ME-302: Fluid Mechanics

Deepak Singhal
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Mech. Engg.
KIIT University Bhubaneswar Orissa
E-mail: dsinghal.iiit@gmail.com

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 ME-304

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 States of Matter
Matter comes in a variety of states: solid, liquid, gas, and
plasma.
• The molecules of solid are locked in a rigid structure and can
only vibrate. (Add thermal energy and the vibrations increase.)
Some solids are crystalline, like table salt, in which the atoms
are arranged in a repeating pattern. Some solids are
amorphous, like glass, in which the atoms have no orderly
arrangement. Either way, a solid has definite volume and
shape.
• A liquid is virtually incompressible and has definite volume but
no definite shape. (If you pour a liter of juice into several
glasses, the shape of the juice has changed but the total
volume hasn’t.)
• A gas is easily compressed. It has neither definite shape nor
definite volume. (If a container of CO2 is opened, it will diffuse
throughout the room.)
Fluids
The term fluid refers to gases and liquids. Gases
and liquids have more in common with each other
than they do with solids, since gases and liquids
both have atoms/molecules that are free to move
around. They are not locked in place as they are in
a solid. The hotter the fluid, the faster its molecules
move on average, and the more space the fluid will
occupy (if its container allows for expansion.) Also,
unlike solids, fluids can flow.
Definition of a Fluid

“a fluid, such as water or air, deforms continuously
when acted on by shearing stresses of any magnitude.”

Water
Oil
Air

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Distinction between solids and
fluids

According to our experience: A solid is “hard” and
not easily deformed. A fluid is “soft” and deforms
easily

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms
continuously when acted on by a shearing stress of
any magnitude

Solid may regain partly or fully its original shape when
the tangential stress is removed

A fluid can never regain its original shape, once it has
been distorded by the shear stress

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Introduction

Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

Familiar: pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Less familiar: viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity,
thermal expansion coefficient, vapor pressure, surface tension.

Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the
system. Examples: temperature, pressure, and density.

Extensive properties are those whose value depends on
the size of the system. Examples: Total mass, total
volume, and total momentum.

Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific
properties. Examples include specific volume v = V/m
and specific total energy e=E/m.

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Continuum

Atoms are widely spaced in the gas
phase.

However, we can disregard the
atomic nature of a substance.

View it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no
holes, that is, a continuum.

This allows us to treat properties as
smoothly varying quantities.

Continuum is valid as long as size
of the system is large in
comparison to distance between
molecules.
Density and Specific Gravity

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume ρ = m/V.
Density has units of kg/m3

Specific volume is defined as v = 1/ρ = V/m.

For a gas, density depends on temperature and pressure.

Specific gravity, or relative density is defined as the ratio
of the density of a substance to the density of some standard
substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C),
i.e., SG=ρ/ρH20. SG is a dimensionless quantity.

The specific weight is defined as the weight per unit
volume, i.e., γs = ρg where g is the gravitational
acceleration. γs has units of N/m3.

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Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

Vapor Pressure Pv is defined as
the pressure exerted by its vapor
in phase equilibrium with its
liquid at a given temperature

If P drops below Pv, liquid is
locally vaporized, creating
cavities of vapor.

Vapor cavities collapse when
local P rises above Pv.

Collapse of cavities is a violent
process which can damage
machinery.

Cavitation is noisy, and can
cause structural vibrations.
Energy and Specific Heats

Total energy E is comprised of numerous forms: thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, potential, electrical, magnetic,
chemical, and nuclear.

Units of energy are joule (J) or British thermal unit (BTU).

Microscopic energy

Internal energy u is for a non-flowing fluid and is due to molecular
activity.

Enthalpy h=u+Pv is for a flowing fluid and includes flow energy
(Pv).

Macroscopic energy

Kinetic energy ke=V2/2

Potential energy pe=gz

In the absence of electrical, magnetic, chemical, and
nuclear energy, the total energy is eflowing=h+V2/2+gz.

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Viscosity

Viscosity is a property
that represents the
internal resistance of a
fluid to motion.

The force a flowing
fluid exerts on a body
in the flow direction is
called the drag force,
and the magnitude of
this force depends, in
part, on viscosity.
Viscosity

To obtain a relation for viscosity,
consider a fluid layer between two
very large parallel plates separated
by a distance ℓ

Definition of shear stress is τ =
F/A.

