Surveying Large Vessel Main Engine

HNC and HND in
Marine Surveying
UNIT 15
Surveying Large
Vessel Main Engines
UNIT 15 | Surveying Large Vessel Main Engines
Version 1
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Surveying Large Vessel Main Engines | UNIT 15
CONTENTS page
1. INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENGINE SURVEYING............................................ 4

Introduction
Marine Engine Development
Marine Survey Practice
Marine Survey Process
Glossary of Terms
2. DIESEL ENGINES ............................................................................................................................. 20

Introduction
Marine Aplication
Low speed Engines
Medium speed engines
High Speed Engines
Diesel Engine Surveys
Machinery Installations
3. STEAM TURBINES........................................................................................................................... 64
Introduction
Boilers
Steam Turbines
4. GAS TURBINES.................................................................................................................................. 77
Introduction
Gas Turbine Installations
Examination of a Gas Turbine
5. INTRODUCTION TO PROPULSION SYSTEMS SURVEYING............................. 86

Introduction
Shaft Systems
Intermediate and Tail Shafts
Stern Tubes and Bearings
Propellers
Water Jets
Diesel Electric Drives
Alternative Drive Systems
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1. INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENGINE SURVEYS

1.1 Unit Introduction
This module is designed to assist the student to develop the skills required to conduct a survey of a
ship’s machinery.
The primary focus of this module is to offer an introduction to the engine and associated propulsion
installations typically encountered in large commercial vessel applications, which intends to provide an
overview of the engineering aspects of the modern ship and define the role and responsibilities of the
Marine Engineering Surveyor.
The survey of main machinery will generally be on the basis of non-intrusive examination of equipment.
Key considerations when inspecting any piece of equipment are its efficacy and condition; it must be
ascertained whether the item is ‘fit for purpose’ from an operational and maintenance perspective and
in ‘serviceable’ condition. Initially it may be considered from the general appearance of an engine room
that the maintenance schedule may not have been adhered to; it is important not to make such assump-
tions without foundation, but it is fair to say that first impressions are often proved to be correct.
1.2 Marine Engine Development

Our profession as Marine Engineering Surveyors started almost exactly two centuries ago when the
early cumbersome and cranky steam engines were fitted to barges and smaller vessels using paddles for
propulsion. There were the land-based men who developed the ideas and built the ships and a separate
race of men who took these ships to sea who ran the boilers and engines. Any history of those early
days advises that the latter had the harder job and there are wonderful stories of repairs at sea made
by our great grandfathers. Another profession born at about the same time is the ‘Marine Engineering
Surveyor’ who had to comment on damage or failure on ships in service or form an opinion of the
condition of a vessel to be insured, hired or purchased.
Commercial ship owners were strangely reluctant to adopt the steam engine as the main locomotive
force for their ships, being content to use the steam paddle driven tugs to bring their sailing ships into
port and then out again so they could then use the ‘cost-free’ wind for the main voyage. Those early
steam engines were very inefficient and the size of the boiler room, engine room, and coal bunkers
would also greatly reduce the cargo carrying capacity of their vessel.
The ‘Charlotte Dundas’ designed by William Symington, is believed to be the first practical steam vessel
in Europe, and as early as 1803 earned her place in history by towing barges on the Forth and Clyde
canal. Robert Fulton’s steamer ‘Clermont’ was the first commercial vessel operating in the US on the
Hudson River from 1807. The giant of the age was Isambard Kingdom Brunel who led the transition
from sail to steam with his innovative steam ships, including the ‘Great Western’, ‘Great Britain’ and
‘Great Eastern’.

The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the decline of the commercial sailing ship as the steam
engine was developed through triple and quadruple expansion engines. The fuel was still coal and
e Mod A the logistics13:58
10/06/2011 of the liners
Page burning
4 coal are staggering. Imagine being one of the 219 stokers on the
1903 luxury liner ‘Kaiser Wilhelm 11’ who had to shovel 626 tonnes per day to feed steam into four
reciprocating engines developing a total of 33,000 kW.
The steam engine experienced a significant development

Marine when Sir CharlesSurveys
Engineering Parsons developed the steam
turbine, which became the standard propulsion system for large liners, commercial vessels and warships.
Coupled with high pressure water tube boilers, the steam turbine developed more power combined
with higher efficiency; the technology is still used today in the remaining ships, power stations and
nuclear powered ships.
Our second great man was Dr. Rudolf Diesel who developed the concept of the compression ignition
engine working at pressures several times greater than the current Otto cycle engines, which typically
ran on petrol or gas. Dr. Diesel was involved with the installation of the first diesel engine into a vessel;
r second great man was Dr. Rudolf Diesel who developed the concept of the compression ignition
a 25kW engine was fitted into a French river barge named ‘Petit Pierre’.
gine working at pressures several times greater than the current Otto cycle engines, which typically
n on petrol or gas. Dr. Diesel was involved with the installation of the first diesel engine into a vessel;
25kW engine was fitted into a French river barge named ‘Petit Pierre’.
Figure 1:The First Diesel

Propulsion Engine
Photograph from Mer magazine
dated July/August 2003.
Figure 1: The First Diesel Propulsion Engine

Photograph from Mer magazine dated July/August 2003.
nce that ship, the inherent qualities of the diesel engine gradually replaced the steam engine as the
ain propulsion power unit of the commercial vessel. In the Second World
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eam driven however the ‘Bismarck’ for example was originally designed to have steam powered
Since that ship, the inherent qualities of the diesel engine gradually replaced the steam engine as the
main propulsion power unit of the commercial vessel. In the Second World War most ships were still
steam driven however the ‘Bismarck’ for example was originally designed to have steam powered
generators supplying electric shaft motors (she became steam engine powered during build due to cost
and build program implications); of course the early submarines were all diesel-electric.
Gas turbines have been employed, particularly in warships from the 1960s onwards, due to the benefit
of improved response times (rapid start up from cold), acceleration and high speed running; however
the diesel was sweeping everything before it and today’s commercial fleets widely use the modern,
reliable and economical propulsion diesel engines, which are built to achieve a maximum power output
of up to 80,000kW.
Chapter Two discusses the variants of the diesel engine to be found in commercial vessels, including the
parallel development of onboard electrical power. The diesel-electric drive is now very practical for the
modern cruise liner where the ‘hotel load’ is significant in relation to the propulsion load.
Development of nuclear marine propulsion technology started in the US in the 1940s, with the
first nuclear-powered submarine launched in 1955. On a commercial basis, development of nuclear
merchant ships began in the 1950s. Many of the early installations proved technically successful, but
not economical viable. The application of nuclear technology has proven technically and economically
feasible for icebreaking vessels.
The success is largely due to the high power levels and energy required for icebreaking, coupled with
overcoming refuelling difficulties, which are not permitted by the environment.
The concept of a fuel cell was conceived by German scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838. The
first fuel cell was demonstrated by Sir William Robert Grove in 1839. The fuel cell he made used similar
materials to today’s phosphoric-acid
fuel cell.
Chapter five; discusses the variants of shaft drive systems found in commercial vessels, including
gearboxes, supporting / thrust bearings, and stern seals. The development of propellers, both Fixed Pitch
and Controllable Pitch. Water Jet drive systems and
their inspection.
Later in the chapter the development of Diesel Electric Drive Systems is discussed and finally Alternative
Drive Systems including Fuel Cell development. In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the
General Electric Company (GE), further modified
the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the
electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing
platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen
reduction reactions. This became known as the ‘Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell’. GE went on to develop this
technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini.
This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. It wasn’t until 1959 that British engineer Francis Thomas

Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15
kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers which was demonstrated across the US at state fairs. This system
used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants.
Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering
a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and Whitney licensed Bacon’s U.S. patents for use in the U.S.
space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available
from the spacecraft tanks).
In the US, UTC Power was the first company to manufacture fuel cells on a commercial basis, as
cogeneration (combined heat and power) power plants for large buildings. The company have developed
a fuel cell power plant, which produces 400kW of electricity and heat (approximately 1,700,000 Btu
per hour). UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles,
having supplied the Apollo missions, and currently the Space Shuttle program, and is developing fuel cells
for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers; the company has demonstrated the first fuel cell capable
of starting under freezing conditions with its proton exchange membrane automotive fuel cell.
Development of the hydrogen-oxygen proton exchange membrane fuel cell is particularly focused on
the automotive industry at present. Production costs of fuel cells have reduced significantly in recent
years. In 2009, the US Department of Energy projected volume-produced 80kW automotive fuels cell
system costs at $61 per kilowatt of electric output, compared to $1000 in 2002.
Continued major developments and advancements in the field have been made recently and with
current global environmental concerns, this technology may soon offer a ‘green’ and renewable source
of marine propulsion.
1.3 Health and Safety for the Marine Engineering Surveyor

Health and Safety for the practising Marine Engineering Surveyor is dealt with separately in Module MB;
however, what follows is a basic introduction from the author’s perspective.
1.3.1 Marine Survey Practice

Often the job of a Marine Engineering Surveyor is to undertake survey work in the field alone. Health
and Safety is everybody’s concern and when you are alone it doesn’t stop. Every individual has a
personal duty not to deliberately put themselves in dangerous situations, particularly in hazardous
environments which will inevitably be found within and in the surroundings of a working ship. Never
enter confined spaces or hazardous areas without
When surveying onboard large commercial ships, there may be safety procedures specific to each
individual vessel, on which you should be briefed when you present yourself to the ship’s Master this
can be prompted by requesting any such relevant information; these are in addition to common safety
practices in line with the International Ship and Port Facilities Security (ISPS) code, such as signing ship
visitors’ logs when boarding and leaving a vessel.

1.3.2 Survey Preparation

Consideration must be given to one’s own personal protection, the protection of others and to the
preservation of the surrounding environment. The type of survey to be undertaken will perhaps in many
ways dictate what requirements are to be considered but also the following common factors should be
taken into account in practically all instances.
The Weather
Whilst the ability to undertake a survey in the warmth of the midday sun would be preferable to the
early hours of a cold frosty morning, it is not always the case. Adequate protection against the elements
is essential for your own comfort and wellbeing. Both sunburn and hypothermia are progressive; you will
not know about them until the survey is complete and it is too late. Check the weather forecasts and
make the relevant preparations so that you will be able to cope with the anticipated conditions.
Location / Access
The idealistic view of a clean, under cover dry docking facility with over head heating and lighting is one
everybody believes when wanting to become a Marine Engineering Surveyor. This soon changes the first
day you step foot on a creaking jetty alongside the drying out berth in a busy river backed by the local
sewage works and your nearest power and light is miles away. Are there any possible alternatives? Would
you be doing justice to your client by carrying out the survey in such conditions?
Lighting
Surveyors essentially need to see what they are looking at; they also need to see what they are doing,
not only for the purposes of survey but also for personal safety. It should be ensured that adequate
lighting is provided, whether this is by temporary site lights or torch light.
Ventilation
Lack of oxygen kills several people every year on ships. Sometimes due to the ship structure using up
the oxygen during oxidation (rusting) in confined spaces, machinery fumes or the cargo itself. Before
you enter any type of enclosed space always make certain that the area is properly and fully ventilated,
gas free certificates will be required for fuel tanks consult the Confined Spaces Regulations 1997 or the
Merchant Shipping (Entry into Dangerous Spaces) Regulations 2004 if in doubt.
1.3.3 Survey Equipment

The ‘standard’ tools used by a Marine Engineering Surveyor are detailed below. Where tools are to be
used it is important that all tools are in good condition and properly maintained. All electrical equipment
should be properly tested and calibrated and if wandering leads are to be used these should have the
proper connectors. Equipment that uses batteries should be checked to ensure that the batteries have
sufficient life remaining and spares should be carried.

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Marine Engineering Surveys Module
A basic outline of the Marine Engineering Surveyor’s kit may include:

• Letter of authority / instruction
• Clipboard and notepad / survey template
• Pens and pencils (pencil will write in rain)
A basic outline of the Marine Engineering Surveyor’s kit may include:
• Torches (and spare batteries)
• Measuring •tapesLetter
(steelofand
authority
soft) / instruction
• Clipboard and notepad / survey template
• Vernier calliper
• Pens and pencils (pencil will write in rain)
• Screwdrivers,
• spanners
Torches and
(andAllen
sparekeys (selection)
batteries)
• Sandpaper • Measuring tapes (steel and soft)
• Vernier calliper
• Clean cloths / rags
• Screwdrivers, spanners and Allen keys (selection)
• Craft knife•/ blades
Sandpaper
• Chinagraph• pencils andcloths
Clean marker
/ ragspens
• Craft knife / blades
• Pliers
• Chinagraph pencils and marker pens
• Weighing scales
• Pliers
• Battery tester
• Weighing scales
• Magnet • Battery tester
• Magnet
• Magnifying •glass Magnifying glass
• Inspection •mirrorInspection mirror
• •
Dictaphone (andDictaphone (and spare batteries)
spare batteries)
• Digital camera (and spare batteries)
• Digital camera
• (and Videospare batteries)
camera (if required)
• Video camera
• (ifThermometer
required)
• Thermometer• Hydrometer
• Carry case
• Hydrometer• Business cards
• Carry case• Crack detection equipment
• •
Business cards Ultrasonic equipment (if required)
• Crack detection equipment
• Ultrasonic equipment (if required)
Figure 2: Sample
Figure survey
2: Sample equipment.
survey equipment.
The range of specialist equipment is vast (and expensive!) and certainly not limited to the outline
above. The equipment you use will depend greatly on the type of work you concentrate on. As with all
Call +44
equipment it is important that it is kept (0)23
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fitvisit www.iims.org.uk
for its intended use. It -isIIMS
always 9
advisable to familiarise yourself with any new equipment before entering into the field.
10/06/2011 13:58 Page 8
The range of specialist equipment is vast (and expensive!) and certainly not limited to the outline
Marine Engineering Surveys
above. The equipment you use will depend greatly on the type of work you concentrate on. As with
all equipment it is important that it is kept in good condition and fit for its intended use. It is always
advisable to familiarise yourself with any new equipment before entering into the field.
1.3.4 Safety Equipment (PPE)

Adequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is essential in all lines of work. Check local byelaws, the
Safety in Docks: Docks Regulations 1988 and Personal Protective Equipment Regulations 2002 to see
what is required.
As part of the Marine Engineering Surveyor’s standard kit, steel toe cap boats, safety gloves, high visibility
isibility clothing, a hard hat, eye protection and ear defenders are all indispensable items.
clothing, a hard hat, eye protection and ear defenders are all indispensable items. Other relevant
t equipment should should
equipment be considered
be consideredforfor
safety.
safety.
Figure 3: Relevant PPE
Figure 3: Relevant PPE

1.3.5 Safe Access and Communication
A Surveyor should ensure that there is an adequate ‘Positive Reporting System’ in place, particularly if
afe Access and
working Communication
in remote and lonely locations such as many ship and dock side environments are. Make sure
that someone (even your client) is aware of exactly where you are and when.
ould ensure that there is an adequate ‘Positive Reporting System’ in place, particularly if
mote and lonely
Beforelocations such ensure
boarding a vessel as many
that ship and
is a safe dock
to do side are
so. There environments are. on
specific regulations Make sure
safe access,
e (even yourparticularly
client) iswith the introduction
aware of the recent
of exactly where ISPS and
you are Code,when.
make sure you have an appreciation of what
they are. In line with the ISPS Code you may have to give some sort of prior notification that you are
attending in order to be granted access to the ship and dock area.
ng a vessel ensure that is a safe to do so. There are specific regulations on safe access,
ith the introduction of the recent ISPS Code, make sure you have an appreciation of what
ne with the ISPS Code you may have to give some sort of prior notification that you are
order to be granted access to the ship and dock area.
Ensure that all accesses are suitable and fit for purpose. Ladders should be visibly inspected for damage
or defect before every use and should be regularly maintained. The correct type of ladder must be
employed for the application and the top and bottom should be secured to prevent it from slipping.
Hired equipment such as cherry pickers and temporary staging should be supplied with relevant in-date
safety certification, which should be checked and the equipment inspected visually for obvious defect
prior to use; ensure that these are properly rigged and secured and that any specific guidelines and
instructions are adhered to.
1.3.6 Surveying Courtesy

