the
 217

corresponding flow angles and at stage outlet static pressure is imposed. At the mixing plane
interface also characteristic boundary conditions are imposed, namely stagnation pressure,
temperature, flow angles at rotor inlet and static pressure at stator outlet. In order to apply the
Spalart-Allmaras turbulence models we have considered a turbulence intensity of 10% and a length
scale of 1% pitch at stator mid span. These turbulence quantities are usually applied in modeling
turbomachinery flows. The initial computations were performed with an explicit approach and using
pure characteristic boundary conditions to extrapolate the variables at the boundaries.
Unfortunately convergence was
not attained, the residues got
stuck at a minor value.
Convergence was attained only
when using the implicit
formulation and applying
nonreflecting boundary
conditions. Due to computing
power restrictions only results
for the Spalart-Allmaras
turbulence model using wall
functions were obtained. Figure
9.13 presents the numerical
results of velocity obtained for a
section at stator mid span.
Although, numerical result
shows a good agreement with the Figure 9.13 Results of the Velocity Contours for a Radial Section
experimental data, however, at Stator Mid Span using the Mixing Plane Approach
more experimental data is
necessary for a precise validation of the model. Only with a span wise distribution of experimental
and computed variables we can assess, in full, the capability of the mixing plane model in the
prediction of this flow field. For further details, readers are encourage to consult [Xisto et al.]253 .

9.4.5 Case Study 3 - Improvement Methods for Mixing Plane Models

For modern turbomachines, the trend of design is to reach higher aerodynamic loading but with still
further compact size. In such a case, the traditional mixing-plane method has to be revised to give a
more physically meaningful prediction. [Pengcheng & Fangfei]254, presented a novel mixing-plane
method, and three representative test cases including a transonic compressor, a highly-loaded
centrifugal compressor and a high pressure axial turbine were performed for validation purpose.
This novel mixing-plane method can satisfy the flux conservation perfectly. Reverse flow across the
mixing-plane interface can be resolved naturally, thus making this method numerically robust.
Artificial reflection at the mixing-plane interface is almost eliminated, and then its detrimental impact
on the flow field is minimized. Generally, this mixing-plane method is suitable to simulate steady
flows in highly-loaded multistage turbomachines.
From the authors’ point of view, the mixing-plane method should not just be a pure numerical
procedure to transfer the circumferentially averaged flow variables across the interface. A physical
correspondence for this pitch wise mixing can be found, i.e., we can just make the gap between the

253 Carlos M. C. Xisto , José C. Páscoa e Emil Göttlich, “Computational modeling of secondary flows in single blade
rows and performance assessment in 3D turbine stages computations using wall functions”, Conference Paper·
November 2009.
254 Du Pengcheng a, Ning Fangfei, “Validation of a novel mixing-plane method for multistage turbomachinery

steady flow analysis”, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2016).

 218

two adjacent blade rows long enough so as to mix out all the non-uniformities (as shown from Figure
9.14-(a) and (b)), while the span wise mixing is assumed to be suspended in the ‘‘extended mixing
region”. Therefore, for a fully converged flow field in the case as shown in Figure 9.14-(b), we can
find such an intermediate position where the flows are pitch wise uniform. At this position, if we cut
out an infinitely thin slice as denoted by two lines ‘‘ml” and ‘‘mr” in Figure 9.14-(b), the following
governing equations expressed in cylindrical coordinate system hold:

̅
∂𝐐
= 𝐅mr − 𝐅ml , ̅ = [ρ, ρv, ρv, ρv, ρe]T
𝐐
∂t
𝐅 = [ρU, ρUvx + nx p , ρUvθ + nθ p , ρUvr + nr p , ρUH]T
Eq. 9.3
with t being the pseudo time, ρ the density, (vx; vɵ; vr) the absolute velocity components expressed
in cylindrical coordinate (x , ɵ , r), e the total energy, U = nxvx + nɵvɵ + nrvr the advective velocity
normal to the blade row interface, p the static pressure and H the total enthalpy. The unit vector n =
(nx , nɵ , nr)T denotes the normal direction of blade row interface, and n is actually equal to zero
because the interface is a revolution surface.

Figure 9.14 Schematic View of Pitch-Wise Mixing Model

9.4.5.1 Validation Test Case

Solving the integral form of the governing equations which are discretized in space using a cell-
centered finite-volume method. The advective fluxes are evaluated using the low-diffusion flux-
splitting scheme coupled with Monotone Upstream-Centered Schemes for Conservation Laws
(MUSCL) interpolation to obtain high-order spatial accuracy. The diffusive fluxes are solved using
traditional central differencing. The one-equation Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model is used for
turbulent flows, which is discretized and solved in a coupled manner with the mean flow equations.
Message Passing Interface (MPI) is used to parallelize the code. The discretized system is solved
using the so-called matrix-free Gauss–Seidel algorithm.

9.4.5.2 1.5 Stage Transonic Axial Compressor

A 1.5 stage compressor extracted from a multistage high pressure compressor is considered first. In
order to perform fast unsteady calculation as reference, the blade count number ratio is scaled to be
1:1:2. In the unsteady simulation, the rotor shock travels upstream across the first mixing-plane
(MP1) due to the high loading of the rotor and relatively small gap from the upstream inlet guide
vane (IGV) (Figure 9.15-(A)). Meanwhile, the thick rotor wakes propagate through the second
mixing plane (MP2) and interact with the downstream stator (Figure 9.15-(B)). Thus, this test case
 219

is very suitable for demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed mixing-plane model in dealing
with the typical circumferential non uniform flow field featured by strong shock and thick wakes.
Further details can be obtained from .

(A) Static
(B) Entropy
Pressure

Figure 9.15 Instantaneous Distributions at 90% Span.

9.4.6 Frozen Rotor

If the exchange of information at the interface is by interpolation directly without averaging, one has
the Frozen Rotor method. The difference is, Mixing Plane mixes the flow and apply the average
qualities on the interface for upstream and downstream components; while frozen rotor will
pass the true flow to down steam and vice versa. So if you are interested in the wake effect on the
downstream component performance then you should use frozen rotor method. Its disadvantage is
that, if gives you the solution at the single relative position. So if you want to get the wake effect on
the downstream component for all relative positions (as happens in reality) then you should go for
the true transient method. As the name indicates, the relative position of rotor and stator is fixed.
Hence, the result of the frozen rotor method is equivalent to a certain point of the unsteady
simulation which means the flow solutions will dependent on the relative position between rotor and
stator. Since the information exchange on R/S interface is through interpolation, the mesh on both
sides of the R/S interface should cover the same pitch range. That means the periodic of the rotor
domain and stator domain should be kept the same,

KSPS = K R PR Eq. 9.4

Where, KS and KR are relative prime which stand for the number of passages in the stator domain and
rotor domain, respectively. Ps and PR denote the pitch of stator and rotor separately. An
approximation of the blade number can be made if Ks and Kr are large in order to reduce the
computational cost, which is called Domain Scaling. For instance a turbine with 29 blades of stator
and 31 blades of rotor can be approximated by a turbine with 30 blades of both stator and rotor, then
only one passage is needed to mesh for both stator and rotor. However, the simulation results are
only the approximated result to the real model. The Frozen Rotor method is used firstly by [Brost et
al.]255 in simulations of an axial turbine where the simulated results have a good accordance with the
transient results of the measurement. While, the flow field in a passage usually changes a lot during

V. Brost, A. Ruprecht, and M. Maih, “Rotor-Stator interactions in an axial turbine, a comparison of transient
255

and steady state frozen rotor simulations”, Conference on Case Studies in Hydraulic Systems-CSHS03, 2003.
 220

the period. Therefore, this method

is only used in some specific
simulations. The information
exchange processes of mixing
plane and frozen rotor methods
depend on the boundary type of
the R/S interface. The detail
settings for different boundary
types and the corresponding
exchange strategies can be found
in256. (See Figure 9.16).

9.5 Un-Steady Treatment of

Interface
9.5.1 Sliding Mesh (MRF)
Full unsteady simulations that
integrate the governing equations
in time can be performed to model
the nonlinear unsteady Figure 9.16 Total Pressure Calculated by the Frozen Rotor
disturbances by marching time
accurately from one physical time
instant to the next. The flow fields within multiple blade rows are solved simultaneously and the
meshes within adjacent rows are moved relative to one another with each time step. However, the
computational expense of this approach can be significant. This is because sub-iterations are
required at each time instant, the time step size is necessarily small to preserve time accuracy, and
many time steps are required to reach a time periodic solution. Additionally, multiple passages must
be meshed to achieve spatial periodicity, unless so-called phase-lagged boundary conditions are used
to reduce the size of
the computational domain to a single blade passage in each blade row257. For unsteady simulation, a
natural idea is to simulate several different transient positions of rotor related to stator which leading
to the traditional unsteady treatment of R/S interface is the Sliding Mesh method proposed by Rai258.
For unsteady simulation, a natural idea is to simulate several different transient positions of rotor
related to stator which leading to the traditional unsteady treatment of R/S interface is the Sliding
Mesh method proposed by [Rai]259. In this method, the computational domain is divided into two
parts: rotor domain and stator domain. The mesh for rotor domain rotates with rotor. The R/S
interface becomes a sliding face and the exchanges of solution information are through the
interpolation to the dummy cells on both side without any averaging. At each time step, the rotor is
set at its correct position and equations are solved for that particular time step for the whole
computation domain. The final solution is therefore a succession of instantaneous solutions for each
increment of the rotor position. More precisely to set up sliding mesh simulation260,

256 NUMECA International, Brussels, “Fine/Turbo User Manual V8 (including Euranus)”, October 2007.
257 J. M. Weiss, K. C. Hall, “simulation of unsteady turbomachinery flows using an implicitly coupled nonlinear
harmonic balance method”, Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2011, GT2011.
258 M. Rai, “Application of domain decomposition methods to turbomachinery flows”, ASME Advances and

Applications in Computational Fluid Dynamics, volume 66, 1988.

259 M. Rai, “Application of domain decomposition methods to turbomachinery flows”, ASME Advances and

Applications in Computational Fluid Dynamics, volume 66, 1988.

260 Reza Amini, “Using Sliding Meshes”.
 221

1. Create periodic zones.

2. Set up the transient solver and cell zone and boundary conditions for a sliding mesh.
3. Set up the mesh interfaces for a periodic sliding mesh model.
4. Sample the time-dependent data and view the mean value.

The methodology is based on the use of Moving Least Squares (MLS) approximation in a high-order
finite volume framework261. Here we present two different approaches based on MLS approximation
for the transmission of information from one grid to another. The intersection approach: the flux at
the interface edge is split between the cell having an interface edge coincident (Figure 9.17 A). The
halo cell approach: a halo-cell is created as a specular image of the interface cell (Figure 9.17 B).
Moreover, two kind of stencil has been tested: the half stencil which take in account only cells from
the grid in which the cell is placed and the full stencil which includes cells from the two grids262.

Figure 9.17 Half Stencil and Full Stencil Reconstruction with: A) Intersection, B) Halo-Cell

9.5.2 Non-Linear Harmonic Balanced Method (NLHB)

The sliding mesh method simulates the full unsteady flow, which is still quite computational
expensive for industrial requirements. In the past decade, a harmonic frequency-domain methods
are developed, e.g., using potential flow model and Euler equations. However, all of the previous
harmonic methods adopt the linear assumption, so that the nonlinear interaction between unsteady
disturbances and the time-averaged flow is completely neglected. A nonlinear harmonic method is
developed by He263 following the framework of Giles264 which is based on an asymptotic theory. In
this technique convergence of Fourier-based time methods applied to turbomachinery flows. The
focus is on the harmonic balance method, which is a time-domain Fourier-based approach
standing as an efficient alternative to classical time marching schemes for periodic flows.
Fourier series decomposes a periodic signal into a sum of an infinite number of harmonics (sine and
cosine functions) of different frequencies and amplitudes. These frequencies are discrete, not all

261 S. Khelladi, X. Nogueira, F. Bakir and I. Colominas, “Toward a higher-order unsteady finite volume solver Based

on reproducing kernel particle method”, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 2011.
262 Hongsik, Xiangying Chen, Gecheng Zha, “Simulation of 3D Multistage Axial Compressor Using a Fully

Conservative Sliding Boundary Condition”, multistage turbomachinery are developed and implemented;
Proceedings of the ASME, 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition IMECE2011,
November 11-17, 2011, Denver, Colorado, USA.
263 L. He, “Modelling issues for computation on unsteady turbomachinery flows. In Unsteady Flows in

Turbomachines”, Von K´arm´an Institute for Fluid Dynamics, 1996.

264 M. B. Giles, “An approach for multi-stage calculations incorporating unsteadiness”, ASME-GT92, number 282,

Cologne, Germany, 1992.

 222

frequencies are present. Since it is impossible to estimate an infinite series, you choose the number
of terms you wish to consider, starting from the first. More the number of terms considered, closer is
the series to the original signal. In the literature, no consensus exists concerning the number of
harmonics needed to achieve convergence for turbomachinery stage configurations. It is shown that
the convergence of Fourier-based methods is closely related to the impulsive nature of the flow
solution, which in turbomachines is essentially governed by the characteristics of the passing wakes
between adjacent rows. As a result of the proposed analysis, a priori estimates are provided for the
minimum number of harmonics required to accurately compute a given turbomachinery
configuration. Their application to several contra-rotating open-rotor configurations is assessed,
demonstrating the practical interest of the proposed methodology. This method solves the steady
transport equations for the time-averaged flow and the time harmonics. For turbomachinery, the
Blade Passing Frequencies (BPF) are the fundamentals in time domain of the periodic disturbances
from the adjacent blade
rows. The solving of the
generated perturbation
amplitudes in a row is
performed in the
frequency domain by a
steady transport
equation associated
with BPFs and
subharmonics. The
deterministic stresses
are calculated directly
from the in-phase and
out-of-phase
components of the
solved harmonics.
Figure 9.18 Relative Velocities Obtained using HB Techniques
Using this method, only
one passage is needed
that saves the computational cost greatly. He et al., Vilmin et al. validated this method with
simulations on a 3D radial turbine and a multistage axial compressor. Therefore, this method is
adopted in the unsteady simulation of a low speed axial turbine. The physical quantity can be
decomposed into a time-averaged value and a sum of perturbations, which in turn can be
decomposed into N harmonics265. Figure 9.18 displays Harmonic function method in obtaining
relative velocities (courtesy of NUMECA.com). Since the Harmonic method is widely used, it is
warranted a bit more exploring which will be dealt in the coming section.

9.5.3 Profile Transformation (Pitch Scaling)

In typical turbomachinery applications, it is very common that one or both blade rows have a prime
number of blades per wheel. Formerly in such cases, it was necessary to model the whole 360° wheel
in order to attain the required level of accuracy. It is possible to reduce the size of the computational
problem (memory and computational time) by solving the blade row solution for one or two passages
per row, while still obtaining reasonably accurate solutions, therefore providing a solution to the

S. Vilmin, E. Lorrain, and Ch. Hirsch, ” Unsteady flow modeling across the rotor/stator interface using the
265

non-linear harmonic method”, In ASME-GT06, number 90210, Spain, 2006.

 223

unequal pitch problem between the blade

passages of neighboring rows. This
(ANSYS266, Galpin267), a scaling procedure
applied automatically to solution profiles as
part of the TRS implementation, whenever
the rotor-stator pitch ratio is not unity. In
this approximate method, single blade
passages per row with different pitch
lengths can be modeled without the need to
geometrically scale or modify the blade
geometry. Regular periodicity is imposed
for each passage and flow profiles across
rotor/stator interfaces are automatically
stretched or compressed as needed
according to the pitch ratio while Figure 9.19 Phase shifted Periodic Boundary
maintaining full conservation. Multiple
passages can be used to reduce pitch scaling
errors for the ensemble. Since this implementation is fully implicit and conservative a fast and robust
transient solution can be obtained at a fraction of the time for a full domain model. While in this
method overall machine performance is usually predicted well, detailed flow features such as blade
passing signals will be inaccurate due to imposing instantaneous periodicity on the phase-shifted
boundaries268 (see Figure 9.19).

9.5.4 Time Transformation Method (TT) using Phase-Shifted Periodic Boundary Conditions269
Barrowing from ANSYS CFX©, the basic principle of a phase-shifted periodic condition is that the
pitch-wise boundaries R1/R2 and S1/S2 are periodic to each other at different instances in time. For
example the relative position of R1 and S1 at t0 is reproduced between sides R2 and S2 at an earlier
time t0-Δt. Where Δt is defined by (PR-PS)/VR. Here PR and PS are rotor and stator pitches respectively,
and VR is the rotor velocity as shown in Figure 9.20. The Time Transformation method handles the
problem of unequal pitch described above by transforming the time coordinates of the rotor and
stator in the circumferential direction in order to make the models fully periodic in “transformed”
time. Let the r, ϴ, and z coordinate axis represent the radial, tangential (pitch wise) and axial
directions of the problem described in Figure 9.20. Mathematically, the condition of enforcing the
flow spatial periodic boundary conditions on both rotor and stator passages, respectively, is given by
U R1 (r, θ, z, t ) = U R2 (r, θ + PR , z, t − Δt )

 U R1 (r, θ, z, t ) = U R2 (r, θ + PR , z, t )
U S1 (r, θ, z, t ) = U S2 (r, θ + PS , z, t − Δt ) Eq. 9.5

 U S1 (r, θ, z, t ) = U S2 (r, θ + PS , z, t )

266 ANSYS CFX Version 12 documentation, ANSYS Inc., 2009.

267 Galpin P.F., Broberg R.B., Hutchinson B.R., “Three-Dimensional Navier Stokes Predictions of Steady State
Rotor/Stator Interaction with Pitch Change”, 3rd Annual Conference of the CFD Society of Canada, June 27-1995,
Banff, Alberta, Canada.
268 “A comparison of advanced numerical techniques to model transient flow in turbomachinery blade rows”,

Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2011 GT2011.