Using the no-slip condition,
u(0) = 0 and u(ℓ) = V, the velocity
profile and gradient are u(y)= Vy/ℓ
and du/dy=V/ℓ

Shear stress for Newtonian fluid: τ
= µdu/dy

µ is the dynamic viscosity and
has units of kg/m·s, Pa·s, or poise.
Newton's law of viscosity

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Types of fluid

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Effect of Temp on the fluid Viscosity

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Surface Tension

Liquid droplets behave like small
spherical balloons filled with
liquid, and the surface of the
liquid acts like a stretched elastic
membrane under tension.

The pulling force that causes this
is

due to the attractive forces
between molecules

called surface tension σs.

Attractive force on surface
molecule is not symmetric.

Repulsive forces from interior
molecules causes the liquid to
minimize its surface area and
attain a spherical shape.
 Surface Tension
Ever wonder why water beads up on a car, or how some
insects can walk on water, or how bubbles hold themselves
together? The answer is surface tension: Because of
cohesion between its molecules, a substance
tends to contract to the smallest area possible. Water on a
waxed surface, for example, forms round beads because in this
shape, more weak bounds can be formed between molecules
than if they were arranged in one flat layer. Cohesive forces are
greater in mercury than in water, so it forms a more spherical
shape. Cohesive forces are weaker in alcohol than in water, so it
forms a more flattened shape.

mercury water alcohol

Capillary Effect

Capillary effect is the rise
or fall of a liquid in a small-
diameter tube.

The curved free surface in
the tube is call the
meniscus.

Water meniscus curves up
because water is a wetting
fluid.

Mercury meniscus curves
down because mercury is a
nonwetting fluid.

Force balance can describe
magnitude of capillary rise.
 Cohesion & Adhesion
The force of attraction between unlike charges in the atoms or molecules of
substances are responsible for cohesion and adhesion.

Cohesion is the clinging together of molecules/atoms within a substance. Ever

wonder why rain falls in drops rather than individual water molecules? It’s because
water molecules cling together to form drops.
Adhesion is the clinging together of molecules/atoms of two different substances.
Adhesive tape gets its name from the adhesion between the tape and other objects.
Water molecules cling to many other materials besides clinging to themselves.

continued
 Cohesion & Adhesion (cont.)
The meniscus in a graduated cylinder of water is due to the adhesion between
water molecules the sides of the tube. The adhesion is greater than the cohesion
between the water molecules.
The reverse is true about a column of mercury: Mercury atoms are attracted to
each other more strongly than they are attracted to the sides of the tube. This
causes a sort of “reverse meniscus.”

H2O Hg
Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid
per unit area.
• Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal
(Pa).
• Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and
megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly used.
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.

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 Pressure in a Fluid

The pressure is just the weight of all the fluid above
you

Atmospheric pressure is just the weight of all the air
above on area on the surface of the earth

In a swimming pool the pressure on your body surface
is just the weight of the water above you (plus the air
pressure above the water)

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Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures

Actual pressure at a give point is called the absolute
pressure.

Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to
read zero in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate
gage pressure, Pgage=Pabs - Patm.

Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.

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Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures
Pressure at a Point

Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all
directions.

Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific direction,
and thus it is a scalar quantity.

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Direction of fluid pressure on
boundaries

Furnace duct Pipe or tube

Heat exchanger

Pressure is a Normal Force

(acts perpendicular to surfaces)
It is also called a Surface Force

Dam

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

In the presence of a gravitational
field, pressure increases with
depth because more fluid rests on
deeper layers.

To obtain a relation for the
variation of pressure with depth,
consider rectangular element

Force balance in z-direction gives
∑F z = maz = 0
P2 ∆x − P1∆x − ρ g ∆x∆z = 0

Dividing by ∆x and rearranging gives

∆P = P2 − P1 = ρ g ∆z = γ s ∆z
Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the
shape of the container.

Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal
plane in a given fluid.
Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic
Pressure

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Compressible fluid

Gases are compressible i.e. their density varies with
temperature and pressure ρ =P M /RT

For small elevation changes (as in engineering
applications, tanks, pipes etc) we can neglect the effect
of elevation on pressure

In the general case start from:

dP
= − ρg
dz
for T = T o = const :
 g M ( z 2 − z1 ) 
P2 = P1 exp  − 
 RT o 
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Pascal’s Law

Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases
the pressure throughout by
the same amount.

In picture, pistons are at
same height:

F1 F2 F2 A2
P1 = P2 → = → =
A1 A2 F1 A1

Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage
The Manometer

An elevation change of ∆z
in a fluid at rest
corresponds to ∆P/ρg.

A device based on this is
called a manometer.