Whilst on survey you will usually be representing a third party, working onboard someone else’s
property. On arrival onboard a ship, once you have signed the gangway log report to the Master for
permission and so that all parties are aware of your presence and your intentions. Make sure that
areas of your inspection are left exactly as you found them. Make notes of any problems or foreseeable
problem areas, just in case you are accused of causing any damage yourself; it is a good idea to back this
up with photographs, which will also be of use to your client if incorporated into your survey report.
1.4 Marine Survey Practice

As detailed in core module A, the practical application of all surveys will have a large element of paper
chasing to accompany it. It is vitally important to maintain records or all communications from the
moment the first enquiry is received to the actual completion of the work. A working system must
be established to access these records. Any retained client details and survey records must be stored
securely in accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998.

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Marine Engineering Surveys Module IN1
Below is a simple flow diagram showing the progress of an enquiry to the author’s practice.
Below is a simple flow diagram showing the progress of an enquiry to the author’s practice.
Figure 3: The survey process.

The surveyor may be called to examine machinery for a number of reasons by various instructing
he surveyor may clients.
be calledThe size ofmachinery
to examine the vesselfor aand its duty
number cycleby determines
of reasons whether one man can make the survey or if
various instructing
a the
lients. The size of team is required,
vessel and its dutyperhaps representing
cycle determines all areas
whether one man canofmake
maritime expertise.
the survey or Thus a survey of a big ship may
a team is required, perhaps representing all areas of maritime expertise. Thus a survey
require engineers, electricians, specialist equipment experts and even of a big ship
may require engineers, electricians, specialist equipment experts and even structural surveyors.
structural surveyors.
1.4.1 Pre-purchase
1.4.1 Pre-purchase
pre-purchase survey is required of the vessel to appraise the condition of the vessel against the
A pre-purchase survey is required of the vessel to appraise the condition of the vessel against the
rospectus of sale, etc. This type of survey is usually related to an examination of the vessel in service,
when the surveyorprospectus of machinery
can observe the sale, etc.inThis type
service of survey
in order is usually
to discern related
its operational to an examination of the vessel in service,
efficiency.
when
his survey requires the surveyor
the cooperation of thecan observe
existing the machinery
ship’s engineers, in service
who usually are happyintoorder to discern its operational efficiency.
emonstrate such systems.
This survey requires the cooperation of the existing ship’s engineers, who usually are happy to
demonstrate such systems.
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Diploma in Marine Industry Surveying
The report raised will essentially be a list of the equipment installations throughout the ship, with
comments on their condition at time of survey, together with an opinion of the level of maintenance and
competence of previous operators.
A ‘dead ship’ survey is a more difficult task, as this will require much more examination and more
intuition and detective work to form an opinion of the condition of inoperable machinery and the
extent of any underlying faults, unless the systems can be activated using professional engineers. In this
situation, the report should carry suitable caveats, which state any limitations.
Some Marine Engineering Surveyors will have the skills and qualifications to start up a ship from
cold, but it cannot be recommended, as it is the professional insurance of the Surveyor that may be
compromised if something goes wrong; this may also expose an inherent fault, perhaps known to the
ship owner and the subsequent damage may be blamed on the Surveyor.
1.4.2 Damage
The request for a damage survey will likely come from the ship owner or insurer following a mechanical
failure or incident to determine the nature, process of failure and extent of machinery damage. It is
important to liaise with all relevant parties to gather as much information about the incident or failure
as possible prior to attendance; this should be used to assist your investigation and no opinion should
be formed as to the nature, process of failure or extent of damages prior to inspection.
The information acquired regarding the nature of an incident or failure will help determine the survey
process and any specialist equipment requirements. The surveyor may be able to advise about the
measures to be taken in order to minimise consequential damage, which is likely to occur before the
survey can be completed. The surveyor may also request in advance for the ship’s crew to collect
samples of liquids (lubricating oils, etc) to help with the analysis of a failure. If possible the collection
of samples should be witnessed to ensure correct procedures are adhered to, avoiding the risk of
contamination or accidental misidentification of samples.
If the failure is a recurrent problem, which has been previously attended by a third party then it will be
necessary to mention this in the report and to invite comments from the repairer.
The report for every damage survey will contain many unique aspects, although a basic format under the
following headings may often be employed:
• Circumstances
• Background information
• Investigation
• Process of failure
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Photographic attachments (may be included in a separate appendix)

1.4.3 Joint Surveys

Separate parties with similar interests, often in the event of an incident involving both parties, may issue
a joint instruction in order to reduce costs. Any previous association to any of the parties involved
must be declared to avoid any instance regarding possible conflicts of interest. At present, marine legal
proceedings, which require Expert Witness investigation, in approximately 90% of cases tend to make
use of a ‘Single-Joint Expert’ under the agreement that both parties will accept their findings.
1.4.4 Co-operation with Third Party Surveyors

If conducting a survey alongside a third party’s representative Surveyor then it is important to establish
a pattern of joint working, in order that both Surveyors have equal access to machinery, supporting
paperwork and any interview opportunities so that significant issues can not be covered-up by either side.
In these situations all procedures should be discussed and agreed in advance, including the taking of
samples, repair agents and procedures and the selection of specialists if required. If taken, samples should
be sealed and analysed by a laboratory that is mutually agreed in advance.
It may become clear during survey that a third party is involved, in which case the Surveyor should
inform their instructing clients accordingly. Should a third party have a residual responsibility for a
problem then they could be held liable, in which case they should be contacted and invited to join the
survey. In such a case, the opponent surveyor or representative should be given the opportunity to
survey the damage. All relevant parts and evidence should be preserved as much as possible in their
original condition, in order to enable the other party to survey them in the same situation.
1.4.5 Attendance and Investigation

The attendant surveyor should interview all parties for the background of any damage and note the log
entries. The report should be raised as quickly as practicable, perhaps recording survey observations
on a hand held recorder and digital camera to save time; this also allows more investigative work to be
completed when the attendance duration is limited (due to the ship’s schedule for example). Within a
Surveyor’s records, loosely-related data should be distinguished from directly applicable information to
assist in the report writing process and the subsequent formation of an opinion.
On classified ships the classification certificates, if available, can give important information about repairs
and class surveys carried out in the past, as well as any survey items which are overdue.
Data to be recorded on survey should include:

• Manufacturer, Model and Serial Number of inspected machinery.
• Capacities and other technical data (take photocopies of documentation if available).
• Date of construction or installation.
• Date of first operation.
• Details of major and recent overhaul and any repair works and parties involved.
• The condition, operation and installation of inspected machinery.
• Machinery service records and all other information considered relevant.
• Any limitations experienced at time of survey.