269 ANSYS CFX-Solver Theory Guide, Release 15, 2013.
 224

Using the following set of space-time transformations to the problem above as:

Δt
r = r , θ = θ , z = z, t = t − Eq. 9.6
PR − PS

Figure 9.20 Phase Shifted Periodic Boundary Conditions

The equations that are solved are in the computational (r’, ϴ', z’, t’) transformed space-time domain
and need to be transformed back to physical (r, ϴ, z, t) domain before post-processing. The periodicity
is maintained at any instant in time in the computational domain and it is evident that the rotor and
stator passages are marching at different time step sizes. We have the time step sizes
in the rotor and stator related by their pitch ratio as:

PR ΔtS
= Eq. 9.7
PS Δt R
Where nΔtS = PR/VR and nΔtR = PS/VR. The simulation time step size set for the run is used in the stator
passage(s) ΔtS and program computes the respective rotor passage time step size ΔtP based on the
rotor-stator interface pitch ratio as described above. When the solution is transformed back to
physical time, the elapsed simulation time is considered the stator simulation time. Required that the
pitch ratio fall within a certain range, as described by the inequality:

Mω P Mω
1−  S  1+ Eq. 9.8
1 − Mθ PR 1 + Mθ

Where Mω is the Mach number associated with the rotor rotational speed (or signal speed in the case
of an inlet disturbance problem), Mϴ is the Mach number associated with the tangential Mach
number, and the ratio of PS to PR is the pitch ratio between the stationary component and the rotating
component. For most compressible turbomachinery applications (for example, gas compressors and
turbines), Mω is in the range of 0.3-0.6, enabling pitch ratios in the range of 0.6-1.5. Note that
 225

according to ANSYS CFX© these limits are not strict, but approaching them can cause solution
instability.

9.5.5 Revisiting Non-Linear Harmonic Balance (NLHB) Methodology

Given the time periodic nature of these flows, one can model the unsteady flow in turbomachines
using nonlinear, harmonic balance techniques. Roughly speaking, the family of nonlinear harmonic
methods expands the unsteady flow field in a Fourier series in time and solves for the Fourier
coefficients. [He]270, and [Ning]271 developed a harmonic method in which the unsteady harmonics
are treated as perturbations. [Hall, Thomas, and Clark]272 developed a full harmonic balance method,
which allows for arbitrarily large disturbances and any number of harmonics. The method is
computationally efficient and stores the unsteady nonlinear solutions as the working variables at
several time levels over one period of unsteadiness, rather than storing the Fourier coefficients them-
selves. [Gopinath and Jameson]273 and others have applied this approach to turbomachinery
applications. For an excellent recent survey of Fourier methods applied to turbomachinery
applications, see the survey paper by [He]274. In all these methods, the harmonic balance equations
are solved by introducing a pseudo-time derivative term and then marching the coupled equations
to a steady state. Using the frequency-domain or time-linearized technique, it is possible to first
compute the time-mean (steady) flow by solving the steady flow equations using conventional CFD
techniques. One then assumes that any unsteadiness in the flow is small and harmonic in time (eiωt).
The governing fluid equations of motion and the associated boundary conditions are then linearized
about the mean flow solution to arrive at a set of linear variable coefficients equations that describe
the small disturbance flow. The time derivatives d/dt are replaced by jω where ω is the frequency of
the unsteady disturbance, so that time does not appear explicitly. The resulting time-linearized
equations can be solved very inexpensively, but unfortunately cannot model dynamic nonlinearities.

9.5.5.1 Temporal & Spatial Periodicity Requirement

Consider unsteady flows that are temporally and spatially periodic. In particular, temporal and
spatial periodicity requires that

U (x , t) = U (x , t + T)
Eq. 9.9
U (x + G , t) = U (x , t + Δt)

Where T is the temporal period of the unsteadiness, G is the blade-to-blade gap and Δt is the time lag
associated with the inter blade phase lag. Similarly, for cascade flow problems arising from vibration
of the airfoils with fixed inter blade phase angles σ, or incident gusts that are spatially periodic. As an
example, consider a cascade of airfoils where the source of aerodynamic excitation is blade vibration
with a prescribed inter blade phase angle σ and frequency ω. Then T = 2π/ω and Δt = σ/ω. Because
the flow is temporally periodic, the flow variables may be represented as a Fourier series in time with
spatially varying coefficients.

270 He, L., 1996. “Modelling issues for time-marching calculations of unsteady flows, blade row Interaction and
blade flutter”, VKI Lecture Series “Unsteady Flows in Turbomachines”, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics.
271 Ning, W., and He, L., 1998. “Computation of Unsteady Flows around Oscillating Blades Using Linear and Non-

Linear Harmonic Euler Methods”. Journal of Turbomachinery, 120(3), pp. 508–514.

272 Hall, K. C., Thomas, J. P., and Clark, W. S., 2002. “Computation of Unsteady Nonlinear Flows in Cascades Using

a Harmonic Balance Technique”. AIAA Journal, 40(5), May, pp. 879–886.

273 Gopinath, A., and Jameson, A., 2005. “Time Spectral Method for Periodic Unsteady Computations over Two and

Three- Dimensional Bodies”. AIAA Paper 2005-126.

274 He, L., 2010. “Fourier methods for turbomachinery applications”. Progress in Aerospace Sciences.
 226

9.5.5.2 Boundary Conditions

We first consider the flow field kinematics of two adjacent blade rows where the first row has B1
blades spinning with rotational rate ω1 rad/s and the second has B2 blades spinning with rotational
rate ω2 rad/s. The flow field within the stage can be decomposed into a Fourier series in the rotational
direction characterized by a set of Nm1, m2 nodal diameters as

N m1,m2 = m1B1 + m2 B2 Eq. 9.10

Where m1 and m2 can take on all integer values. In the frame of reference of the first and second
blade row, the frequency of the unsteady disturbance associated with any nodal diameter is

ω1,m2 = m2 B2 (ω1 − ω2 ) , ω2,m1 = m1B1 (ω2 − ω1 ) Eq. 9.11

Note that in either row the unsteady frequency associated with a given nodal diameter is a function
of the blade count and relative rotation rate of the adjacent row. Furthermore, associated with each
unsteady frequency is an inter blade phase angle:

B2 B1
σ1,m2 = m 2 2π , σ m1 ,2 = m1 2π Eq. 9.12
B1 B2

In the frame of reference of the second row. Clearly the inter blade phase angles associated with a
given nodal diameter are a function of the pitch ratios between the two rows. Note that the pitch in
each row is given by G1 = 2π/B1 and G2 = 2π/B2 in the first and second rows, respectively. Solution
Method Since the solution U is periodic in time, we can represent it by the Fourier series:

M
U (x, t) =  Uˆ
m=− M
m (x) e imt
N −1 Eq. 9.13
where ˆ ( x) = 1  U
U
~ -imt n
m n ( x, t n ) e
N n =0

can considered complex conjugate of each other. Here, ω is the fundamental frequency of the
disturbance, M is the number of harmonics retained in the solution: Û m are the Fourier coefficients,
and Ũ n are a set of N = 2M + 1 solutions at discrete time levels tn = nT/N distributed throughout one
period of unsteadiness, T. At any U is vector of conserved variables and can be expressed as

ρ (x, t) =  R n (x, t) eint , ρu (x, t) =  U n (x, t) eint , v(x, t) =  Vn (x, t) eint ,.....
n n n
Eq. 9.14
At any location in the flow field domain we can transform the time level solutions into Fourier
coefficients and vice versa using a discrete Fourier transform operator [E] and its corresponding
inverse E-1 as follows
~
ˆ =EU ~ ˆ
U or U = E−1 U
Eq. 9.15
Where E and E−1 are square matrices of dimension N × N, and the Fourier coefficients and time level
 227

solutions have been assembled into the vectors Ũ as

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
U = [U0 , U1 , U2 , ....... UN−1 ]T Eq. 9.16

The solutions at each discrete time level are obtained by applying the governing equations to all the
Ũ simultaneously
̃
∂𝐔
∫ ⃗⃗]. d𝐀
dV + ∮[𝐅⃗ − 𝐆 ⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐒̃dV
V ∂t V
Eq. 9.17
Where the flux and source vectors F͂͂,͂͂ G̃ , and S͂͂͂͂ are evaluated using the corresponding time level
solution. The time derivative in Eq. 9.19 is evaluated by differentiating Eq. 9.15 with respect to time
as follows:
~
U E −1 ˆ E −1 ~ ~
= U= U = [D] U
t t t Eq. 9.18

Where [D] is the pseudo-spectral, N × N matrix operator. Substituting appropriately, yields the
desired harmonic balance equations:

⃗⃗]. 𝐝𝐀
̃ dV + ∮[𝐅⃗ − 𝐆
∫ [𝐃]𝐔 ⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐒̃dV
V V
Eq. 9.19
The harmonic balance equations are discretized using a cell centered, polyhedral-based, finite-
volume scheme. Second order spatial accuracy is achieved by means of a multi-dimensional, linear
reconstruction of the solution variables. The convective fluxes are evaluated by a standard upwind,
flux-difference splitting and the diffusive fluxes by a second-order central difference. A pseudo-time
derivative of primitive quantities, ∂Q/∂τ, with Q = {p, u, T}, is introduced into Eq. 9.19 to facilitate
solution of the steady harmonic balance equations by means of a time marching procedure. An Euler
implicit discretization in pseudo-time275 produces the following linearized system of equations:

 U  S U 
 + Δτ [ A] − + [D]  ΔQ = −Δτ R Eq. 9.20
 Q  Q Q 

where R' is the discrete residual of Eqn. (18.17), and ΔQ' are the resultant primitive variable
corrections across one pseudo-time step, Δτ. Operator [A] is the Jacobian of the discrete inviscid and
viscous flux vectors with respect to primitive variables Q and introduces both center coefficients as
well as off-diagonals arising from the linearization of the spatially discretized fluxes. The coupled
system given by Eqn. (18.17) contains equations from all time levels linked at every point in the
domain by the pseudo-spectral operator [D]. The result is a large system, and solving it all at once
would be rather intractable. However, we can exploit the point coupled nature of the system and
employ approximate factorization to produce the following two step scheme:

275Weiss, J. M., Maruszewski, J. P., and Smith, W. A., 1999, “Implicit Solution of Preconditioned Navier-Stokes
Equations Using Algebraic Multigrid”, AIAA Journal, 37(1), Jan., pp. 29–364
 228

 U  S  ~
 + Δτ [ A] −  ΔQ = −Δτ R
 Q  Q 
Eq. 9.21
 U −1 U  ~
[ I ] + Δτ [D]  ΔQ = ΔQ
 Q Q 

Where ΔQ̃ ' represents provisional corrections to the solution. In the first step, the time levels are no
longer coupled and we can solve for the ΔQ̃ ' one time level at a time. With the exception of the physical
time derivative appearing, the evaluation of fluxes, accumulation of the residual, and the process of
assembling and solving at each time level proceeds exactly as for a single, steady-state solution in the
time domain. Here we employ an algebraic multigrid (AMG) method to solve the linear system and
obtain the provisional ΔQ̃ ’. In the second step the complete corrections ΔQ' for the current iteration
are obtained by inverting at each point in the domain given all the ΔQ̃ ' computed in step one.

9.5.5.3 Fourier 'Shape Correction' for Single Passage Time-Marching Solution

The Fourier modelling approach to nonlinear flows was proposed in 1990 for time-marching
solutions of unsteady turbomachinery flows276. This was the first Fourier method for
turbomachinery. The objective at the time was to enable an unsteady flow solution to be carried out
in a single blade passage domain but without requiring a large amount of computer memory, as in
the Erdos's Direct Store method. The main ingredient is to carry out the temporal Fourier transform
at the ‘periodic boundaries of the single blade passage domain. Then the Fourier harmonics
(temporal shape) are used to correct the corresponding boundaries according to the phase shift
periodicity. The method was then called ‘Shape Correction’. The validity of the single passage Shape-
Correction method can be examined by comparing with the direct multi-passage solution. Figure
9.21 shows Stagnation Pressure contours under inlet distortion for NASA Rotor 67 where the Left
shows whole passage annulus solution, and the Right, single passage solution as reconstructed. It was
shown that the Fourier modelling as implemented in the Shape-Correction can capture flow
disturbances and responses with large nonlinearity (e.g. a large scale shock oscillation in fan blade
passage under an inlet distortion of long circumferential wave length. Given only 3-5 harmonics were

Figure 9.21 Stagnation Pressure Contours under inlet distortion for NASA Rotor 67

276L. He, "An Euler Solution for Unsteady Flows around Oscillating Blades", ASME, Journal of Turbomachinery,
Vol.112, No.4, pp.714-722, 1990.
 229

required for capturing sufficiently accurately the temporal variation, the computer memory
requirement is very low compared to the Erdos’s Direct Store approach. A key advantage of splitting
flow components represented by Fourier harmonics is the ability in dealing with multiple
disturbances with distinctive frequencies (He 1992). The generalized shape correction has been
applied to unsteady flows in multi-
rows (IGT-rotor-stator) with vibrating
rotor blades for optimization of intra-
row gap effects on both aerothermal
performance and flutter stability.

9.5.5.4 Case Study 1 – 2D

Compressor Stage
In this section we compare results
obtained from the implicitly coupled,
non-linear harmonic balance method
described above with solutions from a
full, unsteady simulation based on the
standard dual time-stepping approach.
The test case consists of a model 2D
compressor stage; specifically, the first Figure 9.22 Computational Mesh for HB and TRS Methods
stator and second rotor rows of the five
row. There are three stator blades to
every four rotor blades. The two blade
rows are separated by an axial gap equal
to 0.25 times the aerodynamic chord of
the rotor. The Mach number at the inlet
to the stator is 0.68 and the relative
Mach number entering the rotor is 0.71.
The static-to-total pressure ratio across
the stage is 1.2. Three separate Euler
calculations are made using the
nonlinear harmonic balance method in
which one, two and three harmonics,
respectively, are retained for the blade
passing frequencies in both the stator
and rotor. Contours of instantaneous
pressure, representative of the flow field
within the compressor stage and
computed using three harmonics in each
blade row, are shown in Figure 9.23
using nonlinear harmonic balance
method. Note that computations are
performed on just the center blade
passage outlined in each row. The
solutions shown in the passages above
Figure 9.23 Instantaneous Pressure Distribution Within
and below are phase-shifted the Compressor Stage Using (NLHB)
reconstructions included for clarity.

9.5.5.5 Case Study 2 - 3D Flow in Turbine Cascade

 230

3D flow in turbine cascade in which the Harmonic Balance (HB) method is applied for modeling
rotor/stator interaction and pressure fluctuations near trailing edges. Computational results are
compared with Transient Rotor/Stator (TRS) results which shows importance of unsteady effects277.
The harmonic balance method requires only a single blade passage be meshed. A structured HOH
mesh is generated for each of the two blade rows, as shown in Figure 9.22. The inlet and exit grid
planes for each of the blade rows correspond to the axial planes where test data is available. The
blade passage mesh is made up of 1.3 M cells with a near wall spacing of y+ = 1.0 - 2. The HB solver
models the fluid as an ideal gas with turbulence closure provided by the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence
model. The solver is run with a CFL number of 5.0, and separate trials are conducted retaining one,
three, and five modes. The solver has converted to a periodic, unsteady solution within 4000 - 5000
iterations. The TRS solver uses a time step is equal 510-5s. This value correspond 5 steps per vane
passing (10 inner iterations per time step). Assessment of the effectiveness of the two methods of
calculation is carried out on the basis of the comparison of time required for obtaining of non-
stationary periodic solutions on the interval of time, sufficient for the passage of at least one rotation
of the impeller. The HB-results showed that CPU time is increased in 7 times for 5 modes compared
time when calculating with one mode. Using 3 modes CPU time is increased (for one iteration) in 3.3
times in comparison with one-mode approximation. The acceleration of the calculation, which is
defined as the ratio of the CPU time required to obtain a periodic solution using the TRS method to
the CPU time of the decision on the HB method is 1:2 - five modes, 1:1 - three modes and 3:1 - one
mode. Hence, the substantial savings (three times) is observed only in the case of one – mode
approximation. It is important to note that in all cases the calculations were carried out at the same
calculation grid, including two blades. Figure 9.24 present instantaneous predictions of turbulent
viscosity at mid - span for the HB and TRS solutions. The stator wake enters the rotor passage and
grows both laterally and in the stream wise direction. This process continues as the stator wake is
“chopped” by the leading edge of the rotor blade and convects downstream.

TRS HB

Figure 9.24 Instantaneous Predictions of Turbulent Viscosity at Mid-Span for HB and TRS Solutions

9.5.6 Assessment of 2D Steady and Unsteady Adjoint Sensitivities for Rotor-Starter Interaction
Adjoint-based CFD turbomachinery optimization has gained increasing popularity over the last years
due to the advantages in dealing with problems characterized by a large number of design variables

277 Grigoriev A.V., Iakunin A.I.,

Kuznechov N.B., Kondratiev V.F., Kortikov N.N., “Application of Harmonic Balance
Method to The Simulation of Unsteady Rotor/Stator Interaction In The Single Stage”, JSC ‘Klimov’, St - Petersburg,
Russia.
 231

at affordable computational cost [Rubino et al.]278. Thanks to this, adjoint-based optimization offers
the possibility to fully exploit the ever increasing computational power to accomplish novel and
unconventional turbomachinery design. To date, despite the intrinsically time-varying nature of
turbomachinery flows, adjoint-based methods mostly rely on steady state approaches. However, the
use of unsteady-based design could lead to major steps forward in performance improvement for the
next generation of turbines and compressor, allowing to tackle multidisciplinary problems. Time-
accurate adjoint methods are well-established but their industrial use is very limited, due to the
excessive computational cost of both the direct flow solution and the I/O overhead associated with
the reverse adjoint mode. The harmonic balance (HB) method is a cost-effective alternative to time
accurate adjoint for non-linear time periodic flow problems, thus it is highly attractive for
turbomachinery applications.
The objective here is to perform an assessment between steady and HB-based unsteady design
sensitivities, investigating the impact of unsteady effects on the aerodynamic design of
turbomachinery. Computational cost, memory requirements are considered as comparison terms,
by using both steady and unsteady methods. The steady-state adjoint calculations are performed by
resorting to mixing plane (MP) approach, whereas the unsteady analysis is carried out with a sliding
mesh interface and solved with a harmonic balance (HB) method. A duality preserving approach is
used in order to ensure robust convergence of the adjoint equations without any restrictive
assumption on the turbulence viscosity. The two methods are implemented in the open-source SU2
software (Palacios et al., 2013; Economon et al., 2015), whose adjoint has been extended in this work
to compute multi-row HB-based sensitivities. The investigation is performed on an axial turbine
stage for both subsonic and transonic conditions, thus resembling the typical flow characteristics of
gas turbine stages. Further information regarding the method of solution can be obtained at [Rubino
et al.]279.