A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or
oil.

Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
P1 = P2 pressure differences are
anticipated.
P2 = Patm + ρ gh
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Mutlifluid Manometer

For multi-fluid systems

Pressure change across a fluid column
of height h is ∆P = ρgh.

Pressure increases downward, and
decreases upward.

Two points at the same elevation in a
continuous fluid are at the same
pressure.

Pressure can be determined by adding
and subtracting ρgh terms.

P2 + ρ1 gh1 + ρ 2 gh2 + ρ3 gh3 = P1

Measuring Pressure Drops

Manometers are well--
suited to measure pressure
drops across valves, pipes,
heat exchangers, etc.

Relation for pressure drop
P1-P2 is obtained by
starting at point 1 and
adding or subtracting ρgh
terms until we reach point
2.

If fluid in pipe is a gas,
ρ2>>ρ1 and P1-P2= ρgh
The Barometer

Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.

PC can be taken to be zero since
there is only Hg vapor above
point C, and it is very low
relative to Patm.

Change in atmospheric pressure
due to elevation has many
effects: Cooking, nose bleeds,
engine performance, aircraft
performance.
PC + ρ gh = Patm
Patm = ρ gh
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 ME-304

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Fluid Statics
• Fluid Statics deals with problems associated with
fluids at rest.
• In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between
adjacent fluid layers.
• Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid
trying to deform it.
• The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
– Normal stress is due to pressure
– Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid → fluid statics is only relevant in presence of
gravity fields.
• Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water
dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
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Motivation?

What are the pressure forces behind the Hoover Dam?

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Hydrostatic Forces on Plane
Surfaces

On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces

For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is called
center of pressure, must
be determined.

Atmospheric pressure Patm
can be neglected when it
acts on both sides of the
surface.
First moment of an area and the
centroid

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Second moment of area

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Resultant Force

The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid
is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the
centroid of the surface and the area A of the surface
Center of Pressure

Line of action of resultant force
FR=PCA does not pass through
the centroid of the surface. In
general, it lies underneath where
the pressure is higher.

Vertical location of Center of
Pressure is determined by
equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of
the distributed pressure
I force.
xx ,C
y p = yC +
yc A

$Ixx,C is tabulated for simple
geometries.
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved
Surfaces

FR on a curved surface is more involved since it

requires integration of the pressure forces that
change direction along the surface.

Easiest approach: determine horizontal and
vertical components FH and FV separately.
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved
Surfaces

Horizontal force component on curved surface:
FH=Fx. Line of action on vertical plane gives y
coordinate of center of pressure on curved surface.

Vertical force component on curved surface:
FV=Fy+W, where W is the weight of the liquid in
the enclosed block W=ρgV. x coordinate of the
center of pressure is a combination of line of
action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and
line of action through volume (centroid of
volume).

Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2

Angle of force is α = tan-1(FV/FH)

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Liquid subjected to Horizontal acceleration

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Vertical acceleration

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Buoyancy and Stability

Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a body.
FB=ρfgV.

Archimedes principal : The buoyant force acting on

a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.

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Buoyancy and Stability

Buoyancy force FB is equal
only to the displaced
volume ρfgVdisplaced.

Three scenarios possible
1. ρbody<ρfluid: Floating body
2. ρbody=ρfluid: Neutrally buoyant
3. ρbody>ρfluid: Sinking body
Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast
Normal surface trim SSN 711 nose down after accident
which damaged fore ballast tanks

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Stability of Immersed Bodies

Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon

relative location of center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.

G below B: stable

G above B: unstable

G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
Stability of Floating Bodies

If body is bottom heavy (G
lower than B), it is always
stable.

Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in
location of center
buoyancy and creation of
restoring moment.

Measure of stability is the
metacentric height GM. If
GM>1, ship is stable.
The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of Syracuse

Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.

Hiero, 306-215 B.C.

Hiero learned of a rumor where the
goldsmith replaced some of the gold
in his crown with silver. Hiero
asked Archimedes to determine
whether the crown was pure gold.

Archimedes had to develop a
nondestructive testing method
The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of Syracuse

The weight of the crown and
nugget are the same in air: Wc =
ρcVc = Wn = ρnVn.

If the crown is pure gold, ρc=ρn
which means that the volumes
must be the same, Vc=Vn.

In water, the buoyancy force is
B=ρH2OV.

If the scale becomes unbalanced,
this implies that the Vc ≠ Vn, which
in turn means that the ρc ≠ ρn

Goldsmith was shown to be a
fraud!