The information gathered on survey will most likely require further research on return to the office,
particularly if it is in regard to damage and may possibly be related to previous work or supply of
component parts, in which case any third party contractors involved may be contacted. Observations
and recorded data from machinery trials may be referenced against manufacturer’s specifications, which
are often readily available online; it is useful to create an archive to retain such
data, which will reduce your dependency on online resources over time.
On completion of initial desk research to support your survey notes, it should be possible to provide
the instructing client with a brief summary of your findings. The instructing client will indicate how
they wish you to proceed, often in accordance with your initial agreement, but circumstances will
vary depending on your findings and additional attendances or specialist contractors may need to be
appointed.
If further diagnostic investigation is necessary, it is important to be present during dismantling of the

machinery and record the process using a digital camera. The condition of various parts, presence of
deposits, pollution, grease, oil, etc can often only be determined during or immediately after dismantling.
Discourage the ship’s engineers from cleaning the parts during dismantling. This may result in the
destruction of possible evidence and indications as to the cause of the damage.
1.4.6 Client Liaison

The owners are interested in the overall picture; therefore the costs of the survey and repairs, the
running costs of the ship and her schedule are all part of the equation. They should be advised as soon
as possible of the anticipated time taken to prepare the survey and its cost and the related cost and
time required for repairs. They may curtail the investigations of the survey in their haste to get the ship
back to work again.
If time and geography allows or the repair is going to be costly, a tendering process should be
undertaken before the repair can be started. This should be requested by the instructing client or the
ship’s owners; however you may be asked to evaluate repair proposals and quotations.
If practical, the costs might be estimated by a repairer in advance and a quotation made for the work.
However, pressure of events often means that the total cost is known only after all the work is done
and the full list of the invoices for all the parts is received. Even in this case, the labour rates and the
overtime rates should be agreed as part of the contract. Any mark-up for the cost of supply of parts
should also be agreed beforehand. If the surveyor is very suspicious of a yard, he may insist on seeing
and signing time sheets of the repair team.
If only specialist engineers can handle the work, only one company is available or the spare parts are
single sourced then tendering is less valid. In this case the specialist sub-contractor should be asked for
an estimate of the cost of the work and spare parts before the contract is made. If the extent of the
damage cannot be forecast then a tender can be prepared for definable work and agreement of labour
cost and materials should be developed for additional and emergent work.
This issue of pressure and time constraints will affect the cost of repairs. The repair yard may be asked
to work a 24-hour shift programme, including Sunday work, to get the ship to sea more quickly. The

extra costs for working overtime are to be judged and justified against the possible savings in regard to
loss of ships earnings or reduction of travelling and accommodation expenses for the repair team and
other expected physical, operational or environmental problems.
Some tasks require an uninterrupted work schedule. Repair by replacement of a component might save
much time in the repair schedule and be justified by total cost savings. It can usually be anticipated that
quicker is better!
Sometimes the repair is at a location where the surveyor or shipping line has not developed specific
experience with local repair yards. Before an agreement is made with an unknown yard, the surveyor
(or the superintendent of the shipping line) might ask for a further investigation to be carried out by a
specialist or to seek a second opinion of another repairer.
Alternative repair procedures should be offered, with various time and cost equations, so that the
owners can make a balanced decision with the ship’s schedule in mind.
The report often makes recommendations and suggestions which the instructing client may wish to
implement. He may ask the surveyor to negotiate with a yard to do the work, and may expect him to
supervise the work and on his behalf. Care must be taken to disclose any possible conflicts of interest
that may arise due to prior relationships with the repairers.
Such arising work is usually very productive and instructive. The surveyor may have to write up a
specification for the work in hand, and act for the client as far as the client wishes.
The surveyor should be careful not to recommend any specific repairer and avoid any conflict of interests.
The surveyor should keep the negotiations clean, clear, open and honourable. The yard should quote
for specific tasks, and an order for the work should be raised in a formal manner, it is normal practice
to acquire three competitive quotations before the contact is placed, an agreement for unscheduled
(additional and emergent) work should be made, i.e. labour rate, and mark-up on goods purchased.
The surveyor should always remember that he is acting for the instructing client and should not become
too friendly with the yard to prevent the repairer having any undue influence on his loyalties to his
client. He should write up a specification for the work in hand, and acting only in the interests of a
successful outcome for his client within the remit of his instruction.
1.4.7 Classification Societies

Ships that are in class require that repairs must be carried out in compliance with the classification
society. In practice, this will mean that the classification society surveyor will need to approve the
method and the extent of any repairs.
A ship’s owners may decide to delay repair works if a class survey is upcoming if the repairs do
not require immediate attention. Any works specified by the Classification Society Surveyor can be
completed simultaneously to minimise the loss of ship earnings. For the same reason, a temporary repair
may be advisable, providing that the safety of the ship or crew is not compromised.

1.4.7 Classification Societies

The role of the surveyor in damage or pre-purchase investigations has been discussed previously;
however the real proof of the condition of machinery is to observe its performance. Machinery trials
may be undertaken as part of pre-purchase surveys or during damage surveys in order to diagnose
faults and evaluate the standard of repairs.
A basin trial followed by a sea trial is very desirable, but often difficult to arrange and manage. It usually
requires the cooperation of the selling party and the existing crew to man the vessel. If the vessel is still
working then the trial may have to coincide with the ship’s programme and the Surveyor may need to
join the ship and inspect her in duty. It is vital that both parties agree who will be responsible for the
associated costs in advance.
The purpose of a basin and sea trial is to check the operation of all the major equipment against original
standards; therefore the original builder’s sea trial report is required, plus operational manuals from the
equipment manufacturers.
The ship’s log and particularly the engineer’s log will show the pattern of the ship’s duty and the
maintenance programme and is a vital document in preparations for the survey.
The propulsion engine(s) may have worked well below the maximum power for much of the ship’s
life and the request of the surveyor to increase engine speed is often reluctantly obeyed by the ship’s
engineer, but it is vital to discern whether there are any faults, such as a problem with the cooling
systems for example, which may only show up when the engines are running at maximum power or
near maximum power for up to an hour.
Watch the engines and gearboxes during manoeuvring. If the engine is a direct rotation engine, the shaft
brake must stop the rotation of the shaft, giving the engineer time to adjust the cam shaft and operate
the engine air-start astern.
An emergency stop should be requested and demonstrated, albeit it may be somewhat slower than in
real life.
During the time with the ship’s engineers, discreetly ask for their comments on the machinery. Praise as
much as you can, even if you discern that the machinery is old or difficult to maintain and it requires much
work to keep the system working, as they will not receive criticism of their work kindly, but will occasionally
offer suggestions for the most important work for the next refit, which may prove very valuable.

1.4.9 Certification
Ships need an exhaustive library of certification to provide assurance that the vessel, her machinery and
systems has been properly maintained. The following list is not exhaustive, and is offered to illustrate the
portfolio of certificates that should be aboard as original documents.
The Surveyor should inspect the certificates carefully to discern their status. Some of these certificates
would be of interest to the hull surveyor colleague and some expressly concern the engineer surveyor;
however it is worthwhile to make a note of any available certificate and its validity as this will provide
good background information, which may be called upon later during desk research. A comprehensive
list of certification and documents required to be carried on board ships is annexed in the book ‘SOLAS
Consolidated Edition 2009’.
Another source of investigation that helps to discern the quality of care and maintenance is the ship’s
library of instruction manuals of ship’s equipment, which may be inspected on request to engineering
crew; this should be complete, if dog-eared. Also ask to see the engineer’s log, showing typical engine
RPM, temperatures, fuel records, maintenance and emergency repairs.
1.4.10 Surveying Marine Machinery

Anyone wishing to take up the specific profession of surveying machinery in commercial vessels should
start with a measure of practical knowledge and experience in the field of marine engineering. This
course relies on the student having such knowledge and expertise, so that you may learn how to identify
the significance of what you see and are then suitably prepared to write a report on your findings.
Your previous experience should form the basis of your future development, try not to stray outside
your experience; ensure that your instructing client is made aware of your strengths and weaknesses,
advise them how unfamiliar equipment should be handled and any specialists that may be required; but
be willing to learn and continue your own Professional Development in the process.
1.5 Glossary of Terms

A useful resource is the ‘Handbook of Mechanical Engineering Terms’ by K.K. Ramalingam (ISBN
(13):978-81-224-2874-2).
This is not an exhaustive list of terms it is only to assist with some of the possibly unfamiliar terms that
you may come across and as used within the text of this module:
Metallock – Metallock is a brand name system for repairing metal castings and structure without
welding. The crack in the casting is machined to form a double sided female saw tooth shape with radius
corners. A matching double-sided male insert is machined to fit closely into this and is bonded into place
using a synthetic metal adhesive/filler; the repaired area is then ground flush.
Spark Erosion – The fixing bolts and studs on cylinder heads and turbo blowers become hardened
due to constant changes in temperature and become brittle. If broken off inside the structure
conventional drilling out will not work, one solution is to use a technique known as Spark Erosion to
remove the material so the structure can be re-threaded for a new fixing.