9.5.6.1 Case Study

The test case considered for the present study is a 2D axial turbine stage, adapted from the 1.5 stage
experimental setup of the Institute of Jet Propulsion and Turbomachinery at RWTH Aachen,
Germany280. The mid-span geometries of the first two blade rows, from the above mentioned setup,
are selected for the subsequent analysis reported in this paper. In order to compare the design
sensitivities, for both unsteady and steady state adjoint computations, the proposed test case is
simulated under subsonic (Case1)
and transonic (Case2) conditions, Parameter Case 1 Case 2
thus resembling the typical flow Stator inlet blade angle 0 0
characteristics of a gas turbine stage. Total temperature 305.8 305.8
The main simulation parameters are Pressure ratio 1.5 1.9
reported in Table 9.3. The Rotational speed 3210 4258
simulations are performed using the Inlet turbulence intensity 5% 5%
Roe scheme for the discretization of
the convective fluxes; second order
Table 9.3 Axial turbine simulation parameters
accuracy is achieved by MUSCL
reconstruction. For both unsteady

278A. Rubino, S. Vitale, M. Pini and P. Colonna, “Assessment of fully-turbulent steady and unsteady adjoint
sensitivities for stator-rotor interaction in turbomachinery”, GPPS-NA-2018-130.

279 A. Rubino, S. Vitale, M. Pini and P. Colonna, “Assessment of fully-turbulent steady and unsteady adjoint
sensitivities for stator-rotor interaction in turbomachinery”, GPPS-NA-2018-130.
280 Stephan, B., Gallus, H., and Niehuis, R.. “Experimental investigations of tip clearance flow and its influence on

secondary flows in a 1-1/2 stage axial turbine”, ASME Turbo Expo 2000: Power for Land, Sea, and Air, pages
V001T03A099--V001T03A099. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2000.
 232

and steady simulations, non-reflective boundary conditions are imposed281 at the stator inlet and at
the rotor outlet sections. The stator-rotor interface is resolved for the unsteady simulations using a
sliding mesh approach, whereas the steady simulations are based on a conservative mixing-plane
(MP) method282. The κ-ω SST turbulent model is considered with fully resolution of the viscous
sublayer. An unstructured grid is used to discretize the 2D computational domain with about 30000
triangular elements for each blade row and 10000 quad elements over each blade surface in order to
ensure y+ ≈ 1. In this work, the selected objective function (OF) for the calculation of the design
sensitivities is the non-dimensional entropy generation of the stage, defined as

⟨Ss,out ⟩ − ⟨Ss,in ⟩ ⟨Sr,out ⟩ − ⟨Sr,in ⟩

Sgen = +
v02 /T0s,in v02 /T0s,in
Eq. 9.22
where ⟨Ss;in⟩ and ⟨Ss;out⟩ are the stator inlet and outlet entropy values averaged over the boundary
using a mixed-out procedure283, whereas ⟨Sr;in⟩ and ⟨Sr,out⟩ indicate the same quantities calculated for
the rotor. v0 is the 'spouting' velocity, namely the velocity that the flow would reach by expanding the
flow isentropically from the total inlet pressure to the stage outlet static pressure.

9.5.6.2 Results
The values of the entropy generation, i.e. the optimization objective function, are calculated for both
mixing plane and harmonic balance simulations of the selected case study. This is accomplished in
order to compare the performance of the stage obtained by the two methods and select an
appropriate number of time instances to resolve. Figure 9.25 shows the evolution in time of the
entropy generation, Sgen, calculated for a different number of time instances as well as the value given
by the steady state mixing-plane (MP) method.

(a) Case 1 - Subsonic (b) Case 2 - Transoinc

Figure 9.25 Non-Dimensional Entropy Generation Using Unsteady (HB) vs Steady (MP)

281 Giles, M. B.. “Nonreflecting boundary conditions for euler equation calculations”. AIAA journal, 1990.
282 Giles, M.. ”A numerical method for the calculation of unsteady flow in turbomachinery”. Technical report,
Cambridge, Mass.: Gas Turbine Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1991.
283 Saxer, A. P. “A numerical analysis of 3-D inviscid stator/rotor interactions using non-reflecting boundary

conditions”. Technical report, Cambridge, Mass.: Gas Turbine Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 1992.
 233

9.5.6.2.1 Case 1 - Subsonic Stage

Case1 refers to the stage characterized by subsonic conditions. The stage operating conditions
adopted in the simulation are reported in Table 9.3. It was also revealed at [Rubino et al.]284 the
normalized distribution of the static pressure over the blade profiles at different time instances as
well as the time-average HB and the MP solutions. The mixing-plane interface leads to a static
pressure at the outlet of the stator about 4.5% higher than the one attained by the harmonic-balance
simulation, resulting in a lower stator loading and a higher rotor expansion ratio. The steady state
value of Sgen differs of about 4% when compared with the HB time-average solution. The max peak is
about 41% of the mean value, for the entropy generation Figure 9.25 (a), and about 3% in the case
of the stage total-to-static efficiency.

9.5.6.2.2 Case 2 - Transonic Stage

The transonic flow characteristics of Case2 are attained with the same stage geometry of Case1 but
at an expansion ratio about 27% higher (see Table 9.3). The entropy generation predicted by the
MP is about 7.5% lower than the HB time-average value, whereas the relative difference on the total-

(a) MP Pressure Contour (b) HB t = 0

(c) HB t = 1/3 T (d) HB t = 2/3 T

Figure 9.26 Case2: Non-Dimensional Pressure Contours for the Mixing Plane (MP) simulation (a) ,
and Harmonic Balance (HB) at Different Time Instances (bcd)

284A. Rubino, S. Vitale, M. Pini and P. Colonna, “Assessment of fully-turbulent steady and unsteady adjoint
sensitivities for stator-rotor interaction in turbomachinery”, GPPS-NA-2018-130.
 234

to-static efficiency is only about 0:3%. As opposed to Case1, in this test case shocks occur on both
stator and rotor. The harmonic-balance simulation proved to be able to reproduce the non-linear
flow characteristics associated to the different stator-rotor mutual positions in time. When
accounting for unsteady effects, both stator and rotor exhibit a stronger shock wave intensity
compared to the mixing plane simulation, with the flow discontinuity appearing at a location different
from that provided by the time-average HB solution. Figure 9.26 reports the non-dimensional
pressure contour plot, for both MP and HB simulations. Further details can be obtained from285.

9.5.6.3 Design Sensitivity

As mentioned in the CASE STUDY section, the entropy generation Sgen(U,a) defined by Eq. 9.22 is
selected as objective function for the optimization problem. A set of design variables corresponding
to the control points of a Free-Form Deformation (FFD) box encapsulating the blade profiles, as
shown in [Rubino et al.]286 for a set of twelve variables on the stator surface. For both mixing-plane
and harmonic balance method, the design sensitivities are retrieved from the adjoint solution
according to
N−1
dO ∂O ∂Fn
= + ∑ λTn
dα ∂α ∂αn
n=0
Eq. 9.23
Where O is the objective function corresponding to α as design variables vector, F is the fixed point
iteration operator, and λn is the adjoint solution. This sensitivities correspond to the gradient given
by the total derivative of the entropy generation with respect to the FFD control points, dsgen /da . The
validation between the objective function gradients obtained with the reverse mode of Algorithmic
Differentiation (AD) and the gradients calculated with second-order finite differences (FD), for Case1
is obtained287. The AD and FD gradients, calculated with respect to a representative ensemble of 24
FFD control points enclosing the stage blade rows, are well in agreement. The Root Mean Square
Error (RMSE) lower than 0:004 for both Mixing Plane and Harmonic Balance method. The same level
of accuracy was achieved when validating AD vs FD gradients for Case2. The computational cost and
memory requirements associated with the HB-based adjoint sensitivities are about 2K+1 higher than
the MP-based gradients computations. The CPU time linearly increases with the number of resolved
number of frequencies K because, for the time domain HB method adopted in this work, the system
of equations is solved in a segregated manner for each time instance. From the details about the
derivation of the HB operator it can be deduced that, for K input frequencies, 2K +1 time instances
must be resolved. Here an odd formulation of the time domain HB method is adopted to preserve
numerical stability288. Since, in terms of CPU time, the mixing plane computation can be regarded
approximately as a single time instance resolution, the associated computational cost is 2K+1 lower
when compared to the HB-based method. The memory requirements follow the same considerations
as for the CPU time: for K resolved harmonics, 2K+1 computational domains, relative to each of the
associated 2K+1 time instances, must be considered. As a result, the memory burden attained by the
HB method is 2K+1 higher than the steady-state calculation.

285 See Previous.

286 A. Rubino, S. Vitale, M. Pini and P. Colonna, “Assessment of fully-turbulent steady and unsteady adjoint
sensitivities for stator-rotor interaction in turbomachinery”, GPPS-NA-2018-130.
287 See Previous.
288 Gopinath, A., Van Der Weide, E., Alonso, J., Jameson, A., Ekici, K., and Hall, K. “Three-dimensional unsteady

multi-stage turbomachinery simulations using the harmonic balance technique”. In 45th AIAA Aerospace
Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, page 892, 2007.
 235

With the aim of preliminary assess whether accounting for unsteady effects can influence the optimal
design in stator rotor interaction problems, the adjoint-based design gradients obtained with the MP
and HB method are computed and analyzed for the two mentioned stage operating conditions, i.e.
Case1 and Case2 (see Table 9.3). Furthermore, in order to identify where the main differences
between MP and HB-based sensitivities occur on the computational domain, the absolute value of the
relative difference dsgen is introduced and defined as

dsgen dsgen
( ) −( )
dα HB dα MP
δsgen =
dsgen
( )
⌊ dα HB ⌋
Eq. 9.24
The values of δsgen are computed for each control point of the FFD box and interpolated, for the rest
of the domain, using a bi-cubic
polynomial response surface.

9.5.6.3.1 Case1 - Subsonic Stage

Figure 9.27 depicts the relative
differences between the MP and the
HB objective function gradients,
relative to the set of 24 design
variables. For the stator blade, this
difference is below 7% whereas, for
the rotor blade, it is as high as 63%. In
the stator Figure 9.27(a), the portion
of the domain close to the trailing edge
is the one showing the highest values
of δsgen. This is possibly related to two
main reasons: (a) Case 1 - Stator
• when compared to the sliding-
mesh interpolation used for
the HB method, the MP leads to
a different static pressure at
the stator-rotor interface,
hence at the stator outlet;
• the unsteady potential stator-
rotor interaction effects are
not taken into account by the
MP.

The relative difference between the

MP and the HB gradients is more
remarkable in the rotor, where it is in
average one order of magnitude (b) Case 1 - Rotor
higher than in the stator. From Figure
9.27 (b) the zone in the proximity of Figure 9.27 Mixing Plane vs Harmonic Balance Normalized
the rotor leading edge is the one Entropy Generation Gradients Obtained with the Adjoint
associated with the highest dsgen value. Solution
 236

Such difference is mainly due to the simplification introduced by the MP simulation, in which the
stator wake interaction with the rotor is neglected by resorting to a mixing process at the blade rows
interface. Furthermore, at the rotor inlet boundary, the MP imposes a pressure about 4% higher than
that calculated by the HB method.

9.5.6.3.2 Case2 - Transonic Stage

The adjoint-based sensitivities, relative to the test case configuration characterized by a transonic
flow, show an overall outcome comparable with the subsonic stage: the main gradient differences are
associated to the rotor cascade289. Also in this case, the relative difference on the stator are about
one order of magnitude lower than those on the rotor. From a closer inspection, the deviations
between MP and HB-based sensitivities are lower in magnitude when compared to Case1 but,
differently from the subsonic stage of Case1, they also show a sensible contribution by the control
points located near the suction side and the rear part of the rotor blade. This difference can be
explained by recalling that, for Case2, a shock wave pattern crosses the stator-rotor interface. The
resulting flow discontinuity interacts with the stator wake dissipating the associated velocity defects
before reaching the rotor leading edge. However, the shock interacts with the rotor altering its
pressure distribution along the stream-wise direction. The non-linear variation of the shock location,
related to the unsteady position of the rotor in time, is not captured by the mixing plane steady-state
simulation. This results in high values of δsgen not only near the rotor leading edge, as opposed to
Case2.

9.5.6.4 Conclusions
This work documents an assessment between steady and harmonic-balance unsteady adjoint
sensitivities for turbomachinery design problems involving unsteady effects. In this study, the open
source code SU2 was extended in order to deal with unsteady HB multi-row simulations and the
calculation of the corresponding adjoint-based sensitivities. An exemplary axial turbine stage,
operating at subsonic and transonic conditions, was considered. The adjoint-based gradients were
successfully validated against second order finite differences. Results showed that, compared to
steady state calculations, the harmonic balance sensitivities are about 2K +1 more costly, with K the
number of resolved input frequencies. Memory requirements exhibit the same trend, with higher
allocation needed for the harmonic balance computation. Although the steady calculations accurately
predicted the time-average stage performance, the design gradients, as computed by the mixing
plane and the harmonic balance method, were found to be significantly different for both subsonic
and transonic flow conditions. The areas in which this difference was predominant are located in the
proximity of the stator-rotor interface. Possible reasons for such divergence are:

➢ Different pressure imposed by the mixing-plane method at the stator-rotor interface;

➢ The unsteady calculations are able to capture potential and wake-rotor interaction effects.

The assessment conducted in this work indicates that accounting for unsteady effects in the design
process may lead to a different optimal configuration. In order to confirm the present results, current
efforts are devoted to extend the adjoint-based method presented in this study to the shape
optimization of turbomachinery problems involving stator-rotor interactions.

289A. Rubino, S. Vitale, M. Pini and P. Colonna, “Assessment of fully-turbulent steady and unsteady adjoint
sensitivities for stator-rotor interaction in turbomachinery”, GPPS-NA-2018-130.
 237

9.6 Case Study - Stator-Rotor Interaction in Axial Turbine: Flow Physics and Design
Perspective290
The stator-rotor interaction is an important issue in turbomachinery design when the highest
performances are targeted. Different characters mark the interaction process in high-pressure or
low-pressure turbines depending both on the blade height and on the Reynolds number. For small
blade heights, being the stator secondary lows more important, a more complex interaction is found
with respect to the high blades, where the stator blade wake dominates. In low-pressure turbines,
the stator wake promotes the transition to turbulent boundary layer, allowing for an efficient
application of ultra-high lift blades. First, a detailed discussion of the low physics is proposed for
high- and low-pressure turbines. Some of-design conditions are also commented. Then, a design
perspective is given by discussing the effect of the axial gap between the stator and the rotor and by
commenting the effects of three-dimensional design on the interaction.
9.6.1 Introduction
The design of high efficiency axial low turbine stages has to face many challenging problems, and one
of these is connected to the interaction between the stationary and the rotating rows of the machine.
In high-pressure gas turbines, additional issues related to the combustor turbine interaction take
laces leading to further complexity in the design process. The overall context for the design space is,
in fact, an unsteady and three-dimensional low field, where the Mach and the Reynolds numbers vary
along the machine. High-pressure stages typically operate in high-subsonic or transonic regimes and
are normally affected by shock-induced separation on the rotor crown and unsteady stator rear
loading291.
Moreover, the high-loading, combined to the low aspect ratio of the first stage blading, drives the
generation of wide swirling structures, whose mixing contributes significantly to the loss budget292.
These secondary lows also affect the low angle distribution and momentum redistribution inside the
blade channel and their accurate prediction is fundamental for the designer of the gas turbine cooling
system.
All of these low structures affect the blade cascade where they are generated and the adjacent ones
in the so-called stator-rotor interaction process. To make clear such a complex low feature, all of
them will be recalled and schematized according to what are available in the open literature. The
primary low structures involved in the interaction process are the wake and the secondary lows.
Many research studies have been proposed in the open literature discussing the wake and the
secondary low evolution and their parametric dependence on the typical turbomachinery
parameters.
The interaction process has been addressed in the last 20 years by many authors both for the high-
pressure stages and for the low-pressure ones. Differences between high- and low-pressure stages
arise for the dependence of the boundary layer and its transition on the Reynolds number. When the
high-pressure stages are of concern, the interaction takes place mainly in terms of shock wave, wake
and secondary lows, leading to the so-called wake-blade and vortex-blade interaction. Thanks to the
high Reynolds number and high inlet turbulence levels, the blade boundary layer state is less
influenced by the incoming viscous structures. It has to be taken into account that also the inlet

290 Paolo Gaetani, “Stator-Rotor Interaction in Axial Turbine: Flow Physics and Design Perspective”, Chapter 5,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76009.
291 Denos R, Arts T, Paniagua G, Michelassi V, Martelli F. Investigation of the unsteady rotor aerodynamics in a

transonic turbine stage. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 2001;123(1):81-89.

292 Sieverding CH. Recent progress in the understanding of basic aspects of secondary lows in turbine blade

passages. Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power. 1985;107:248-257.