Spectrograph – This is a laboratory based method of determining the metal contamination of a

substance; the apparatus burns off a sample, each metal content burns off at a different temperature
producing a flame colour change, the wave lengths of which are then split into their constituent parts
and the presence and percentage of each material is then recorded.
V/A (Vibration Analysis) – This is a specialised item of non destructive testing equipment which
uses probes to analyse the vibrations of a piece of machinery, this information can determine the source
of vibration and when conducted on a regular basis can detect increases and therefore predict a failure.
Galvanic – This is the process of electrochemical action between two dissimilar metals immersed in
a solution. The process can be used to coat metals with a layer of another metal, but in an uncontrolled
process it can be the process of Galvanic Corrosion where one metal becomes sacrificial to another
when immersed in a solution resulting in the weaker material dissolving.
Cavitation – Cavitation is the formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in the area where the
pressure of the liquid falls below its vapour pressure.
Brinelling – Is when point stresses exceed the material strength of a bearing surface resulting in a dent,
often used in regard to roller and ball bearing failures where the dents multiply as the bearing rotates
causing the rollers or balls to skip and land in sequence leading to vibration and eventual bearing failure
FPSO – (Floating Production, Storage and Offloading Vessel) FPSO’s are used in the offshore oil
industry, some are purpose built some are converted tankers and as there name suggests they remain
on station taking oil from an offshore well which they store until offloaded by a tanker.
BMEP (Brake Mean Effective Pressure) – BMEP is a notional pressure (indicating how highly
rated is the engine) derived from dividing the engine output by the number of firing strokes, the area of
the piston and the stroke and making an allowance for the mechanical efficiency of the engine.Typical
BMEP ratings are given for the following engines:
High Speed MTU 16V 4000 M90 rated 2720kW at 2100 rpm 23.9bar
Medium MAN-B&W L 32/40 rated 440kW per cylinder at 750 rpm 21.9bar
Slow Speed MAN-B&W S80MC rated 14560kW at 79 rpm 18.0bar
Slow Speed MAN-B&W S80MC rated 7000kW at 59 rpm 11.6bar

During the second half of the nineteenth century, the great names of engine deve
UNIT Gottlieb
15 | Surveying Large Vessel
Daimler, WilhelmMain Engines
Maybach and Karl Benz were heavily involved in internal
development based on theoretical work by Nikolaus Otto. Dr Rudolf Diesel researc
refrigeration equipment and because of his great interest in the efficiency of equip
the concept of his ‘rational engine’ using compression ignition instead of spark ign
pressures several times greater than the Otto cycle engines, which ran on petrol o
Dr. Diesel had much difficulty in finding someone who would sponsor his research
2. DIESEL ENGINES
German company Maschinenfabrik Ausgsberg factory (later MAN) discerned the va
2.1
andIntroduction
backed him with full facilities. Heinrich Buz of MAN invited rivals Friedrich Kru
During the second half of the nineteenth century, the great names of engine development such as
development
Gottlieb workMaybach
Daimler, Wilhelm in 1893.and Karl Benz were heavily involved in internal combustion engine
development based on theoretical work by Nikolaus Otto. Dr Rudolf Diesel researched and developed
refrigeration equipment and because of his great interest in the efficiency of equipment he developed
It was truly pioneering work, as the working loads in the components were higher than
the concept of his ‘rational engine’ using compression ignition instead of spark ignition and working at
achieved.
pressures The
several close
times tolerances
greater than the Ottonecessary
cycle engines,to achieve
which the high
ran on petrol compression ratio coup
or gas.
inject the fuel into the cylinder required significant original research. Modern petrol e
Dr. Diesel had much difficulty in finding someone who would sponsor his research, but in 1892 the
compression
German ratios up toAusgsberg
company Maschinenfabrik 10:1, but the(later
factory naturally aspirated
MAN) discerned diesel
the value engine
of his conceptcan be 22:1
essential
and backed himfeature
with full that enables
facilities. Heinrich the diesel
Buz of engine
MAN invited toFriedrich
rivals be significantly
Krupp to joinmore
in the fuel-efficient.
development work in 1893.
ItItwas
hadtrulytaken years
pioneering work,ofasresearch, trialinand
the working loads error to finally
the components achieve
were higher an engine that ran
than anything
previously achieved. The close tolerances necessary to achieve the high compression
for the first time on 17th February 1894. It was a single cylinder engine, over thre ratio coupled
with the means to inject the fuel into the cylinder required significant original research. Modern petrol
ran for
engines runone minute ratios
at compression at 88up rpm.
to 10:1, but the naturally aspirated diesel engine can be 22:1 or
more and it is this essential feature that enables the diesel engine to be significantly more fuel-efficient.
It had taken years of research, trial and error to

finally achieve an engine that ran under its own
power for the first time on 17th February 1894. It
was a single cylinder engine, over three metres tall
and it ran for one minute at 88 rpm.
The illustration shows the first commercial diesel

engine. It was built by MAN in 1897 and developed
20 BHP at 172 rpm. It had a 250mm cylinder bore
and a 400mm stroke.
Photograph from the Deutschen Museum, Munich.

It is a fitting tribute to the tenacity and genius of
Dr. Diesel that his name has entered virtually all
modern languages as the generic
word describing the many variants of his engine in
all parts of the earth.

The illustration shows the first commercial diesel engine. It was built by MAN in 18
2 Marine Application of the Diesel Engine
e marine industry was quick to realise the advantages of the new engine as it was much more
ficient than the existing ubiquitous steam engines, using perhaps one thirds of the fuel and requiring
ss engineering staff in attendance. The Swiss company Sulzer and the Danish company Burmeister
d Wain were early developers of the marine diesel engine.
2.2 Marine Application of the Diesel Engine
early marine
The application,
marine industryinwas1904,
quick was ‘Vandal’,
to realise a 74.5-metre
the advantages fuel
of the new tanker-barge
engine as it was muchplying
more between Baku on
e Caspian Sea to St
efficient thanPetersburg, driven bysteam
the existing ubiquitous electric motors
engines, powered
using perhaps one from
thirds three diesel
of the fuel generators. This
and requiring
less engineering
rly diesel-electric staff inpopular
drive, now attendance.
in The Swiss
cruise company
liners, was Sulzer and the Danish
necessary as the company
dieselBurmeister and not be
engine could
Wain were early developers of the marine diesel engine.
versed, so the electric drive was an elegant solution to the need for ahead, astern and neutral drive.
An early marine application, in 1904, was ‘Vandal’, a 74.5-metre fuel tanker-barge plying between Baku on
the Caspian
e first sea-going Sea to St Petersburg,
cargo-ship driven
is believed to by
beelectric motors powered
the 113-metre from threewhich
‘Selandia’ diesel generators.
was powered This by two
early diesel-electric drive, now popular in cruise liners, was necessary as the diesel engine could not be
&W engines, each rated at 932 kW, giving her a speed of just under 12 knots, which was very good
reversed, so the electric drive was an elegant solution to the need for ahead, astern and neutral drive.
r the age. B&W by then had developed a system allowing reversal of the engines. ‘Selandia’ made
r maiden voyage in 1912cargo-ship
The first sea-going and could carrytoenough
is believed fuel for‘Selandia’
be the 113-metre a 35000 mile
which wasround
poweredtrip, which gives good
by two
B&W engines, each rated at 932 kW, giving her a speed of just under 12 knots, which was very good
tness of the incredible efficiency of the diesel when compared with steam engines.
for the age. B&W by then had developed a system allowing reversal of the engines. ‘Selandia’ made
her maiden voyage in 1912 and could carry enough fuel for a 35000 mile round trip, which gives good
e main blast injection
witness diesel engine
of the incredible efficiencyfor ‘Selandia’
of the diesel whenwas an eight
compared cylinder,
with steam four-stroke Burmeister
engines. and
ain, which developed around 2500 indicated horse power.
The main blast injection diesel engine for ‘Selandia’ was an eight cylinder, four-stroke Burmeister and
Wain, which developed around 2500 indicated horse power.
Fig 3:2 Picture of Selandia’s engines.

Fig 3:2 Picture of Selandia’s engines.
3 Low Speed Engines (60 to 300 rpm)

pical installations in cargo and container vessels, tankers and ore carriers are large two stroke diese
gines, which operate at around 60 - 300 rpmCall
and+44can
(0)23achieve
9238 5223aormaximum power output
visit www.iims.org.uk - IIMS 21
up to
0,000kW.
2.3 Low Speed Engines (60 to 300 rpm)

Typical installations in cargo and container vessels, tankers and ore carriers are large two stroke
diesel engines, which operate at around 60 - 300 rpm and can achieve a maximum power output up to
80,000kW.
Typically these vessels are fitted with a single giant engine, which is generally coupled with a large
efficient propeller. Astern operation requires the engine to be stopped and a new set of cams engaged
to allow the engine to run in the opposite rotation.
The power developed by the diesel engine has been growing as the need for efficient high power
engines has been discerned.
Fig 3:3 Photograph from MAN, B&W

The accolade for being the largest engine to date (2006) belongs to Wartsila-Sulzer with their 14
cylinder RTA96-C engine, rated at 108,920hp at 102 rpm, which has been built for installation in the
‘Emma Maersk’. The cylinder bore is nearly 38” and the stroke over 98” and the engine weighs 2300
tons. At a best cruising speed 90 rpm it burns 1,666 gallons per hour. This monster engine demonstrates
that there appears to be no upper limit in size for the diesel engine, as the engine builders seem to be
able to match the demand for efficient high-power engines for today’s large fast ships.
These engines are built into the ship during construction and are expected to last the ship’s life. They
are ruggedly built and run very efficiently for many years with correct attention. Such engines run at
low propeller speeds and therefore no gearbox is required. The propeller thrust is often taken within
the engine and transmitted via the engine mountings; where the bearing is part of the engine lubrication
system. In other installations propulsion loads are taken by a separate thrust bearing protecting the
crankshaft bearings from axial thrust.
To achieve reverse rotation of these very large marine engines, the engine is stopped, the cam followers
are raised and a second set of cams brought into position and the engine is then restarted in the
opposite direction.
2.3.1 Specific Problems related to Low Speed Engines

Some specific areas of note can be mentioned with regard to slow speed diesel engines:
• These large engines have larger areas of wearing surfaces and suffer from fretting in way of contacting
surfaces. This is caused by low relative velocity of the mating parts.
• They are more prone to crankcase explosions.
• Most of these engines are crosshead engines instead of the trunk piston type used on the medium
and high-speed engines. The crossheads generally use plain bearings, which can wear
disproportionably due to overload or poor lubrication.
• The pistons suffer from poor combustion products, oil/fuel additives. Broken valves also cause much
damage.
• Some larger engines are fitted with rotating exhaust valves and intermediate valves in the inlet air
compartments. These valves are subject to build up of carbon, corrosion and condensation.
• Check carefully for cracking in the entablature and bedplate resulting from procedures during
manufacture and badly fitted holding down bolts.
2.4 Medium Speed Engines (300 to 900 rpm)

These engines are used as propulsion engines in smaller commercial vessels, ferries etc. and as generator
engines for diesel electric drives in cruise ships. More recent developments have led to common rail
cam-less installations where valve timing is controlled electronically or more accurately computer
controlled. This also allows greater flexibility throughout the range giving improved fuel consumption
and cleaner emissions reducing combustion deposits and sooting. The integrated diagnostics also
improve reliability.

2.4.1 Specific Problems related to Medium Speed Engines

Medium Speed engines are more sensitive to varying loads as they are more critically designed
(regarding the construction) than the average slow speed engine.
Torsional
1 10_11_v2:906 Marinevibrations and linear
Mod A 10/06/2011 vibrations have 20
13:58 Page greater effect on medium and high speed engines than
low speed engines
(some low speed engine installations do not even require a flexible coupling).
Module IN1 linear vibrations may be caused by imbalance due to misaligned

Excessive MarineorEngineering Surveys
defective flexible engine
mountings, combustion problems in one or more cylinders or defective flexible couplings or dampers.
The turbochargers of medium speed engines often receive their lubricating oil from the engine rather
than having their own lubricating oil system; this means that when the oil quality of the engine is poor or
when the oil contains harmful foreign bodies the turbochargers will also be affected, also the high turbo
bearing temperatures are transmitted to the oil.
Fig 3:4a Range of new MAK engines built in cooperation with Caterpillar
Fig 3:4a Range of new MAK engines built in cooperation with Caterpillar

2.5 High Speed Engines (Over 900 rpm)
2.5 High Speed Engines (Over 900 rpm)

These engines are used as propulsion engines in Fast Ferries. Patrol Boats and Motor Yachts and also as
Generator power units. They are uni-directional relying on reversing gears, jet units and variable pitch
propellers when installed as propulsion units. Recently, electronic control systems and two stage turbo
chargers have improved fuel consumption and economy.
ine Mod A
High pressure
10/06/2011
common rail fuel injection systems with engine driven compressors, sequential exhaust
13:58 Page 21
turbos, inter-cooled intakes and swirl valve air inlet manifolds are but some of the methods used to
improve performance. Typically, some of the smaller units under 2,000hp have doubled their power
output over recent years, whilst still retaining the same engine block; the effects of this technology on
reliability has yet to be fully realised. The engine control and monitoring systems have become complex
in an effort to improve power from a given unit and to improve fuel consumption and reduce emissions.
2.5.1 Specific Problems related to High Speed Engines

These engines are more sensitive to mechanical overload as they are more critically designed (regarding
weight savings in construction) than the average medium speed engine; this especially concerns the
engine blocks, cylinder heads and turbos.
concerns the engine blocks, cylinder heads and turbos.
High speed engines by nature suffer higher wear rates to cylinder bores and bearings.
High speed engines by nature suffer higher wear rates to cylinder bores and bearings.
Excessive vibrations may be caused due to defective flexible engine mountings, couplings or dampers,
Excessive vibrations
poor may be caused
exhaust due
system to defective
flexible hoses,flexible engine mountings,
combustion couplings
failure of one or moreor dampers,
cylinders, harmonics (resonance)
poor exhaust system flexible hoses, combustion failure of one or more cylinders, harmonics
or drive train imbalance.
(resonance) or drive train imbalance.
Theofturbochargers
The turbochargers of high
high speed engines speed
receive engines
their receive
lubricating theirthe
oil from lubricating oil from the engine lubricating system.
engine lubricating
system. DuringDuring early development,
early development, this arrangement
this arrangement caused oil caused oil overheating
overheating issues due toissues
the due to the significant gradient
between
significant gradient engine
between andand
engine turbo operating
turbo operatingtemperatures
temperatures and andalso
alsointroduced
introduced engine debris to the turbo
engine
bearings; this led to the rapid development of synthetic oils.
debris to the turbo bearings; this led to the rapid development of synthetic oils.
Fig 3:4b MTU/DDC V16 4000

Engine rated up to 2720 kW
Fig 3:4b MTU/DDC V16 4000 Engine rated up to +44

Call 2720 (0)23
kW 9238 5223 or visit www.iims.org.uk - IIMS
25
2.6 Diesel Engine Surveys

In this section, patterns of damage will be discussed. Significant engine parts and known failure modes
and causes will be highlighted. Damage to these main parts will be related to possible causative
problems and are mentioned as a guide to help with engine surveys.
2.6.1 Combustion Problems