 238

boundary layer properties may cause some pressure fluctuation on the cascade loading, as discussed
in293.
Low-pressure stages, on the contrary, are very sensitive to Reynolds number effects. The wakes
coming from the upstream cascade periodically act as a trigger for the boundary layer transition from
laminar to turbulent conditions. Such periodic transition, possibly re-laminarization, is beneficial in
preventing the boundary layer separation and this allows for higher loading. In this context, ultra-
high lift blade can be proficiently applied either to reduce the aero-engine weight or to power the fan
(among others294-295).
All these issues have been addressed both experimentally and by proper CFD simulations;
experiments require high promptness instrumentation like FRAPP (among others296) or LDV and PIV.
Simulation, as well, requires high performance codes and schemes able to face the sliding of rotors
with respect to the stationary components.
In order to gain a general perspective and to quote the importance of the interaction on the cascade
aerodynamics, the reduced frequency concept has been introduced. It refers to the ratio between the
time scale of the unsteadiness (typically: Ss/U, where Ss is the stator pitch and U is the rotor peripheral
speed) and the one related to the transport of the mass low across the device (i.e. b/Vax where b =
axial chord and Vax = the mean axial velocity component).
The reduced frequency definition then is: f = (bU)/(Ss Vax). When f <<1, the process can be considered
as steady and its time variation related to U can be approximated as a sequence of steady state. When
f >> 1, the process is dominated by the unsteadiness. Finally, when f ≈ 1, the unsteady and quasi steady
processes have the same order of magnitude and importance. In many cases, turbomachinery work
is in the range of f ≈ 1 while for example the combustor-1° stage interaction lies in the quasi steady
conditions297.
In the present contribution, the focus is given mainly to the gas turbines geometries and operating
conditions, even though the same mechanism can be applied to steam stages. As already introduced
by the title, the core of this contribution is devoted to the general discussion of the low physics, rather
than on the quantification and on the detailed description of the specific issues: this way, in author’s
opinion, once the general aspects are acknowledged, the detailed issues; as discussed in papers here
referenced, can be properly understood.
Finally, the discussion will be on a single stage, constituted by a stator and a rotor, taken as a
representative for the whole machine. In the case of multistage turbomachines, the low field
discharge by the rotor will affect, with the same mechanics described in the following, the subsequent
stator. Additionally, there could be some “clocking” features between stators and rotors that may
alter the single stage performance.
Experimental results have been taken by means of a steady five holes probe and fast response
aerodynamic pressure probe (FRAPP) on the high-pressure axial turbine located at the laboratory of
fluid-machinery (LFM) of the Politecnico di Milano. More information on the rig and measurement
techniques reported in various papers. It is important to stress that the FRAPP is applied in a
stationary frame and gives the phase resolved total and static pressure (and hence the Mach number)

293 Hu B, Ouyang H, Jin G-Y, Du Z-H. The influence of the circumferential skew on the unsteady pressure fluctuation

of surfaces of rear stator blades. Journal of Experiments in Fluid Mechanics. 2013.

294 Stieger RD, Hodson HP. The unsteady development of a turbulent wake through a downstream low-pressure

turbine blade passage. Journal of Turbomachinery. 2005;127:388-394

295 Lengani D, Simoni D, Ubaldi M, Zunino P, Bertini F, Michelassi V. Accurate estimation of profile losses and

analysis of loss generation mechanism in turbine cascade. Journal of Turbomachinery. 2017;139:121007/1-9.

DOI: 10.1115/1.4037858
296 Persico G, Gaetani P, Guardone A. Design and analysis of new concept fast-response pressure probes.

Measurement Science and Technology. 2005;16:1741-1750

297 Ong J, Miller RJ. Hot streak and vane coolant migration in a downstream rotor. Journal of Turbomachinery. 7

May 2012;134(5). Article number 051002.

 239

and the low angle; then, by assuming a negligible effect of the temperature fluctuations, the relative
Mach number and, by this, the relative total pressure are calculated. CFD results have been obtained
on the same HP turbine geometry by means of Fluent® code.
9.6.2 Stator-Rotor Interaction in Axial Stages
The stator-rotor interaction features different characters if occurred in high-pressure or low-
pressure stages. In low-pressure stages, thanks to the high blade height, the main interaction element
is the wake in a general low-Reynolds environment. On the contrary, high-pressure stages are
typically characterized by small blade heights, due to the high mean density and by a stream with
high Mach and Reynolds numbers and high mean temperatures. As in all stages, the wake generated
by the stator impinges on the rotor blades being an important source of interaction, but due to the
specific features of HP stages–other sources of interaction are present.
The small blade height has the primary impact of powering the effects of the secondary and clearance
lows; in fact, they cannot be considered as negligible and modifies the potential low pattern for a
large amount of the blade span. From the stator-rotor interaction perspective, this feature makes the
problem much more complex as an additional source of interaction takes place.
A common feature of the different kind of secondary lows is to be connected to loss cores, as found
for wakes. However, secondary lows are also vortical structures and hence characterized by vorticity
whose sense of rotation is different among the different vortices. Therefore, in the analysis of the
interaction mechanism, this last feature has to be properly taken into account.
Mach number typically modulates the intensity and position of the swirling cores and, if supersonic,
sets the shock wave pattern discharged by the cascades. The Reynolds number, typically high and for
this the low can be regarded as turbulent, mainly sets the interaction between the incoming
structures and the rotor blades boundary layers. As mentioned earlier, to aid the reader in the
comprehension, the different kinds of interaction are discussed separately.
9.6.2.1 Stator Wake-Rotor Blade
Interaction
The stator wake can be regarded either
as a velocity defect or a loss filament.
According to the first approach, the
velocity triangle composition shows a
very different direction and magnitude
for the relative velocity. Figure 9.28
shows the triangles for the free stream
and for the wake low; it is evident how
the relative velocity of the wake flow
(WW) heads towards the blade suction
side, featuring also a negative
incidence on the rotor blade.
According to the second approach, the
wake has no streamwise vorticity
associated to it, being the only vorticity
present related to the Von Karman
street, whose axis is parallel to the
blade span. Once the wake interacts
with the downstream rotor blade, it is
Figure 9.28 Velocity triangles for the free stream
bowed and then chopped by the rotor (subscript FS) and the wake (subscript W) lows. V =
leading edge. Later on, it is transported absolute velocity, W = relative velocity, U = peripheral
inside the rotor channel, being velocity
smeared and showing two separate
 240

legs: one close to the suction side and one to the pressure side. Globally, the wake is pushed towards
the rotor suction side by the cross-passage pressure field and, possibly, its suction side leg may
interact with the blade boundary layer, this feature depends mainly on the rotor loading. Figure
9.29 shows the wake in terms of entropy filament, as computed by CFD in 2D – 1 × 1 case.
Downstream of the rotor blade, the wake typically appears as a distinct loss core close to the rotor
wake or as a part of
the rotor wake; this
option is strictly
dependent also on
the axial position
downstream of the
rotor where the
analysis is done. For
this reason, in some
papers this
mechanism is
acknowledged as
“wake-wake”
interaction.
Being the rotor blade
different in number
with respect to the
stator one, different
rotor channels
experience the
interaction in Figure 9.29 Pattern of entropy evolution (bowing, chopping and transport) of
different time even the stator wake in the rotor channel, as foreseen by CFD
though the basic
mechanism does not
differ. The rate of the interaction depends on the stator wake intensity, that is, on the stator loading,
on the blade trailing edge thickness, on the axial stator-rotor gap, on the Reynolds numbers and, for
cooled blade, on the kind of cooling applied.
In case of low pressure turbines, where typically the Reynolds number is low, as for the aeroengine
cases, the wake – wake interaction is in fact the only effective mechanism. Its importance grows as
the Reynolds number decreases and specifically, the incoming wakes, once interacting with the
suction side boundary layer, promotes the laminar to turbulent transition. Such a transition, on one
hand increases losses but on the other hand increases the boundary layer capability to face adverse
pressure gradient and for this delaying the boundary layer separation and hence the blade stall.
Thanks to this mechanism, aero-engines low-pressure stages have seen an increase of loading and
for this a reduction of weight, either for a reduction of solidity or overall number of rows 298-299. It
has to be recalled that this mechanism constitutes an aerodynamic forcing on the rotor blade whose
frequency depends on the stator blade passing frequency that is in the rotating frame of reference
the frequency which the rotor sees the stator wake passing ahead.
9.6.2.2 Stator Secondary Lows-Rotor Blade Interaction

298 Ravindranah A, Lakshminarayana B. Mean velocity and decay characteristics of the near and far-wake of a
compressor rotor blade of moderate loading. ASME Journal of Engineering for Power. 1980;102(3):535-548
299 Hodson HP, Howell RJ. The role of transition in high lift low pressure turbines. Effects of Aerodynamic

Unsteadiness in Axial Turbomachinery, VKI Lecture Series 2005-03. 2005.

 241

The basic mechanism for this kind of interaction is the same of the wake-blade one, the vortical
filament is bowed, chopped and hence transported in the rotor channel. Notwithstanding such
similarity, two main differences can be acknowledged. The vortical structure has its own streamwise
vorticity in terms of magnitude and sense of rotation and for this a different interaction and impact
with the rotor can be expected depending on the entering position in the rotor channel. Moreover,
the vortex entering in the rotor channel is a low structure specifically localized along the blade span
and pitch, whereas the wake is distributed along the span.
It has to be recalled, without aiming at being exhaustive, that different swirling structures can be
acknowledged downstream of the stator, as depicted in Figure 9.30 and discussed in300. The main
ones are the passage vortices, located symmetrically at tip and hub, activated by the pressure
gradient across the passage and hence directed from the pressure side to the suction side. These
vortices have a wide extension but typically low intensities (i.e. vorticities). At the same time, the
presence of the inlet boundary layer activates also the horseshoe vortices, two legs per end wall.
Coupled to each passage vortex, the shed vortex can be found, activated by the interaction between
the passage vortex and the low momentum fluid belonging to the blade wake. The two passage
vortices have opposite sense of rotation. The two horseshoe vortex legs have opposite sense of
rotation between them and the pressure side leg is co-rotating to the corresponding passage vortex.

Figure 9.30 Simplified Schematic of the Secondary Flows System Downstream of a Rotor

Passage and horseshoe vortices start their growing at the stator leading edge and continue it along
the stator channel, possibly merging among them or smearing depending on the stator loading and
on the inlet boundary layer thickness.

300Langston LS. Secondary flows in axial turbines; A review. 2006. Annals of the New York Academy of Science.
htps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05839.x
 242

The shed vortex, being activated by the viscous transport, starts growing at the stator trailing edge
at the expense of the passage vortex swirling energy, reaches its highest intensity in about half chord
and then weakens due to the viscous stress that smoothens the velocity gradients. Its sense of
rotation is opposite to the one of the corresponding passage vortex.
Tip clearance vortex may be present depending on the sealing geometries of the stator and of the
rotor. Typically, it is located at the hub in stators while it is at the tip in rotors, this later case being
much more important and frequent. Its sense of rotation is opposite to the passage vortex, being
directed from the pressure side towards the suction side across the blade.
It is important to underline that all these swirling lows are present both in stators and in rotors, but
with opposite sense of rotation as a consequence of the different cross pressure gradient versus in
the two channels.
The secondary flow magnitude and position, besides the difference related to the tip clearance, is
different between the hub and the tip. In fact, the radial equilibrium, that onsets due to the tangential
component downstream of the stator, makes the static pressure at the tip higher than at the hub and
for this a higher Mach number at the hub. The effect of the Mach number is well known and primarily
documented by [Perdichizzi]301. Moreover, the pressure gradient acts to diffuse and to shift
centripetally the vortical structures at the tip and to confine close to the end wall the hub ones.

Figure 9.31 Total pressure loss (Y%), streamwise vorticity (Ωs) and absolute Mach number (M)
downstream of the stator. Experiments at the Fluidmachinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy).

301Perdichizzi A. Mach number effects on secondary low development of a turbine cascade. Journal of
Turbomachinery. 1990;112:643-651. DOI: 10.1115/1.2927705
 243

Possible incidence angles to the stator additionally modulate the secondary lows. Positive incidence
angle strengthens secondary lows, as well as lower solidities, as a consequence of the higher blade
loading. Among others, a global review.
The low entering the rotor is then highly three dimensional and complex, as depicted in Figure 9.31.
In the case presented in Figure 9.31, by the total pressure loss coefficient and the vorticity, the
passage vortices, the shed vortices and a corner vortex can be acknowledged. The Mach number map
is also proposed to show the reduction due to the viscous effects of the wake and vortices and the
modulation by the potential field.
To get the rotor perspective, unsteady measurements performed in the stator-rotor axial gap are
reported in Error! Reference source not found.. Such measurements, taken by FRAPP, have been p
lotted by applying a phase-averaging technique and a phase-lag reconstruction. The rotor pitch being
smaller than the stator one, the stator wake in some instant occupies more than half of the rotor pitch,
as clearly evidenced by the total pressure loss map (Error! Reference source not found. a). The
condition of constant inlet total pressure both in the absolute and in the relative frame is, so far, an
unrealistic condition; Error! Reference source not found. b shows the periodic nonuniformities
throughout the relative total pressure coefficient (CPT,R).
To aid the reader comprehension, it is first introduced that, given such complex and stator dependent
low, in this chapter, only the basic low physics is described; in fact, the scope is to provide tools for
the fluid dynamic understanding rather than a unique explanation. As introduced at the beginning of
this paragraph, the basis of the interaction between the vortex filament and the rotor blade field can
be considered as not really different with respect to the wake one. The huge difference consists of the
streamwise vorticity that characterizes the vortical filament.

Figure 9.32 Rotor inlet low field in the rotating frame of reference. Frame (a) Yloss = total pressure
loss. Frame (b) CPT,R: relative total pressure coefficient. Experiments at the Fluid machinery Lab. at
Politecnico di Milano (Italy).

Once the swirling filament is bended in the rotor channel, the pressure side leg sense of rotation
changes while the suction side leg preserves the original one (Error! Reference source not found.). M
 244

oreover, being the suction side leg accelerated by the overspeed on the rotor section side, its vorticity
increases; on the contrary, the pressure side leg decreases and it is smeared out along its transport.
Once the vortical structures enter the rotor channel, they interact both with the passage pressure
field and with the rising vortical structure of
the rotor itself. So far, the stator tip passage
vortices, being opposite to the rotor one, tend
to weaken it (and the same occurs for the hub
ones). On the contrary, the stator shed vortex,
being co-rotating with the rotor passage one
will strengthen it. Swirling lows structure
entering in the rotor close to the end walls will
have stronger effects on the rotor secondary
lows generations; on the contrary, the ones
entering far from end walls will interact in the
downstream portion of the channel.
Moreover, the pressure side legs, as their sense
of rotation is opposite with respect the original
one, will undergo the opposite interaction
features.
As the stator vortical structures enter the rotor
periodically, with a frequency in the rotor
frame equal to the stator blade passing one, the
interaction process takes places periodically
and this generates a pulsation of the rotor field.
Figure 9.33 Schematics of the stator vortical
Before discussing in detail the different time
structure transport in the rotor passage
frames, it is straightforward to consider first
the mean flow (Figure 9.34 (a–b)): the CPT,R
coefficient is in fact the total pressure in the relative frame and this evidence the loss cores generated
in the rotor and in the stator. The wide low CPT,R region is mainly due to the rotor wake with some
strengthening and enlargement due to the rotor secondary vortices (tip clearance and tip/hub

Figure 9.34 Time mean flow field downstream of the rotor for a subsonic operating condition (expansion
ratio 1.4, reaction degree at midspan 0.3 and incidence angle close to zero). Frame (a) relative total
pressure coefficient (CPT,R); frame (b) deviation angle (δ). Experiments at the Fluid machinery Lab. at
Politecnico di Milano (Italy).
 245

passage vortex). The vortical structures can be acknowledged by making use of the Rankine vortex
model applied to the deviation angle map and reported in Figure 9.34 b. The clearance low
experiences a positive deviation angle as it is less deflected by the blade than the main low. At the
same time, the cross low activated at the hub by the transversal pressure gradient, generates higher
low deflection and for this a negative deviation angle is found. However, the time mean low field
differs from the instantaneous one due to the interaction process.
The full rotor crown has been calculated by applying a phase leg technique to the experimental
results, measured downstream of the rotor for different stator/rotor phases theory one stator pitch.
It is clearly shown in Figure 9.35 how the 25 channels of the turbine rotor experience different low
conditions, each of them different with respect to the time mean one.
The tip region, being dominated by the tip clearance vortex is weakly sensitive to the periodic low
evolution. On the contrary, the midspan/hub region is strongly periodically pulsating. Being the
stator (n° 21) and rotor blades (n° 25) prime numbers and given that the closest periodicity is around
one-thirds, the pattern evidences a periodicity every 120°.

Figure 9.35 Relative total pressure coefficient on the whole rotor crown. Experiments at the Fluid
machinery Lab. At Politecnico di Milano (Italy).

By considering the total pressure unresolved unsteadiness, calculated as the standard deviation of
the total pressure for each phase and position in the measuring plane , the turbulent structure can be
acknowledged: for this it will be considered as the turbulence (Tu). Some of them are rotor
 246

dependent, like the rotor wake, clearance lows and rotor secondary lows; other structures, on the
contrary have a clear periodic evolution with some instant where they do not exist.
Figure 9.36 reports different instants of the rotor evolution for three quantities: the relative total
pressure coefficient, the deviation angle and the unresolved unsteadiness. With respect to the time
averaged low reported in Figure 9.34 (for the same operating condition), the relative total pressure
coefficient shows a fluctuating loss region, with the widest extension at t/BPP = 0.83 and the smallest
one at t/BPP = 0.25, mainly in the hub region. For this later time instant, the deviation angle shows
the smallest gradient in the hub region and the unresolved unsteadiness the lowest intensity.

Figure 9.36 Relative total pressure coefficient (CPT,R), deviation angle (δ) and turbulence (Tu) for 4
interaction phases. Experiments at the Fluid machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy).
 247

At t/BPP = 0.37, a vortical structure, evidenced by a high deviation angle gradient, appears in the hub
region and magnifies up to t/BPP = 0.83 where its intensity is the largest. Unresolved unsteadiness
and relative total pressure, mark this structure as a loss core periodically impacting on the rotor
channel. The sense of rotation allows accounting this phenomenon as the impact of the stator hub
shed vortex, strong enough at the stator exit, on the rotor hub passage vortex. The tip region on the
contrary experiences an opposite trend with the strongest vortical structure at t/BPP = 0.25, when
likely the higher inlet total pressure is found.
The highest turbulent and loss contents are found in the tip clearance region due to the high
dissipation related to the clearance low. The interaction here briefly described is unfortunately for
the designer case dependent where, as discussed later one, the axial gap and the loading are
important issues.
To get a comprehensive perspective on the importance and on the region where the interaction takes
place, the standard deviation among the different time fames is straightforward and reported in
Figure 9.37. With reference to the relative total pressure coefficient, the wider fluctuations are, as
qualitatively expected by Figure 9.35 and Figure 9.36 in the midspan-hub region. The more
sensitive region at midspan is located on the wake suction side border that is the place where the
stator wake interacts with the rotor one; in that region, the deviation angle evidences coherently
small fluctuations. The tip region is in fact steady as the clearance low dominates over all other
structures. The hub regions, experience both variation on the total pressure coefficient and deviation
angle, being the seat of the vortex/wake and vortex/vortex interaction. With reference to the
deviation angle map (Figure 9.37 b), the deviation angle experiences the highest fluctuation in the
interface between the tip and hub passage vortex; moreover, all along the rotor wake, it fluctuates,
showing the low turning to be highly sensitive to the periodic interaction.

Figure 9.37 Standard deviation of the Cptr and δ for the different time frames. Experiments at the Fluid
machinery Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy).

9.6.2.3 Of Design Conditions

To improve the analysis, different operating conditions are described here, being different for the
incidence angle and expansion ratio. The effect of the axial gap will be discussed in the following
chapter. As the interaction depends on the rotor loading, all changes in this parameter will affect the
intensity. Specifically, the increase in the rotor loading, by increasing the incidence angle, will
strengthen the interaction leaving unchanged the basic mechanism. In fact, when the rotor loading
increases, the rotor suction side boundary layer is more prone to instability and the rotor vortical
structure more intense, making all of them more sensitive to any variation coming from upstream.
Figure 9.38, shows the relative total pressure coefficient and deviation angle standard deviations,
 248

calculated among the different time instants, for a negative incidence conditions (Figure 9.38 a,
incidence at midspan = −10°) and a positive one (Figure 9.38 b, incidence at midspan = +10°). When
the overall effect is of concern, the different interaction intensity leaves a trace on the total to total
efficiency that can be summarized by stating that the higher the interaction, the lower is the
efficiency. When the fluid-dynamic forcing on the rotor blade is under study, the frequency of the
forcing event is the one of the stator passing frequency multiplied by the number of swirling
structures found along the pitch. It has to be brought to the attention of the reader that the stator-
rotor interaction is fundamental for the analysis of the interconnection frames, as discussed in and
of the turbine acoustic behavior302.

Figure 9.38 Rotor loading effects on the stator-rotor interaction. Experiments at the Fluid machinery
Lab. at Politecnico di Milano (Italy).

9.6.2.4 Stator Shock-Rotor Blade Interaction

The third possible source of interaction is related to the shocks generated at the stator trailing edge
that impinge on the rotor leading edge region. Stators in high-pressure stages work often in transonic
conditions at least in the hub region. Rarely, they are chocked as in this condition low rate regulation
is limited. The shock system typically has a fish-tail pattern characterized by oblique shocks; the

302Knobloch K, Holewa A, Guérin S, Mahmoudi Y, Hynes T, Bake F. Noise transmission characteristics of a high
pressure turbine stage. 22nd AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference; Lyon, France; 2016.
 249

suction side shock is stronger than the pressure side one. The suction side shock propagates
downstream and interacts with the following row, while the pressure side one impinges on the
adjacent blade, specifically on the suction side, being further reflected downstream.
Across the shock, the low experiences a steep and opposite pressure gradient that, if applied to the
boundary layer, acts to de-stabiles it, leading to separated low bubbles. Thanks to the high Reynolds
number, whose action is to promote the momentum exchange in the boundary layer, the effect is not
that critical in high-pressure stages; it has to be recalled that rarely the outlet Mach number exceed
1.5, value where the entropy rise due to shock starts to be important.
As the stator shock sweep the rotor leading edge region, unsteadiness in the static pressure is found
and for this in the boundary layer evolution; luckily, this happens where the boundary layer
momentum deficit is close to be the smallest at the very beginning of the boundary layer evolution.
As reported by [1, 36–38], the rotor trailing edge region is slightly affected, at least in term of static
pressure and for this the boundary layer and the rotor wake are expected to be almost steady. The
highest interaction is found in the leading edge/suction side region as clearly reported in Figure
9.39; the shock sweeping on the rotor leading edge first interact with the suction side of the blade
(approx. in the location of measuring point n° 6, in Figure 9.39) and then reached the leading edge
(measuring point n° 2).

Figure 9.39 Vane shock-rotor interaction in axial turbine blades. Red: computation, black: experiments.
Adapted from [Denos et al.]

The pressure side is less affected by the interaction being overshadowed by the leading edge. It is
clear how the blade shape, in terms of camber/stagger angles and front/rear loading as well, it is a
key parameter for this class of interaction. The magnitude of the stator shock impinging on the rotor
is strictly dependent on the axial gap; the wider it is, the weaker is the shock effect, being the shock
decay rather fast.
From a mechanical perspective, the forcing induced by the stator shock on the rotor is at the stator
passing frequency multiplied by the number of shocks impinging on the rotor per each stator
passage, even though typically only one is important. Other interesting studies on the interaction in
transonic turbine are, where different conditions and geometries are discussed.
 250

9.6.3 Design Perspective

In general, there are a huge number of parameters that can be adjusted during the design process.
Among the different parameters, some of them will be hereby described to deepen the understanding
of the interaction features.
9.6.3.1 Axial Gap
The axial gap is one of the key parameter for the stage optimization. In general, the increase of the
axial gap promotes the wake and secondary lows mixing and this leads to a more uniform rotor inlet
low field in the absolute frame of reference. However, the mixing increases losses and the overall
total pressure level reduces. For low axial gaps, on the contrary, low-mixing takes places but a highly
nonuniform low enters in the rotor, leading to additional losses in the rotor itself. It is clear so far,
how the axial gap is a parameter that has to undergo an optimization process and this is the reason
why it has been the focus of a number of research that gave different results, likely depending on the
operating condition and stage loading.
In the context of the wide experimental campaign on the stator-rotor interaction at Politecnico di
Milano, the axial gap has been also addressed and studied. The detailed discussion of the results is
reported in303, while in this context only a brief recall is proposed. Three gaps have been
experimentally investigated, equal to 16, 35 and 50% of the stator axial chord. For the lowest gap
case, the stator structures like wake and passage vortices are more intense than other cases and this
promotes a strong interaction that results in a severe periodic fluctuation in the rotor outlet
quantities. On the contrary as the gap increases, the mechanism is mainly driven by the stator shed
vorticities that strengthen at the expense of the passage vortices intensities, as described in the
previous paragraph. The somehow surprising result is that the lowest interaction rate is for the
design case that is a gap of 35% of the stator axial chord, condition where the inlet low field is the
more uniform in terms of relative total pressure and rotor deviation angle, as clearly depicted in
Error! Reference source not found.. For larger gaps, the combination of stator potential field and w

Figure 9.40 Standard deviation for the different instants of the interaction phases. (A) axial gap: x/bs =
16%; (B) axial gap: x/bs = 35%, nominal; C) axial gap = 50%. Experiments at the Fluid machinery Lab. at
Politecnico di Milano (Italy).

303Gaetani P, Persico G, Osnaghi C. Effects of axial gap on the vane-rotor interaction in a low aspect ratio turbine
stage. Journal of Propulsion and Power. 2010;26:325-334
 251

ake acts to amplify the inlet fluctuation, as reported for the incidence angle in Error! Reference
source not found..
Overall, the stage experiences the
maximum efficiency for the design case
(Figure 9.42), about 1% higher,
showing the potential of this
parameter in the optimization during
the design process. According to the
open literature, this trend is confirmed
by some authors but seems not
general, either for a lack of detailed
data or for a case dependency in the
stator wake-potential field coupling
along the axial direction, in the axial
gap region.
When the aerodynamic forcing is of
concern, the axial gap plays a role,
since the forcing functions, as the wake
velocity defect and the secondary lows,
are stronger for low axial gaps. Figure 9.41 Rotor incidence fluctuations in
circumferential direction for the different axial gaps along
9.6.3.2 End wall Contouring and 3D the blade span
Blade Geometries
As discussed in the previous sections,
the secondary lows are in the high-pressure
turbine stages a leading issue for the
cascade interactions. Given this matter of
fact, any action devoted to the secondary
low reduction or segregation is
straightforward for softening the stator-
rotor interaction, aiming moreover to an
overall efficiency increase. Among the
possible turbomachinery design
methodologies, two of them are here briefly
commented: the end wall contouring and
the 3D blade design.
The end wall contouring consists of a
specific end wall shape, at tip/hub or both,
aiming at providing lower velocities in the
blade portion where the highest loading is Figure 9.42 Efficiency trend versus the axial gap.
Experiments at the Fluid machinery Lab. at Politecnico
applied, that is higher turning. This feature
di Milano (Italy).
results in a lower local cross-passage
pressure gradient and a strong acceleration
in the rear part of the blade. The final result is a reduction of the passage vortex in the contoured side
of the passage, while the not contoured side experience about the same vortical structures.
The second possible action is the 3D blade design. It consists of a design methodology based on a
different blade stacking with respect to the conventional radial one, leading to the so-called leaned
and/or bowed blades. Typically, the lean given to blades is positive that means a blade stacking
inclined towards the pressure side. The bowing is given by applying a symmetrical leaning at tip and
hub. These methodologies allow for a “low control’ at the cascade outlet in terms of radial pressure
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gradient and hence reaction. In case of positive leaning, an additional vorticity is introduced on the
channel; specifically, it increases the one related to the passage vortex at the hub and smear the tip
one. At the same time, the lean change the blade loading along the span by amplifying the tip one and
reducing the hub one: overall such a feature makes the secondary low at the hub less intense than
the case of prismatic blades.
Figure 9.31 shows the vorticity field downstream of the lean annular cascade, characterized by a
positive lean of 10°. When the lean is applied symmetrically at hub and tip, this benefit is gained also
at tip. Overall, the final effect in the frame of the stator/rotor interaction process is the reduction of
the secondary lows and their segregation at the end walls. This design methodology leads to an
overall benefit even though the single cascade does not improve significantly its performance.
9.6.3.3 Cascades Clocking
Cascades clocking refers to the design option related to the proper alignment of blades belonging to
different cascades in the same frame of reference (stator/stator or rotor/rotor) in the context of
multistage machines. In fact, downstream of each stage the “wake avenue’ is found, that is the global
effect of the stator wake and secondary lows on the rotor outlet low field in the time mean context.
This concept can be applied also to the rotor wake, when a multistage environment is considered. To
ease the understanding, let us refer to a two stages machine and specifically to the impact of the 1°
stator wake avenue on the 2° stator. Depending on the kind of stages and their loading,
the impact of the wake avenue can be proficiently used for increasing the following cascade efficiency.
In order to clock the two different rows, cascades should have number of blades that are multiple
each other and for this the design assumption of prime number have to be abandoned (it can be kept
for the stator and rotor of the single stage). So far, the highest efficiency is therefore gained by using
the same blade numbers between the two stators (or rotors for rotor-clocking).
In LP turbines the clocking is directly linked to the wakes, while in transonic HP turbines the effect is
mainly related to the interaction of wakes and secondary lows, that is the total pressure and total
temperature fields on the whole, downstream the first stage with the second stator.
According to the early work from304, the efficiency is achieved when the segments of the first vane
wake avenue, released by the rotor, impinge on the leading edge of the second vane. The basic reason
for this result is that the low momentum fluid coming from the first stage, collapse in the boundary
layer of the second vane and for this do not affect the passage, studied in detail the clocking effects
driven by the stator secondary lows in a two stage subsonic and transonic turbines.
According to [Schennach et al.]305, the interaction with secondary vortices is highly complex due to
the different kind and intensity of the vortical structure itself. When the rotor structures dominate,
as can happen in the tip region due to the tip clearance or for the hub secondary vortex, the clocking
effect is somehow shadowed. The outer part of the channel, being typically the rotor tip passage
vortex highly sensitive to the stator-rotor interaction in the upstream stage, is the place with the
highest potential for the clocking. This result makes the proper alignment choice complex for the
designer as it is not really general.
In case of transonic stages, the hub region, being the seat of the 1° stator shock wave and hence of
the highest stator-rotor modulation, has a high potential for clocking.
As a general conclusion, when the low momentum fluid enters on the 2° stator leading edge or close
to the pressure side, the highest efficiency is found. On the contrary, when the low momentum fluid
coming from the 1° vane enters close to the 2° vane suction side, the lowest efficiency is found, as a
consequence of the destabilizing effects on the suction side boundary layer and the lowest expansion
ratio there available and for this lowest suction side overspeed and for this blade lift.

304 Jiang JP, Li JW, Cai GB, Wang J. Effects of axial gap on aerodynamic force and response of shrouded and
unshrouded blade. Science China Technological Sciences. 2017;60(4):491-500
305 Schennach O, Woisetschläger J, Paradiso B, Persico G, Gaetani P. Three dimensional clocking effects in a one

and a half stage transonic turbine. Journal of Turbomachinery. 2010;132(1):011019. 1-10. Inglese
 253

Low-pressure turbines behavior, where an increase of 0.7% in the efficiency is found by numerical
simulations.
As a conclusive comment, the benefit achievable by clocking the cascades can be of the order of 1%
in the 2° stator efficiency, being anyway highly depending on the stage features.
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10 Radial Flow
Up to now we were mostly concern with Axial flows. Now we pay homage to Radial flows which
designed in many everyday life tools. According to dictionary, in radial flows, the working fluid is
flowing mainly along the radii of rotation.

10.1 Centrifugal Compressor

Centrifugal compressors, as depicted in Figure
10.1, sometimes termed Radial compressors,
are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-
absorbing turbomachinery306. The idealized
compressive dynamic turbo-machine achieves a
pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity
to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or
impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted
to an increase in potential energy/static
pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser.
The pressure rise in impeller is in most cases
almost equal to the rise in the diffuser section.

10.1.1 Operation Theory

In the case of where flow simply passes through
a straight pipe to enter a centrifugal
compressor; the flow is straight, uniform and
has no vorticity. As illustrated below α1 = 0°. As
the flow continues to pass into and through the
centrifugal impeller, the impeller forces the flow Figure 10.1 Centrifugal impeller with a highly
to spin faster and faster. According to a form of polished surface likely to improve performance
Euler's fluid dynamics equation, known as
pump and turbine equation, the energy input to the fluid is proportional to the flow's local spinning
velocity multiplied by the local impeller tangential velocity. In many cases the flow leaving centrifugal
impeller is near the speed of sound (340 m/s). The flow then typically flows through a stationary
compressor causing it to decelerate. These stationary compressors are actually static guide vanes
where energy transformation takes place. As described in Bernoulli's principle, this reduction in
velocity causes the pressure to rise leading to a compressed fluid.

10.1.2 Similarities to Axial Compressor

Centrifugal compressors are similar to axial compressors in that they are rotating airfoil based
compressors as shown in the adjacent figure.307,308 It should not be surprising that the first part of
the centrifugal impeller looks very similar to an axial compressor. This first part of the centrifugal
impeller is also termed an inducer. Centrifugal compressors differ from axials as they use a greater
change in radius from inlet to exit of the rotor/impeller. The 1940s-era German Heinkel HeS 011
experimental aviation turbojet engine was the first aviation turbojet design to have any sort of

306 Shepard, Dennis G. “Principles of Turbomachinery”, McMillan. ISBN 0-471-85546-4. LCCN 56002849, 1956.
307 Lakshminarayana, B. (1996). “Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery”, New York: John Wiley
& Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-85546-4.
308 Japikse, David & Baines, Nicholas C., “Introduction to Turbomachinery”, Oxford: Oxford University press.

ISBN 0-933283-10-5, 1997.

 255

"mixed compressor" design in its fore-sections, as it had a single-stage "diagonal flow" main
compressor ahead of a triple-stage axial unit, driven by a twin-stage turbine.

10.1.3 Components of a simple Centrifugal Compressor

A simple centrifugal compressor has four components: inlet, impeller/rotor, diffuser, and collector.
Figure 10.2 shows each of the components of the flow path, with the flow (working gas) entering
the centrifugal impeller axially from right to left (blue). As a result of the impeller rotating clockwise
when looking downstream into the compressor, the flow will pass through the volute's discharge
cone moving away from the figure's viewer. The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple
pipe. It may include features such as a valve, stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow)
and both pressure and temperature instrumentation. All of these additional devices have important
uses in the control of the centrifugal compressor.

Figure 10.2 Cut-Away View of a Turbocharger showing the Centrifugal Compressor

10.1.3.1 Inlet
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple pipe. It may include features such as a valve,
stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the flow) and both pressure and temperature
instrumentation. All of these additional devices have important uses in the control of the centrifugal
compressor.

10.1.3.2 Centrifugal Impeller

The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal impeller, Figure 10.1,
which contains a rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the energy of the working gas.
This is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the gases can reach higher velocities
and energy levels through the impeller's increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency
 256

centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling near the speed of sound. Impellers
are designed in many configurations including "open" (visible blades), "covered or shrouded", "with
splitters" (every other inducer removed) and "w/o splitters" (all full blades). Figure 10.2 show open
impellers with splitters. Most modern high efficiency impellers use "back sweep" in the blade
shape309-310. Euler’s pump and turbine equation plays an important role in understanding impeller
performance.

10.1.3.3 Diffuser
The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the diffuser. Downstream of the
impeller in the flow path, it is the diffuser's responsibility to convert the kinetic energy (high velocity)
of the gas into pressure by gradually slowing (diffusing) the gas velocity. Diffusers can be vaneless,
vane or an alternating combination. High efficiency vane diffusers are also designed over a wide
range of solidities from less than 1 to over 4. Hybrid versions of vane diffusers include: wedge,
channel, and pipe diffusers. There are turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no
diffuser. Bernoulli's fluid dynamic principle plays an important role in understanding diffuser
performance.