A number of factors influence the combustion of fuel in diesel engines, including:
• Fuel quality.
• Fuel temperature.
• Fuel system components.
• Air flow.
• Boost pressure.
• Air intake temperature.
• Compression.
• Timing.
• Valve settings.
And specifically for propulsion engines:

• Propeller design, causing an overload situation.
• Ship’s hull resistance, perhaps increased displacement leading to an overloaded propeller.
2.6.2 The Sequence of Combustion Problems

In recent years the pattern of combustion problems has changed:
• Prior to 1985, engines suffered from corrosion, carbon deposits and black sludge.
• Between 1985 and 1992, liner lacquering and bore polishing became prevalent.
• Since 1992, bore polishing and under-crown deposits are common problems.
Modern engines use very little lubricating oil and may suffer from the greater stress imposed on the
oil. The oil may experience TBN depletion (Total Base Number the oils ability to neutralise acids and
contaminants in the oil) leading to an increase in the TAN (Total Acid Number). The TAN increases
as the TBN decreases and it is generally considered that at the point at which these values meet on a
graph is the most optimum point at which to change the oil, beyond this point the rate of wear has been
proved to accelerate. The decrease in TBN also reduces the detergency of the oil which can lead to
sludge build up in the crankcase.
Some engines, notably early production versions, may have lubricating problems in specific locations,
which are then corrected in later versions. Some modern diesel engines are fitted with a crankcase
deaeration system, which is led to the inlet air immediately before the exhaust gas turbochargers. This
system may not be fully able to separate out the entrained dirty oil vapour leading to an unacceptable
amount of unclean oil entering the engine via the inlet air system. This again may cause poor combustion
and has in one model caused catastrophic failure due to the engine running out of control through being
fuelled by its own lubricating oil.

2.6.3 Influence of Fuel Oil

Ship owners encourage the use of the cheapest possible fuels, but economies in fuel cost will cause
cumulative problems in engine wear etc, and specifically combustion problems. The modern engine
builder knows that cheap fuel will be used and designs fuel treatment and purification systems to
combat this. The ship’s engineering staff should be careful to keep within the specification of the fuel as
defined by the engine builder.
The use of heavy fuel oils in inshore areas will be restricted to the extent that more expensive cleaner
fuels will be required to be used with ships switching to cheaper heavy fuel oils only when offshore. The
sulphur content of fuel oils is being reduced with the MARPOL Annex VI requirement for a maximum of
1% sulphur by July 2010 and the proposed North American Emissions Control Area set to introduce a
0.1% limit in 2012.
Most cruise ship operators are comfortable with the present 1.5% maximum which is to reduce to 1%
but there are concerns regarding recent legislation and an EU directive of a maximum of 0.1% sulphur in
member state ports. This has already lead to tri-fuel systems and engines operating on LNG (Liquefied
Natural Gas), Diesel and Heavy Fuel Oil.
Although the lead technology is still LNG at this time (2010), there are expectations that over the
next ten years the use of fossil fuels will continue to decrease. Supplemented fuel systems are now in
development using fuel cell technology to increase efficiency and reduce emissions.
Typical fuel related problems include:
Excessive Water - Water in the fuel can induce erosion and corrosion on the liner wall and the
eventual breaking of the piston rings with consequential heavy damage.
Dirty Fuel - Resulting in abnormal wear of the high-pressure fuel pump and injectors.
Sulphur in the Fuel - Nearly all fuel contains sulphur and less-refined fuel often has greater sulphur
content. During the combustion process, sulphur in the fuel combines with water from the combustion
process to form sulphuric acid. Most of the acid disappears as gas, together with the other exhaust
gases; however, some can condense on the surface of the cylinder liner and valve gear.
Alkaline additives in the lubricating oil are used to neutralise these. Hence engine cylinder lubricating oil
for large two stroke engines should have a high alkaline content to combat the acids. The most direct
damage is caused to the turbos and
exhaust systems.
The new low sulphur fuels, i.e. gas oil, has low viscosity, which can affect fuel pump and injection systems
due to possible leakage, acidity, poor ignition and combustion properties which can lead to increased
clogging of the engine and an increase in catalytic fires. Inter-Cooling - Inadequate inter-cooling of
charge air temperatures increases the combustion temperature with its associated loss of efficiency and
potential for damage due to overheating. Too much cooling of the charge air can lead to an increase in
acid condensation so it is important that the temperature of the air inlet to the cylinder is maintained

above the sulphuric acid dew point, this is now controlled by the engine management system, but
historically would have been approximately 50°C to 60°C.
Incomplete Combustion - Abnormal wear of the high-pressure fuel pumps and injectors results in
poor combustion as reduced injection pressure gives a poor fuel injection pattern. This causes an
abnormal amount of soot. Most of the soot leaves the engine with the other exhaust gases; however,
the lubricating oil on the cylinder liner surface will absorb a small amount, taking with it some of the
sulphuric acid that is also contained in the soot.
When an abnormal amount of soot is produced, more sulphuric acid will be absorbed into the
lubricating oil, which will lead to a reduction in the TBN (Total Base Number) of the oil. To combat this
diesel oils also contain detergent to hold the soot in suspension until the next oil change or until the oil
is centrifuged. Contaminated lubricating oil therefore is indicative of lack of maintenance or inadequate
filtration or purification processes.
Poor injection can lead to hosing (a breakdown of fuel air mixing), leading to un-burnt fuel entering the
cylinder andMarine
IN1 10_11_v2:906 washing
Mod lubrication from
A 10/06/2011 the cylinder
13:58 walls, causing wear and physical contact (picking up)
Page 24
between the piston rings and the bore, leading in turn to poor compression, itself creating incomplete
combustion through a progressive process.
Module IN1 Marine Engineering Surveys
2.6.4 Cylinder Heads
Cylinder heads are very highly loaded castings, subject to high stress developed by the firing pressure
in the cylinder reacting against the holding down bolts, all exacerbated by high temperatures. Routine
removal for inspection and replacement is to be expected.
Fig 3:5Cylinder Head for MAN-B&W L+V 48/60B engine rated at 1200kW per cylinder.
Fig 3:5Cylinder Head for MAN-B&W L+V 48/60B engine rated at 1200kW per cylinder.
Note the weight Note
of the headof isthe1016
the weight kg, highlighting
head is 1016 kg, highlighting thethe
needneed
for goodfor good
overhead overhead
lifting gear. lifting gear.
Pressure and temperature stresses can cause hairline cracks in way of the valve seats and injector
28 IIMS - Call housings.
+44 (0)23 The9238 5223engine
two-stroke or visit
maywww.iims.org.uk
have only one or two exhaust valves, whereas the four-stroke
engine will have two intake and two exhaust valves. This leads to reduced casting strength in the areas
of the bridges between the exhaust seats and the injector bore.
Pressure and temperature stresses can cause hairline cracks in way of the valve seats and injector
housings. The two-stroke engine may have only one or two exhaust valves, whereas the four-stroke
engine will have two intake and two exhaust valves. This leads to reduced casting strength in the areas of
the bridges between the exhaust seats and the injector bore.
Check in the air inlet or exhaust channels, especially if the head is of composite construction. If the
distance between the cylinder bores is small, then check for hair-line cracks bridging the gap. Cracks may
result in older engines due to the millions of stress cycles, which may be exacerbated by poor cooling.
1 10_11_v2:906 Marine Mod A