Figure 10.3 Jet Engine Cutaway Showing the Centrifugal Compressor among others

10.1.3.4 Collector
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the diffuser
discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When the diffuser
discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull's horn or a French horn, the

309Japikse, David. “Centrifugal Compressor Design and Performance”. Concepts ETI . ISBN 0-933283-03-2.
310 Aungier, Ronald H. (2000). “Centrifugal Compressors, A Strategy for Aerodynamic Design and Analysis”. ASME
Press. ISBN 0-7918-0093-8.
 257

collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a collector’s purpose is to gather
the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver this flow to a downstream pipe. Either the
collector or the pipe may also contain valves and instrumentation to control the compressor.

10.1.4 Applications
Below, is a partial list of centrifugal compressor applications each with a brief description of some of
the general characteristics possessed by those compressors. To start this list two of the most well-
known centrifugal compressor applications are listed; gas turbines and turbochargers.
10.1.4.1 Gas Turbines and Auxiliary Power Units
In their simple form, modern gas turbines operate on the Brayton cycle. Either or both axial and
centrifugal compressors are used to provide compression. The types of gas turbines that most often
include centrifugal compressors include turboshaft, turboprop, auxiliary power units, and micro-
turbines. The industry standards applied to all of the centrifugal compressors used in aircraft
applications are set by the FAA and the military to maximize both safety and durability under severe
conditions. Centrifugal impellers used in gas turbines are commonly made from titanium alloy
forgings. Their flow-path blades are commonly flank milled or point milled on 5-axis milling
machines. When tolerances and clearances are the tightest, these designs are completed as hot
operational geometry and deflected back into the cold geometry as required for manufacturing. This
need arises from the impeller's deflections experienced from start-up to full speed/full temperature
which can be 100 times larger than the expected hot running clearance of the impeller.
10.1.4.2 Automotive and Diesel Engines Turbochargers and Superchargers
Centrifugal compressors used in conjunction with reciprocating internal combustion engines are
known as turbochargers if driven by the engine’s exhaust gas and turbo-superchargers if
mechanically driven by the engine. Ideal gas properties often work well for the design, test and
analysis of turbocharger centrifugal compressor performance.
10.1.4.3 Natural Gas to Move the Gas from the Production site to the Consumer
Centrifugal compressors for such uses may be one or multi-stage and driven by large gas turbines.
The impellers are often if not always of the covered style which makes them look much like pump
impellers. This type of compressor is also often termed an API-style. The power needed to drive these
compressors is most often in the thousands of horsepower (HP). Use of real gas properties is needed
to properly design, test and analyze the performance of natural gas pipeline centrifugal compressors.
10.1.4.4 Oil Refineries, Natural Gas Processing, Petrochemical and Chemical Plants
Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often one-shaft multi-stage and driven by large steam or
gas turbines. Their casings are often termed horizontally split or barrel. Standards set by the
industry (ANSI/API, ASME) for these compressors result in large thick casings to maximize safety.
The impellers are often if not always of the covered style which makes them look much like pump
impellers. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design, test and analyze their performance.
10.1.4.5 Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration and HVAC
Centrifugal compressors quite often supply the compression in water chillers cycles. Because of the
wide variety of vapor compression cycles (thermodynamic cycle, thermodynamics) and the wide
variety of workings gases (refrigerants), centrifugal compressors are used in a wide range of sizes
and configurations. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design, test and analyze the
performance of these machines.
10.1.4.6 Industry and Manufacturing to Supply Compressed Air
Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often multistage and driven by electric motors. Inter-
cooling is often needed between stages to control air temperature. Note that the road repair crew
and the local automobile repair garage find screw compressors better adapt to their needs Ideal gas
 258

relationships are often used to properly design, test and analyze the performance of these machines.
Carrier’s equation is often used to deal with humidity.
10.1.4.7 Air Separation Plants to Manufacture Purified End Product Gases
Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often multistage using inter-cooling to control air
temperature. Ideal gas relationships are often used to properly design, test and analyze the
performance of these machines when the working gas is air or nitrogen. Other gases require real gas
properties.
10.1.4.8 Oil Field Re-Injection of High Pressure Natural Gas to Improve Oil Recovery
Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often one-shaft multi-stage and driven by gas turbines.
With discharge pressures approaching 700 bar, casing are of the barrel style. The impellers are often
if not always of the covered style which makes them look much like pump impellers. This type of
compressor is also often termed API-style. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design,
test and analyze their performance.

10.2 Radial Turbine

A radial turbine is a turbine in which the flow of the working fluid is radial to the shaft311. The
difference between axial and radial turbines consists in the way the fluid flows through the
components (compressor and turbine). Whereas for an axial turbine the rotor is 'impacted' by the
fluid flow, for a radial turbine, the flow is smoothly orientated perpendicular to the rotation axis, and
it drives the turbine in the same way water drives a watermill. The result is less mechanical stress
(and less thermal stress, in case of hot working fluids) which enables a radial turbine to be simpler,
more robust, and more efficient (in a similar power range) when compared to axial turbines. When
it comes to high power ranges (above 5 MW) the radial turbine is no longer competitive (due to heavy
and expensive rotor) and the efficiency becomes similar to that of the axial turbines.

Figure 10.4 Ninety Degree Inward-Flow Radial Turbine Stage

10.2.1 Advantages and Challenges

Compared to an axial flow turbine, a radial turbine can employ a relatively higher pressure ratio
(≈4) per stage with lower flow rates. Thus these machines fall in the lower specific speed and power
ranges. For high temperature applications rotor blade cooling in radial stages is not as easy as in axial
turbine stages. Variable angle nozzle blades can give higher stage efficiencies in a radial turbine stage
even at off-design point operation. In the family of hydro-turbines, Francis turbine is a very well-

311 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

 259

known IFR turbine which generates much larger power with a relatively large impeller.
10.2.2 Types of Radial Turbines
Radial flow turbines may be classified as:

• Inward flow radial (IFR) turbines

➢ Cantilever turbine
➢ 90 degree turbine (see Figure 10.4)
• Outward flow radial (OFR) turbines (see Figure 10.5)

10.2.2.1 Cantilever Radial Turbine

In cantilever IFR turbine the blades are limited to the region of the rotor tip extending from the rotor
in the axial direction. The cantilever blades are usually of the impulse type (or low reaction), such
that there is little change in relative velocity at inlet and outlet of the rotor. Aerodynamically, the
cantilever turbine is similar to an axial-impulse turbine and can even be designed by similar methods.
The fact that the flow is radially inwards hardly alters the design procedure because the blade radius
ratio r2/r3 is close to unity anyway.
10.2.2.2 90 Degree IFR Turbine
The 90° IFR turbine or centripetal turbine is very similar in appearance to the centrifugal
compressor, but with the flow direction and blade motion reversed.

Figure 10.5 Outward Flow Radial Turbine

10.2.2.3 Outward-Flow Radial Stages

In outward flow radial turbine stages, the flow of the gas or steam occurs from smaller to larger
diameters. The stage consists of a pair of fixed and moving blades. The increasing area of cross-
section at larger diameters accommodates the expanding gas. This configuration did not become
popular with the steam and gas turbines. The only one which is employed more commonly is the
Ljungstrom double rotation type turbine. It consists of rings of cantilever blades projecting from two
 260

discs rotating in opposite directions. The relative peripheral velocity of blades in two adjacent rows,
with respect to each other, is high. This gives a higher value of enthalpy drop per stage. (see Figure
10.5).
 261

11 Best Practice Procedures for Turbomachinery

Here we pay attention to the summary of the most important knowledge and experience a CFD
engineer needs in order to perform CFD simulations of turbo-machinery components312. The guide
is mainly aimed at axial turbo-machinery. The goal is to give a CFD engineer, who has just started
working with turbo-machinery simulations, a head start and avoid some of the most difficult pit-falls.
Experienced turbo-machinery CFD engineers can also use the guidelines in order to learn what other
experts consider best practice. The intended audience is expected to know basic CFD terminology
and have basic turbo-machinery knowledge, but no detailed knowledge about CFD for turbo-
machinery is needed. Before starting a new turbo machinery simulation it is wise to think carefully
of what it is that should be predicted and what physical phenomena that affect the results. This
chapter contains a brief overview of the various types of simulations and some hints of what can be
predicted with them.

11.1 Quasi-3D (Q3D) or 3D Simulation

11.1.1 2D Simulations
These are often used in the early design phase in order to obtain a typical 2D section of a blade. For
cases with many long blades or vanes, like low-pressure turbines, a 2D simulation can also provide
reasonable results. If the area of the flow-path changes significantly in the axial direction it might be
necessary to instead make a quasi-3D simulation.

11.1.2 Quasi-3D (Q3D) Simulation

Two-dimensional flow analyses in the hub-to-shroud and blade-to-blade surfaces to approximate the
3D flow in a blade passage. It is a 2D simulation in which extra source terms are used to account for
the acceleration/deceleration caused by a changing channel height or growing end-wall boundary
layers. Codes focused on turbomachinery applications often have the possibility to perform quasi-3D
simulations, but most general purpose CFD codes cannot do this type of simulations, or require user
coding to implement the correct source terms in the equations.

11.1.3 Full 3D Simulations

Are necessary if a true 3D geometry is needed to obtain correct secondary flows and/or shock
locations. For low-aspect-ratio cases with only a few short blades, like for example structurally
loaded turbine outlet guide vanes, the secondary flow development is important and a 3D simulation
is often necessary in order to obtain reasonable results. For applications where the end-wall
boundary layers grow 3D possibility and you require it. Many codes require special routines or
hidden commands to enable very quickly and interact with a large part of the flow-field it is necessary
to perform a full 3D simulation. This is often the case in compressors and fans, where the negative
pressure gradients make the boundary layers grow much quicker than what they do in for example
turbines. For cases where the shock location is very critical, like in transonic compressors, it is also
often necessary to perform a 3D simulation in order to obtain reasonable shock locations. Figure
11.1 shows the flow range from 2D to 3D by different vendor codes.

312 CFD on line series.

 262

3D transient Solver from ANSYS

Q3D Solver from

NUMECA
2-D Steady state
transonic viscous flow

Figure 11.1 Different Flow (2D, Q3D, and full 3D)

11.2 Single vs Multi-Stage Analysis

11.2.1 Single Stage
Many single-stage computations are still performed for turbomachinery design and analysis, and
before the introduction of multi row computations, CFD could only be applied to single blade rows in
isolation. For such computations, it is essential to ensure that the boundary conditions applied are
accurate. These can be extracted from a through-flow computation of the whole machine, and this is
the normal approach for design work, or alternatively, experimental measurements of the inlet and
exit flow field are applied as boundary conditions. The agreement between CFD and experimental
data shown here is better than average. There is a close match in the shape of all the characteristic
curves and the absolute levels of pressure ratio and choking mass flow are accurately reproduced.
However, the stall point is not predicted accurately, and should not be expected to be, since stall is
 263

inherently unsteady and involves the full-annulus flow field. Also, at part speeds, the predicted
efficiency values are noticeably lower than the measured values.
11.2.2 Multi-Stage Analysis
11.2.2.1 Steady Mixing-Plane Simulations
Since the mixing-plane method was first introduced in [Denton & Singh 1979] it has become the
industry standard type of rotor-stator simulations. A mixing-plane simulation is steady and only
requires one rotor blade and one stator blade per stage. Between the rotating blade passage and the
steady vane passage the flow properties are circumferentially averaged in a so-called mixing-plane
interface. This will of course remove all transient rotor-stator interactions, but it still gives fairly
representative results. In some commercial codes (CFX for example) mixing-plane interfaces are also
called stage-interfaces.
11.2.2.2 Steady Frozen Rotor Simulations
In a frozen rotor simulation the rotating and the stationary parts have a fixed relative position. A
frame transformation is done to include the rotating effect on the rotating sections. This will give a
steady flow and no transient effects are included. With a frozen-rotor simulation rotating wakes,
secondary flows, leading edge pressure increases etc. will always stay in exactly the same positions.
This makes a frozen rotor simulation very dependent on exactly how the rotors and the stators are
positioned. Most often a mixing-plane simulation gives better results. Frozen rotor simulations are
mainly performed to obtain a good starting flow-field before doing a transient sliding-mesh
simulation.
11.2.2.3 Unsteady Sliding Mesh Stator-Rotor Simulations
This is the most complete type of stator-rotor simulation, and very CPU intensive. In most engines
the number of stators and rotors do not have a common denominator (to avoid instabilities caused
by resonance between different rings). Hence, to make a full unsteady sliding-mesh computation it is
necessary to have a mesh which includes the full wheel with all stators vanes and all rotor blades.
This is often not possible, instead it is necessary to reduce the number of vanes and blades by finding
a denominator that is almost common and then scales the geometry slightly circumferentially. Here
is an example: Real engine: 36 stator vanes, 41 rotor blades Approximated engine: 41 stator vanes,
41 rotor blades, making it possible to simulate only 1 stator vane and 1 rotor blade Scaling of stator:
All stator vanes are scaled by 36/41 = 0.8780 circumferentially.
11.2.2.4 Unsteady Harmonic Balance Simulations
To overcome the computational costs associated with sliding mesh, a technique called Harmonic
Balance is used. The analysis exploits the fact that many unsteady flows of interest in turbomachinery
are periodic in time. Thus, the unsteady flow conservation variables may be represented by a Fourier
series in time with spatially varying coefficients. This assumption leads to a harmonic balance form
of the Euler or Navier–Stokes equations, which, in turn, can be solved efficiently as a steady problem
using conventional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methods, including pseudo time marching
with local time stepping and multigrid acceleration. Figure 11.2 displays a full analyses blade
solution using a harmonic balanced techniques, courtesy of (CD-Adapco.com). To relax the
fundamental linear assumption while taking advantage of the high solution efficiency, a nonlinear
harmonic method was proposed. Similarly to the time-domain Fourier model, the unsteadiness is
represented by the Fourier series. But now each harmonic will be balanced (‘harmonic balancing’)
respectively in the nonlinear flow equations. Consequently, for a Fourier series retaining N
harmonics, we will have 2N equations for the complex harmonics. In addition, the time-averaged flow
will now be different from the steady flow due to the added deterministic stresses. So in total we have
2N+1 steady-like flow equations, which are solved simultaneously to reflect the interactions between
the unsteady harmonics and the time mean flows. The interactions among the harmonics are
included in a more complete nonlinear harmonic formulation by Hall’s harmonic balance
 264

formulations. The nonlinear harmonic approach have been extended to effectively solve rotor-
rotor/stator-stator interactions in multistage turbomachines 313.
11.2.2.5 Hybrid Steady-Unsteady Stator-Rotor Simulations
Hybrid steady-unsteady methods have been proposed in literature in order to have an unsteady
simulation embedded in a multistage steady study. There are several advantages related to this
method: mainly grid size and number of iterations.
11.2.2.6 Other Advanced Multi-Stage Methods
Time-inclined, Adamszyk stresses, etc.

Figure 11.2 Full Blade Simulation using Harmonic Balanced Method (Courtesy of CD-adapco)

11.3 Inviscid or Viscid

For attached flows close to the design point and without any large separations it is often sufficient
with an in-viscid Euler simulation in order to obtain reasonable blade loadings and pressure
distributions. Note that in-viscid Euler simulations should only be used if the boundary layers are
judged to not have a significant effect on the global flow-field. A viscous Navier-Stokes simulation is
necessary in order to predict losses, secondary flows and separations. As soon as separations are of
interest it is of course also necessary to do a viscous simulation. Note that with today’s computers it
is often not time and resources that make users run in-viscid Euler simulations. Running viscous
Navier-Stokes simulations is now so quick that it is not a time problem anymore. Euler simulations
are still interesting though, since with an in-viscid Euler simulation you don't have to worry about
wall resolutions, y+ values, turbulence modeling errors etc.

11.4 Transient or Steady-State

When studying rotor/stator interaction in compressors and turbines there is essentially one choice
that modify dramatically the accuracy of the simulation; whether to perform a steady simulation

313 L. He, T. Chen, R.G. Wells, Y.S. Li and W. Ning, ‘Analysis of

Rotor-Rotor and Stator-Stator Interferences in Multi-
stage Turbomachines’, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol.124, No.4, pp. 564-571, Oct, 2002.
 265

(with mixing plane or similar approaches) or an unsteady one. Although steady simulations with
mixing plane have been extensively performed during the 90s, it must be underlined that the
assumption of a smeared-out field on the rotor/stator interface is too strong for the current request
of accuracy. In fact, different authors314 has shown that the stagnation pressure is representative of
the losses in a steady environment only: in a steady adiabatic case an entropy rise on the streamline
is always associated to a total pressure decrease, while considering an unsteady but inviscid case, the
pressure variations in time influence the stagnation enthalpy. He demonstrated that, in an unsteady
viscous situation, the total pressure variations can provide some information on the global losses but
are also affected by the Euler flow field far from the blade surfaces. Furthermore, Payne et al. 315
individuated a large fluctuation of the time resolved stage efficiency, underlying the importance of
the vane phase on the unsteady losses entity. In addition, [Pullan]316 demonstrated that a steady
simulation generates 10 % less losses compared with the unsteady one.
Another classical error caused by a steady simulation is the analysis of the redistribution of a hot spot
in the rotor row. It was demonstrated that in an axial machine the hot fluid tends to accumulate on
the pressure side of rotor blades. This result can be explained considering that for a steady isentropic
flow without body forces, for a prescribed geometry with a uniform total pressure inlet field, the
streamlines, both the Mach number and the static pressure fields at the vane outlet are not influenced
by the total temperature inlet field. It means that at the stator exit section the hot fluid has a higher
velocity than the surrounding one. Considering the velocity triangles at the rotor inlet, the typical
mechanism of the segregation effect317 is obtained. The so-called “positive jet effect” is an inherently
unsteady phenomenon that interacts with passage vortex: the secondary redistribution brings hot
fluid from suction to pressure side circumferentially across the vane, thus spreading hot fluid over
the entire pressure surface of the blade 318. As a result, the heat load on the blade pressure side is
increased and the life time of the blade reduced by the increased rate of creep. A steady calculation
with mixing plane is not able to reproduce such kind of phenomenon since tangential non-
uniformities at the vane exit section are neglected319. It can be concluded that an accurate unsteady
simulation of the turbine stage should be always done as a support to the steady simulation results.
The unsteady analysis allows to model several important phenomena:

• Unsteady inlet distortions when boundary conditions affect the performances of the gas
turbine;
• Potential interaction caused by the pressure waves travelling (and reflecting) across the
stator/rotor gap;
• Rotating stall: typical of the compressors, is caused by the blockage of some vanes due to the
wrong incidence which causes flow separation;

314 He, L. VKI Lecture Series Part I: Modelling issues for computations of unsteady turbomachinery flows. VKI
Lecture Series on “Unsteady Flows in Turbomachines”, Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, (1996).
315 Payne, S. J., Ainsworth, R. W., Miller, R. J., Moss, R. W., & Harvey, N. W.,”Unsteady loss in a high pressure

turbine stage: Interaction effects”. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 26, 695–708, 2005.
316 Pullan, G. (2006). “Secondary flows and loss caused by blade row interaction in a turbine stage”. ASME Journal

of Turbomachinery, 128(3), 484–491.

317 Kerrebrock, J. L., & Mikolajczak, A. A. (1970). “Intra-stator transport of rotor wakes and its effect on

compressor performance”. ASME Journal of Engineering for Power, 92(4), 359–368.

318 Dorney, D. J., Davis, R. L., Edwards, D. E., & Madavan, N. K. (1992). “Unsteady analysis of hot streak migration

in a turbine stage”. AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, 8(2), 520–529.

319 F. Montomoli et al., “Uncertainty Quantification in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Aircraft Engines”,

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14681-2_2. Chapter 2 -

Limitations in Turbomachinery CFD , 2015.
 266

• Wake passing: is fundamental in low-pressure turbines for the suppression of laminar

separation bubbles;
• Aero-elastic instability: generally called “flutter”, is generated by the blade mechanical
response to the unsteady disturbances.

All said, because of inherent difficulty, today most turbo-machinery simulations are performed as
steady-state simulations. Transient simulations are done when some kind of transient flow behavior
has a strong influence on the global flow field. Examples of transient simulations are detailed
simulations of rotor-stator interaction effects, simulations of large unsteady separations etc.
Sometimes when you perform
a steady stationary simulation
you can see tendencies of
unsteady behavior like for
example periodic vortex
shedding behind blunt trailing
edges. This is often first seen
as periodical variations of the
residuals. If the unsteady
tendencies are judged to not
affect the overall simulation
results it might be necessary
to coarsen the mesh close to
the vortex shedding or run a
different turbulence model in
order to make the simulation
converge. Sometimes you are
still forced to run a transient Figure 11.3 Transient Blade Row Extensions Enable Efficient Multi-
simulation and average the Stage CFD Simulation (Courtesy of ANSYS.com)
results if you don't obtain a
converged steady solution. Figure 11.3 shows the transient blade row extensions enable efficient
multi-stage CFD simulation (courtesy’s of ANAYS.com).

11.5 Meshing
In turbomachinery applications structured multi-block hexahedral meshes are most often used for
flow-path simulations. In most solvers a structured grid requires less memory, provides superior
accuracy and allows a better boundary-layer resolution than an unstructured grid. By having cells
with a large aspect ratio around sharp leading and trailing edges a structured grid also provides a
better resolution of these areas. Many companies have automatic meshing tools that automatically
mesh blade sections with a structured mesh without much user intervention. Unstructured meshes
are used for more complex and odd geometries where a structured mesh is difficult to create. Typical
examples where unstructured meshes are often used are blade tip regions, areas involving leakage
flows and secondary air systems, film cooling ducts etc. When meshing avoid to create large jumps
in cell sizes. Typically the cell size should not change with more than a factor of 1.25 between
neighboring cells. For structured meshes also try to create fairly continues mesh lines and avoid
discontinuities where the cell directions suddenly change. For multi-block structured meshes avoid
placing the singular points where blocks meet in regions with strong flow gradients since most
schemes have a lower accuracy in these singular points. Figure 11.4 shows a typical meshing for a
 267

turbomachinery stage. dynamics. It must

be underlined that a “perfect mesh” does
not exist. Once the outcome of the
numerical activity has been decided, a
proper definition of the mesh parameters
to capture the essential flow properties
must be devised. Furthermore, mesh
quality must be coherent with the selected
numerical approach with special
attention to steady/unsteady analysis and
to turbulence modelling320.
11.5.1 Mesh Size Guidelines
It is difficult to define, a priori, the mesh
size. The required mesh size depends on
the purpose of the simulation. If the main
goal is to obtain static pressure forces a Figure 11.4 Typical Meshing of a Turbomachinery
coarse mesh is often able to obtain a good Stage
solution, especially when an accurate resolution of the boundary layers is not required. For 2D in-
viscid simulations of one blade a mesh with say 3,000 cells is most often sufficient. For 3D in-viscid
blade simulations a mesh size of about 40,000 cells is usually sufficient. On in-viscid Euler simulations
the cells should be fairly equal in size and no boundary layer resolution should be present. Avoid
having too skewed cells. For loss predictions and cases where boundary layer development and
separation is important the mesh needs to have a boundary layer resolution. The boundary layer
resolution can either be coarse and suitable for a wall function simulation or very fine and suitable
for a low-Re simulation. For further information about selecting the near-wall turbulence model
please see the turbulence
modeling section. In 3D single-
blade simulations a decent
wall-function mesh typically
has around 100,000 cells. This
type of mesh size is suitable for
quick design iterations where it
is not essential to resolve all
secondary flows and vortices.
A good 3D wall-function mesh
of a blade section intended to
resolve secondary flows well
should have at least 400,000
cells. A good low-Re mesh with
resolved boundary layers
typically has around 1,000,000
cells. In 2D blade simulations a
Figure 11.5 Multi-Block Grid for the Space Shuttle Main Engine
good wall-function mesh has
Fuel Turbine
around 20,000 cells and a good
low-Re mesh with resolved
boundary layers has around 50,000 cells. Along the suction and pressure surfaces it is a good use

320F. Montomoli et al., “Uncertainty Quantification in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Aircraft Engines”,
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14681-2_2. Chapter 2-
Limitations in Turbomachinery CFD , 2015.
 268

about 100 cells in the stream wise direction. In the radial direction a good first approach is to use
something like 30 cells for a wall-function mesh and 100 cells for a low-Re mesh. It is important to
resolve leading and trailing edges well. Typically at least 10 cells, preferably 20 should be used
around the leading and trailing edges. For very blunt and large leading edges, like those commonly
found on HP turbine blades, 30 or more cells can be necessary. Cases which are difficult to converge
with a steady simulation and which show tendencies of periodic vortex shedding from the trailing
edge, can sometimes be "tamed" by using a coarse mesh around the trailing edge. This, of course,
reduces the accuracy but can be a trick to obtain a converged solution if time and computer resources
do not allow a transient simulation to be performed. Figure 11.5 shows a multi-block grid for the
space shuttle main engine fuel turbine (AIAA 98-0968). As an example, several schemes for steady
analysis of a two-dimensional profile could lead to a non-converged solution when the spatial
resolution in the trailing edge region is too fine, since an unstable base region could occur despite the
steady assumption. At the same time, it is wrong to perform a large-eddy simulation with a coarse
mesh, since the sub-grid scale model would try to account for the vortex structures. It is worth
mentioning also the evaluation of the boundary layer development, which is strongly dependent on
both the selected model and the near wall mesh resolution321.
11.5.2 Case Study - Mesh Resolution Effect on 3D RANS Turbomachinery Flow Simulations
Over the past twenty years, guidelines for choosing the mesh resolution for the numerical simulation
of turbomachinery viscous flows using the RANS models have changed several times: from 100-200
K cells per one blade in 90s to 0.5 -1.0 M cells per one blade now. Usually, a mathematical basis of
such recommendations is not clear, requirements to the mesh refinement are often not well-founded
(perhaps, with the only exception for y+) and the question of the solution convergence remains open.
Recently, a new investigation by [Yershov & Yakovlev]322 presented the study of the effect of a mesh
refinement on numerical results of 3D RANS computations of turbomachinery flows. The CFD solver
based on the second-order accurate scheme. The simplified multigrid algorithm and local time
stepping permit decreasing computational time. The flow computations are performed for a number
of turbine and compressor cascades and stages. In all flow cases, the successively refined meshes of
H-type with an approximate orthogonality near the solid walls were generated. The results obtained
are compared in order to estimate their both mesh convergence and ability to resolve the transonic
flow pattern. It is concluded that for thorough studying the fine phenomena of the 3D
turbomachinery flows, it makes sense to use the computational meshes with the number of cells from
several millions up to several hundred millions per a single turbomachinery blade channel, while for
industrial computations, a mesh of about or less than one million cells per a single turbomachinery
blade channel could be sufficient under certain conditions.

11.5.2.1 Formulation of Problems

We have performed the RANS simulation of the 3D turbulent compressible viscous flow through
several turbomachinery stages and cascades where the k–ω SST turbulence model was used. The
main objective was a qualitative study of the numerical solution convergence without being tied to
the experimental data. It is evident that both the insufficient adequacy of the mathematical model as
well as approximation and experimental errors could lead to the fact that in some cases the
differences between the numerical results and the experimental data may increase as the mesh is
refined. The meshes considered in this study were conventionally divided into five groups based on
the number of cells per one blade channel:

321 F. Montomoli et al., “Uncertainty Quantification in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Aircraft Engines”,
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14681-2_2. Chapter 2-
Limitations in Turbomachinery CFD , 2015.
322 Sergiy Yershov, Viktor Yakovlev, “Mesh Resolution Effect On 3d Rans Turbomachinery Flow Simulations”,

Institute For Mechanical Engineering Problems Of Nasu, Kharkiv, Ukraine, 2016.

 269

1- very coarse meshes of 104–105 cells;

2- coarse meshes of 105–106 cells;
3- intermediate meshes of 106–107 cells;
4- fine meshes of 107–108 cells;
5- very fine meshes of 108–109 cells.

During the present mesh convergence study the number of cells in each spatial direction increased
about twice. For the meshes of all considered groups value of y+ both in the radial and circumferential
directions was set close to unity. It was found that an adequate prediction of the law of the wall
(universal velocity profile) is possible only if at least 30 cells are placed across the boundary layer
and the mesh expansion ratio in the wall-normal direction does not exceed 1.1. Therefore, when we
performed computations on meshes of the groups 3, 4, and 5, these requirements were strictly
enforced. Ensuring these requirements on meshes of the groups 1 and 2 without reducing the
accuracy in the flow core is very problematic at best. It should be noted that the computations using
meshes of more than one million cells require considerable computational time and are almost
impossible without the mechanisms of the convergence acceleration implemented in the solver.

11.5.2.2 Conclusions
The present study confirms the well-known fact that the mesh scales should match the flow scales,
namely the characteristic size of the flow regions with significant gradients of thermodynamic,
kinematic and turbulent parameters. On the other hand, the obtained results show that the mesh
convergence of the kinetic energy losses requires sufficiently fine meshes of 107 cells and more per
one blade channel when using the second order-accurate numerical scheme. A good resolution of
shock waves, separation zones, wakes, and tangential discontinuities needs the same meshes. An
additional mesh refinement may be necessary due to various small-scale features of flow or flow path
geometry, such as film cooling holes, vortex generators, etc. It should be emphasized again that all
aforesaid concerns to the numerical solutions of the RANS equations and more sophisticated
turbulent flow models, such as DNS and LES, require further special researches. For detail
explanation of meshing strategy, readers should review [Yershov & Yakovlev]323.
Scientific researches of the fine flow patterns require a high accuracy and a detail resolution, so, in
this case, preference should be given to fine or very fine meshes of the groups 4 and 5. Since such
computations is very time consuming, it may be considered acceptable to use intermediate meshes
of the group 3, if the mentioned above requirement on the near-wall cell size, the number of cells
across boundary layer, and the mesh expansion ratio in the wall-normal direction are satisfied. In the
case of high-volume industrial computations, the use of intermediate (of the group 3) or even coarser
meshes sometimes may be sufficient. However, it should be remembered that such computations
often result in the flow path efficiency increase by only 0.001-0.002 (0.1-0.2 percentage points),
which is comparable with or even less than discretization errors. Therefore, the final results of such
computations should be always verified using finer meshes.
11.5.3 Boundary Mesh Resolution
For design iteration type of simulations where a wall function approach is sufficient y+ for the first
cell should be somewhere between 20 and 200. The outer limit is dependent on the actual Re number
of the simulations. For cases with fairly low Re numbers make sure to keep the maximum y+ as low
as possible. For more accurate simulations with resolved boundary layers the mesh should have a y+
for the first cell which is below 1. Some new codes are now using a hybrid wall treatment that allows

323Sergiy Yershov, Viktor Yakovlev, “Mesh Resolution Effect On 3d Rans Turbomachinery Flow Simulations”,
Institute For Mechanical Engineering Problems Of Nasu, Kharkiv, Ukraine, 2016.
 270

a smooth transition from a coarse wall-function mesh to a resolved low-Re mesh. Use some extra care
when using this type of hybrid technique since it is still fairly new and unproven. Outside of the first
cell at a wall a good rule of thumb is to use a growth ratio normal to the wall in the boundary layer of
maximum 1.24. For a low-Re mesh this usually gives around 40 cells in the boundary layer whereas
a wall-function mesh does not require more than 10 cells in the boundary layer. If you are uncertain
of which wall distance to mesh with you can use a y+ estimation tool to estimate the distance needed
to obtain the desired y+. These estimation tools are very handy if you have not done any previous
similar simulations. As a rule of thumb a wall-function mesh typically requires around 5 to 10 cells
in the boundary layer whereas a resolved low-Re mesh requires about 40 cells in the boundary layer.

11.5.4 Periodic Meshing

To reduce the time, efforts and complexity of meshing the rotational periodicity of the impeller
geometry is taken advantage. Axial machines and rotating fluid zone of radial & mixed flow machines
are meshed using this approach. Choosing a single periodic flow passage is the first step in this
approach. The periodic angle of the flow passage is decided by the number of vanes/blades present.
For example, Periodic angle or Angle of Rotational Periodicity = 360°/number of blades.

• For a radial turbine with 16 blades, Angle of rotational periodicity → 360°/16 =22.5° (single
blade passage)
• For a pump with 4 blades, Angle of rotational periodicity → 360°/4 =90° (single blade
passage)

This periodic geometric sector can be chosen in two different ways.

• Flow passage between two blades (suction side of first blade to the pressure side of next
blade).
• To have one complete blade inside the periodic flow passage.

There are two different scenarios based on the flow physics. If the flow physics is also periodic (most
axial flow machines), the mesh is generated only for a single blade fluid passage (ϴ), regardless of the
number of blades and is directly used for simulation. But if the flow physics is not periodic (radial &
mixed flow machines with volute), the mesh is generated for the single periodic flow passage / sector
and is copy rotated to get mesh for the complete geometry (360°). Meshing software provides an
option for periodic meshing to ensure both sides of periodic passage has same number of nodes and
same node location with a rotational offset of ϴ.

11.6 Boundary Conditions

Turbomachinery CFD employs multi-region approach, the computational model is split into a
number of regions. Any number of regions is allowed. Each region has its own independent mesh
Turbomachinery CFD employs multi-region approach, the computational model is split into a
number of regions. Any number of regions is allowed. Each region has its own independent mesh
and case set-up. Regions are like serial connected and communicate via interfaces. Typically, velocity
is prescribed at the inlet and pressure is prescribed at the outlet. Describing different types of
boundary conditions and when they should be used not easy as it sound. For each of the analysis
methods, boundary conditions must be specified at the inlet and exit of the computational domain.
In addition, for averaging plane methods, average flow properties must be transferred between the
blade rows at grid interfaces324. It is common practice to force the flow to be axisymmetric at these

324Rodrick V. Chima, “Calculation of Multistage Turbomachinery Using Steady Characteristic Boundary

Conditions”, AIAA 98-0968.
 271

boundaries. Although axisymmetric boundary conditions are simple to apply and tend to be
numerically robust, they can reflect outgoing waves and thereby hinder convergence and
contaminate the interior solution. Axisymmetric boundary conditions can be particularly bad at the
inlet of transonic compressors or at the exit of transonic turbines, and between closely-spaced blade
rows. [Giles]325 presented a unified theory for the construction of Non-reflecting boundary conditions
for the Euler equations (NRBC’s). The boundary conditions are based on the linearized Euler
equations written in terms of perturbations of primitive variables about some mean flow. Wave-like
solutions are substituted into the flow equations, and the solution is circumferentially decomposed
into Fourier modes. The zeroth mode corresponds to the mean flow and is treated according to one-
dimensional characteristic theory. This allows average changes in incoming characteristic variables
to be specified at the boundaries. Simply put, since the numerical solution is calculated on a truncated
finite domain, and one must prevent any nonphysical reflections of outgoing waves at the far-field
boundaries that could contaminate the numerical solution.
This becomes essential in turbomachinery applications in which the boundaries are often not very
far from the blades, because the physical spacing between the blade rows can be quite small. It
therefore becomes highly important for an accurate simulation to construct nonreflecting boundary
conditions (NRBCs). Preventing
spurious reflections that would
corrupt the solution is not only
important to get an accurate
prediction of the flow field, but
also to get more efficient
computations; convergence rate
is enhanced due to an
improvement of the transmission
of outgoing waves, allowing
smaller meshes to be used326.
Figure 11.6 compares a contour
plot the pressure Vs. y-
coordinate for both Riemann BC
and NRBC’s in a supersonic
cascade for a 2-D flow [F. De
Raedt, 2015]. The most notable
observation is that at the outflow,
when Riemann BC are applied,
the pressure lines diverge from
the boundary and rarely cross
that boundary. This is a direct Figure 11.6 Pressure contour plot, 2nd order spatial
result of the reflectivity of the discretization scheme
boundary conditions. When the
boundary is far away from the airfoil, the effectiveness of these reflections on the airfoil flow-field is
minimal, as observed by comparing the long flow-field simulations of the Riemann BC and NRBC.
However when the boundary is close to the airfoil, the simulations using Riemann BC become
completely inaccurate. In contrast the short flow-field simulations using the NRBC result in very
similar pressure contours to those of the long flow-field. This clearly demonstrates the effect of the

325 Giles, Michael B., “Nonreflecting Boundary Conditions for Euler Equation Calculations,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 28,
No. 12, Dec. 1990, pp. 2050-2058.
326 “Three-Dimensional Nonreflecting Boundary Conditions for Swirling Flow in Turbomachinery”, Journal of

Propulsion and Power Vol. 23, No. 5, September–October 2007.

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NRBC implementation. One can have a closer look at the boundary itself to further clarify this
comparison327.
The exact knowledge of boundary conditions for numerical simulations is probably one of the most
challenging problems in CFD and it is crucial in turbomachinery. turbomachinery components are
subjected to non-uniform conditions whose distributions have to be determined with high accuracy.
A typical example of this kind of problems is the simulation of a high-pressure stage with realistic
inlet conditions. Salvadori et al328 demonstrated that a non-uniform inlet temperature profile,
including hot streak migration, generates 10% variation in blade suction side static pressure
distribution at mid-span, a 60 % variation of Nusselt number value on blade pressure side and a 19
% variation in the peak total temperature at mid-span at the stage exit section with respect to cases
with uniform inlet. Considering that the distribution of turbine entry temperature is not measured
directly and that an error of more than 50 K is common in real gas turbines, it is clear the impact of
such parameter329.

11.7 Turbulence Modeling

Selecting a suitable turbulence model for turbo-machinery simulations can be a challenging task.
There is no single model which is suitable for all types of simulations. Which turbulence model CFD
engineers use has as much to do with beliefs and traditions as with knowledge and facts? There are
many different schools. However, below follows some advices that most CFD engineers in the turbo-
machinery field tend to agree upon. For attached flows close to the design point a simple algebraic
model like the Baldwin-Lomax model can be used. Another common choice for design-iteration type
of simulations is the one-equation model by Spalart-Allmaras. This model has become more popular
in the last years due to the many inherent problems in more refined two-equation models. The big
advantage with both the Baldwin-Lomax model and the Spalart-Allmaras model over more advanced
models is that they are very robust to use and rarely produce completely unphysical results. In order
to accurately predict more difficult cases, like separating flows, rotating flows, flows strongly affected
by secondary flows etc. it is often necessary to use a more refined turbulence model. Common choices
are two-equation models like the k-ε model. Two-equation models are based on the Boussinesq eddy
viscosity assumption and this often leads to an over-production of turbulent energy in regions with
strong acceleration or deceleration, like in the leading edge region, regions around shocks and in the
suction peak on the suction side of a blade. To reduce this problems it is common to use a special
model variant using, for example, Durbin's realizability constraint or the Kato-Launder modification.
Note that different two-equation models behave differently in these problematic stagnation and
acceleration regions. Worst is probably the standard κ-ε, model, κ-ω model are slightly better but still
do not behave well. More modern variants like Menter's SST κ-ω model also has problems, whereas
the v2f model by Durbin behaves better.

11.8 Aero-Mechanics
Now let’s look at the challenges of aeromechanics. Whereas the aerodynamicist generally prefers
designs with very thin blades, the structural engineer prefers thick blades to minimize stress and
optimize vibration characteristics. Those interested in material cost and weight would no doubt side
with the aerodynamicist, whereas those responsible for honoring the machine warranty would favor

327 F.De Raedt, “Non-Reflecting Boundary Conditions for non-ideal compressible fluid flows”, Master of Science at
the Delft University of Technology, 2015.
328 Salvadori, S., Montomoli, F., Martelli, F., Chana, K. S., Qureshi, I., & Povey, T. “Analysis on the effect of a

nonuniform inlet profile on heat transfer and fluid flow in turbine stages”. Journal of Turbomachinery, 134(1),
011012-1-14. doi:10.1115/1.4003233, (2012).
329 F. Montomoli et al., “Uncertainty Quantification in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Aircraft Engines”,

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14681-2_2, 2015.

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the structural viewpoint. Achieving agreement requires a balance, and that is where the field of
aeromechanics comes in. Aeromechanics is by no means new. What is new is the fidelity with which
engineers can practically consider both the fluid mechanics and the structural aspects of the solution.
The real behavior of rotating blades is indeed very complex, and the mechanical loads are very high.
For example, a single low-pressure steam turbine blade rotating at operating speed generates a load
of several hundred tons! Long, thin blades are susceptible to vibration. Engineers strive to design
blades whose natural frequencies do not coincide with the disturbances that arise due to operating
speed, etc. That is complicated enough, but there are also periodic disturbances that can originate
from more distant blade rows or aerodynamic effects330.
In the past, analysis of fluids and structural dynamics was mostly separate and simplified. But for
some time, at least in principle, the ability to perform high-fidelity coupled analysis has been
available. In reality, solving for time-dependent, three-dimensional fluid-structure interaction is very
time-consuming and expensive, even on today’s high performance computing systems. Engineers
have opted for more practical, usually disconnected and often lower-fidelity analysis methods.
Recently, practical yet high-fidelity multiple physics solution methods have emerged.

Figure 11.7 Analysis provided vibration required for flutter analysis

Prediction of aerodynamic blade damping, or “flutter,” is one such method. The procedure is to first
solve for the mechanical modes of vibration, and then feed that information to the CFD simulation.
The unsteady CFD simulation deforms the blade in the presence of the flow field and predicts
whether the blade is aerodynamically damped, and hence stable, or not. This high-fidelity approach
is practical because it provides a solution to the full wheel (all of the many blades in a given row) by
solving only for one or at most a few blades in the blade row of interest. Cyclic symmetry is the
enabling structural technology here, while the Fourier Transformation method is key on the CFD side.
Tightly coupled these two efficient methods provides great advances in computing fidelity and speed.
Predicting forced response is essentially the inverse workflow to flutter. Figure 11.7 shows where
analysis provides the mechanical modes of blade vibration required for flutter analysis. First, the
unsteady fluid dynamic loads are predicted, and made available to the structural solver. After a

330 ANSYS Blog.

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mechanical harmonic response simulation, the engineer evaluates the results for acceptable levels of
blade displacement, strain and stress. The concept of Nodal Diameter is explained next.

11.8.1 Nodal Diameter

Natural frequency is the frequency at which an object vibrates when excited by force. At this
frequency, the structure offers the least resistance to a force and if left uncontrolled, failure can occur.
Mode shape is deflection of object at a given natural frequency. A guitar string is a good example of
natural frequency and mode shapes. When struck, the string vibrates at a certain frequency and
attains a deflected shape. The eigenvalue
(natural frequency) and the accompanying
eigenvector (mode shape) are calculated to
define the dynamics of a structure. A turbine
bladed disk has many natural frequencies and
associated mode shapes. In the case of a bladed
disk, the mode shapes have been described as
nodal diameters. The term nodal diameter is
derived from the appearance of a circular Figure 11.8 Examples of Nodal Diameter
geometry, like a disk, vibrating in a certain mode.
Mode shapes contain lines of zero out-of-plane displacement which cross the entire disk as shown in
Figure 11.8. In other words, a node line is a line of zero displacement and the displacement is out of
phase on the sides of the line represented by white and gray shades in Figure 11.8. These are
commonly called nodal diameters. Hence the natural frequency and nodal diameter are required to
describe a bladed disk mode331.

11.9 Near Wall Treatment

For on-design simulations without any large separated regions it is often sufficient to use a wall-
function model close to the wall, preferably with some form of non-equilibrium wall-function that is
sensitized to stream wise pressure gradients. For off-design simulation, or simulations involving
complex secondary flows and separations, it is often necessary to use a low-Re model. There exist
many low-Re models that have been used with success in turbo machinery simulations. A robust and
often good choice is to use a one-equation model, like for example the Wolfstein model, in the inner
parts of the boundary layer. There are also several Low-Re κ-ε models that work well. Just make sure
they don't suffer from the problem with overproduction of turbulent energy in regions with strong
acceleration or deceleration. In the last few years Menter's low-Re SST κ-ω model has gained
increased popularity.

11.10 Transition Prediction

Transition refers to the process when a laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and transitions to
a turbulent boundary layer. There are two types of transition - natural transition, where inherent
instabilities in the boundary layer cause the transition and by-pass transition, where convection and
diffusion of turbulence from the free-stream into the boundary layer cause the transition. Most
transitions in turbo machinery are by-pass transitions caused by free-stream turbulence and other
external disturbances like wakes, vortices and surface defects. Simulating transition in a CFD code
accurately is very difficult. Often a separate transition model needs to be solved in order to specify
the transition location and length. Predicting natural transition in a pure CFD code is not possible.
Predicting by-pass transition in a pure CFD code is almost impossible, although there are people who
claim to be able to predict by-pass transition with low-Re two-equation models. However, this is

331Mohamed Hassan, “Vibratory Analysis of Turbomachinery Blades”, Master of Mechanical Engineering,

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Hartford, Connecticut, December, 2008.
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usually on special test cases and with simulations that have been tuned for these special cases, see
for example [Saville 2002]. In reality transition is a very complex and sensitive process where
disturbances like incoming wakes and vortices from previous stages, surface roughness effects and
small steps or gaps in the surfaces play a significant role.
The turbomachinery codes that have transition prediction models often use old ad-hoc 332 models like
the Abu-Ghannam and Shaw model or the Mayle model. These models can be quite reliable if they
have been validated and tuned for a similar application. Do not trust your transition predictions
without having some form of experimental validation. Menter has also recently developed a new form
of transition model that might work fairly well, but it is still too new and untested. For some turbo
machinery applications, like modern high-lift low-pressure turbines, transition is critical. For these
applications a CFD code with a transition model that has been tuned for this type of applications
should be used.

11.11 Numerical Consideration

Use at least a second order accurate scheme for the flow variables. Some codes require a first order
scheme for the turbulent variables (κ-ε) in order to converge well. It might be sufficient with a first
order scheme only on the turbulence variables, but a second order scheme is of course preferable.

11.12 Convergence Criteria

To know when a solution is converged is not always that easy. You need some prior experience of
your CFD code and your application to judge when a simulation is converged. For normal pure aero
simulations without resolved walls, i.e. with wall functions or in-viscid Euler simulations,
convergence can most often be estimated just by looking at the residuals. Exactly what the residuals
should be is not possible to say, it all depends on how your particular code computes and scales the
residuals. Hence, make sure to read the manuals and plot the convergence of a few global parameters
before you decide what the residuals should be for a solution to converge. Note also that many
manuals for general purpose CFD codes list overly aggressive convergence criteria that often produce
un-converged results. For simulations with resolved walls it is good to look at the convergence of
some global properties, like total pressure losses from the inlet to the outlet. For heat transfer
simulations it is even trickier since the aerodynamic field can look almost converged although the
thermal field is not converged at all. If doing heat transfer simulations make sure to plot the heat-
transfer, run for some time, and plot it again to make sure that it doesn't change anymore. With very
well resolved walls and heat transfer it can sometimes take 10 times longer for the thermal field to
converge.

11.13 Single or Double Precision

With today’s computers and cheap memory prices it often does not cost much extra to run in double
precision. Before using single precision you should first investigate how your software and hardware
works with double precision. If the extra time and memory needed for double precision is negligible
you should of course always run in double precision. With double precision you never have to worry
about round-off errors. Always using double precision is one way of avoiding one type of pit-falls in
the complex world of CFD simulations. Use double precision when you have resolved boundary layers
(Y+ around 1) and when you use advanced physical models like combustion, free-surface simulations,
spray and transient simulations with quick mesh motions.

332 Latin phrase meaning “for this purpose”.

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11.14 Heat Transfer Prediction

Besides listing the general heat transfer mechanisms involved (namely conduction, convection,
radiation), heat transfer prediction in CFD may be seen as or split into two cases. Mesh consists of
fluid domain(s): you want to know how heat inserted into the fluid domain (e.g. via the flowing
medium) changes the temperature field along the flow path. Be it a steady or transient run, a fluid
which enters with a given temperature will usually experience temperature variations, for instance,
caused by convective boundary conditions, prescribed temperature profiles at flow obstacles etc.
Mesh consists of fluid and solid domain(s): additionally to the above, you want info too w.r.t .the
(spatial, temporal or even spectral) temperature field distribution in surrounding, confining or
immersed solids like channel walls or heat exchanger tubes. This is also called conjugate heat transfer
CHT in the CFD context. CHT requires a good boundary layer resolution; usually the wall mesh needs
to be rather refined, to obtain realistic heat flux results at the fluid/solid interface. Flow and heat
transfer convergence require different time step settings, to properly capture changes in flow and
heat quantities respectively. In either case, verify (strict necessity depends on CFD code used, CFX
for instance checks and assists in regard) that model dimensions, boundary conditions and
properties are in consistent units, hold appropriate values. Check temperature-dependence of
properties and other numbers before the run. In heat transfer predictions (depending on the CFD
code in use) besides the flow solver, you may have to activate the thermal solver too, as a job
specification.
11.14.1 Keeping it Cool in Gas Turbine
One of the key problems in the design of advanced gas turbine engines is the development of effective
cooling methods for the turbine vanes and blades333. Due to competition and continuous
improvement an increased complexity of cooling technology is required in the design of turbine
engine parts. In view of the material and time costs for experimental research, CFD has been accepted
by turbomachinery companies as one of the main methods for evaluating the performance of new
designs. Industrial CFD applications range from classical single and multi-blade-row simulations in
steady and transient mode to heat transfer and combustion chamber simulations. Depending on the
type of machine, physical and geometrical effects have to be taken into account. A complicating factor
is that it is necessary to carry out parametric studies considering several geometric options in the
process of designing the cooling systems. This normally takes a lot of time to generate mesh models
due to the mesh resolution required in the boundary layer.

11.15 Literature Review and Parallel Processing Tools

A review of CFD analysis for turbo-machineries is acquired by334. The main points and contributions
are listed below:

➢ Provided a critical review of CFD analysis for turbines, compressors and centrifugal pumps.
➢ Various issues related to the CFD software used in turbomachinery are identified.
➢ Parallel computing tools adopted for parallelization of CFD software used in turbomachinery
are earmarked.
Form the literature survey it is found that, the future of turbomachinery designs will depend even
more extremely on CFD, than they do currently, as the ability of CFD to predict the behavior of fluid

333 A.V. Rubekina, A.V. Ivanov, G.E. Dumnov, A.A. Sobachkin (Mentor Graphics Corp., Russia); K.V. Otryahina
(PAO NPO Saturn, Russia), “Keeping it Cool in Gas Turbines”, Mentor paper.
334 Runa Nivea Pinto , Asif Afzal , Loyan Vinson D'Souza , Zahid Ansari , Mohammed Samee A. D., “Computational

Fluid Dynamics in Turbomachinery: A Review of State of the Art”, Archives of Computational Methods in
Engineering , DOI: 10.1007/s11831-016-9175-2, April 2016.
 277

flow and heat transfer is continuously improving. The conclusions drawn from the survey are as
follows:

• At present, the trend is to move from single stage and steady flow to multistage and unsteady
predictions, both of which demands intense computational power.
• The results obtained from unsteady flow can be employed to generate the unsteady blade
loading which indeed helps in prediction of mechanical issues of blading.
• The unsteady flow predicts the loss generation which is currently in use and need to be
explored further.
• With CFD, the prediction of generation of entropy when vortices and wakes mix in unsteady
flow has become definitely very easy than the experiment; but for validation of CFD results,
high class experimental results are required and to interpret the results from CFD.
• Numerical and modeling errors need to be reduced further.
• The accuracy of CFD results obtained for turbulence flow need to be increased.
• The assumptions and approximations made in CFD analysis of turbomachinery has to be
developed for every flow and geometric conditions.

Another important aspect understood from this survey is that the unsteady flow computations need
huge time to obtain results335. This is due to the enormous computational time required by the CFD
software to generate converged results. In order to reduce the computational time of the codes are
parallelized to run on various multi-core/multi-processor architectures. The major parallel
computing tool popularly used for the parallelization of CFD codes in turbomachinery is MPI. Various
parallel computing tools that can be employed further to attempt parallelization of these codes are
provided below:

1. OpenMP (Open Multiprocessing)

2. CUDA (Compute Uni_ed Device Architecture)
3. PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine)
4. Hybrid OpenMP+MPI
5. Tri-level hybrid OpenMP+MPI+CUDA
6. OpenCL (Open Computing Language)

So far, very less effort have been reported in literature regarding parallelization of turbomachinery
related CFD codes employing parallel computing tools mentioned above. These tools have been
proved to be of great computational performance enhancers for the CFD software used in other fields.
More specifically Open MP+MPI hybrid parallel computing approach has shown highly improved
computational performance.

11.16 Concluding Remarks

In previous sections, the limitations introduced by CFD in the analysis of turbomachinery
components have been shown with the most promising approaches used to overcome those
problems. Whatever is the selected approach, there will always be the limitation connected with the
numerical model used to perform the simulation. The accuracy of a numerical simulation is a
combination of the order of accuracy of the discrete equation, of the selected discretization method
(forward/central/backward) and of the order of reconstruction of the gradients. Furthermore, there

335F. Montomoli et al., “Uncertainty Quantification in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Aircraft Engines”,
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14681-2_2. Chapter 2-
Limitations in Turbomachinery CFD , 2015.
 278

will be effects related to the computational mesh (spatial filter) and to the selected time step (time
filter), not to mention the Courant number for dual time stepping approaches. The latter parameter
will also play a role in the selection of the explicit/implicit algorithm, which is also connected with
the accuracy of the model in resolving turbulence. In fact, turbulence is the key problem in
turbomachinery flows since it is possible to range from algebraic methods to direct numerical
simulation with increasing accuracy and computational costs. It can be also underlined that in
presence of multiphase flows, i.e. for cavitation, and combustion, the selected methodology will
introduce a specific limitation on the obtained result whose entity is hard to be quantified. Most of
the cited problems are related to the stochastic uncertainty, also called reducible uncertainty because
it is a function of the knowledge of the problem physics and of the complexity of the algorithm. Then,
numerical accuracy can rise with an improved knowledge of the physics and with the computational
resources. However, user’s knowledge represents the most important assurance for a good CFD,
while uncertainty quantification is a strong support in the analysis and design of turbomachinery336.

336F. Montomoli et al., “Uncertainty Quantification in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Aircraft Engines”,
Springer Briefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14681-2_2. Chapter 2-
Limitations in Turbomachinery CFD , 2015.