Sometimes cylinder10/06/2011 13:58 Page 25
heads are repaired by welding. This is a very difficult practice, particularly for a cast
iron head. Always be especially vigilant in the areas of any weld repairs. Look for excessive corrosion in
way of the chambers in the head.
2.6.5Marine Engineering
Cylinder Liners Surveys Module IN1
The cylinder liner is a very critical component, experiencing high stresses from gas expansion and
thermal gradient between the water-cooled outer surface and the inner faces experiencing intake and
exhaust gas. The inner bore is accurately machined and finely honed secured by a collar at the top
between the cylinder head and the cylinder block. Endoscopic inspection is a useful tool in conducting
internal inspections without the need for mechanical strip down to determine the presence of cylinder
liner defects.
Fig 3:6FigLiner
3:6 Liner for MAN-B&W
for MAN-B&W L+VL+V 48/60B
48/60B enginerated
engine rated 1200kw
1200kw perper
cylinder
cylinder
The areas to look out for are as follows:
• Cracking and surface defects in regardCall +44securing

to the (0)23 9238
collar5223 ortop,
at the visitwhich
www.iims.org.uk - IIMS
is subject to high 29
thermal and mechanical stress.
The areas to look out for are as follows:
• Cracking and surface defects in regard to the securing collar at the top, which is subject to high
thermal and mechanical stress.
• An old liner with many hours service, which has no evidence of thermal stress or bore scoring may
show cracks due to mechanical loadings and fatigue.
• If the liner is comparatively new, failure due to thermal loading (over heating) will be indicated by the
rubber “O” ring seals, which will have hardened and perhaps become brittle. Also there may be some
heat discolouration in the liner, and perhaps some bore scoring.
• Cracks in way of the collar may also be due to thermal shocks, perhaps related to overheating due to
overloading, poor cooling water flow, or cooling water failure at some time.
11_v2:906 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 26
• If the liner has small scoring marks over its full height, then injector failure should be suspected. The
number of marks often corresponds with the pattern of injector spray holes. The injected fuel may
have entered the cylinder in more solid form, instead of a spray-mist, and has washed the oil from the
Module liner, created local areas of poor lubrication.
IN1 Marine Engineering Surveys
• The outer face of the liner may be affected by corrosion, caused by poor water treatment or high
temperature caused by insufficient water flow.
Water damaged side attack on cylinder liner
Fig 3:7 From The Motor Ship June 2004 – Article on Optimising Efficiency
Fig 3:7 From The Motor Ship June 2004 – Article on Optimising Efficiency
The outer face of a liner may suffer from cavitation which can be generated by:
• Engine and/or piston vibration.

• Insufficient water treatment or unsuitable coolant, inadequate for the anti-cavitation load.
30 •
IIMS - Call +44 (0)23 9238 5223 or visit www.iims.org.uk
Air in the cooling water system, impinging on the liner surface.
• Excessive water flow creating too-high coolant velocity.
The outer face of a liner may suffer from cavitation which can be generated by:
• Engine and/or piston vibration.

• Insufficient water treatment or unsuitable coolant, inadequate for the anti-cavitation load.
• Air in the cooling water system, impinging on the liner surface.
• Excessive water flow creating too-high coolant velocity.
Typically a liner (for MAN-B&W type 32/40–750RPM medium speed engine) is constructed to follow a
12-15,000 hours maintenance service schedule with 60-80,000 hours service life between thermal load
intervals.
Some engines are prone to liner cracking, even in careful service. This may be due essential faults in
design or construction. Liners with high collars are less sensitive to cracking.
2.6.6 Liner Lacquering

Lacquering is a yellow-brown deposit layer on the cylinder liner wall. Not all engines suffer from this
problem, but medium speed engines running at high Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) are more
prone to this defect.
It is often a problem with trawlers and tugs which run at high power for some of their duty cycle and
very light load at other periods and can also apply to generator engines, etc. which have to survive a
very cyclic load.
The source of lacquering is oxidative polymerisation of the oil film on the inner surface, resulting in a
viscous polymer adhering to the liner and trapping of organic salts. The liner takes on a glazed look and
the smooth surface inhibits full lubrication of the liner-piston ring.
Further comments:
• It occurs mainly where low-sulphur fuel is used (less than 2%).
• Lacquering does not appear to be related to any particular lubricating oil.
• The oxidative stability of the lubricating oil is a significant feature.
• Lacquering will occur most frequently when the engine is running for long periods at idle.
Extreme engine conditions leading to liner lacquering are as follows:
• Cool cylinder temperature (in light load operation).

• Poor combustion.
• Bad fuel injection.
• Incorrect charge air pressure leading to poor combustion.

Lacquering can be discerned by endoscopic inspection or removal of the cylinder head. Lacquering can
sometimes be partially removed by acetic acid (vinegar) or by a proprietary product such as ‘Roal’, but
the only full solution is to re-hone the bores. The duty cycle of the engine should be checked with the
manufacturers to ensure correct injection pattern. Explore a change of oil type and manufacturer (Shell
offer proprietary oil suitable for vessels with such duties, such as Gadinia AL).
2.6.7 Bore Polishing

Bore polishing occurs when dirt, un-burnt fuel, soot and other deposits build up on the piston crown/
top land and piston rings. Initially, bore polishing is caused by poor combustion and the build-up of
deposits resulting in abnormal liner wear. It is particularly noticeable halfway down the liner where the
honing may be partially or completely removed. The condition results in increased oil consumption,
exacerbating the bore polishing.
2.6.8 Pistons
Pistons suffer much punishment by virtue of high pressure (up to 200 bar) plus the heat generated by
the burning of the fuel. Of the heat absorbed by a piston, 40-70% is carried away through the piston
rings via the liner and cooling water. The cool charge air and the fuel absorb some and the lubricating
or cooling oil carries the balance away. Aluminium pistons transmit more heat than cast iron units but
expand more and thus suffer earlier from a shortfall of cooling.
The transfer of heat through the pistons rings can result in excessive temperature, exacerbated by fuel
and oil deposits building up in way of the retainer; the deposits can cause blow-by of the gases, increased
piston temperature and ring wear and can lead to the breaking of the rings or seizure of the piston. If
the piston lubrication becomes inhibited then the limited cooling oil becomes too hot, which begins to
burn and as a result the oil canals become clogged.

1 10_11_v2:906 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 28

Fig 3:8FigPiston for MAN-B&W

3:8 Piston L+VL+V
for MAN-B&W 48/60B engine
48/60B enginerated 1200kW
rated 1200 kWperper cylinder.
cylinder.
High gas pressure pushing on the top of the piston tends to push the piston out of shape, the bottom is
pushed inwards and the skirt is distorted ovally.
If the engine load is irregular, a combination of thermal and mechanical gas pressure stresses can
High gas pressure
cause crackspushing onthese
to appear; the top of mainly
cracks the piston tends
appear topiston
in the push bottom,
the piston outasofinside
as well shape,
thethe bottom is
recess,
pusheddepending
inwards and the skirt is distorted ovally.
on the construction. Pistons for direct injection engines usually show cracks at the inside of
the skirt in way of the boss for the gudgeon pin. When these cracks are perpendicular to the piston pin
they may
If the engine be is
load caused by a combination
irregular, a combinationof mechanical
of thermalgasandpressure stresses
mechanical gasand thermalstresses
pressure stressescan
due to
varying temperatures.
cause cracks to appear; these cracks mainly appear in the piston bottom, as well as inside the recess,
depending on the construction. Pistons for direct injection engines usually show cracks at the inside of
When the radii of the piston top body are too abrupt, cracks will develop sooner and generous radii help
the skirt in way of the boss for the gudgeon pin. When these cracks are perpendicular to the piston pin
to avoid stress raisers. The wall between two piston ring retainers is subject to gas pressure
they may be caused
differences andby a combination
cracks may appearofin mechanical gas edge.
way of the inner pressure stresses and thermal stresses due to
varying temperatures.
With high loaded turbocharged engines, cracks may appear in way of the inside of the gudgeon pin
When holes. Theofgudgeon
the radii pin may
the piston top show
bodysome flattening
are too in way
abrupt, of the
cracks willportion
developunder the expansion
sooner stroke radii
and generous
load, which may promote the development of cracks.
help to avoid stress raisers. The wall between two piston ring retainers is subject to gas pressure
differences and cracks may appear in way of the inner edge.
With high loaded turbocharged engines, cracks may appear in way of the inside of the gudgeon pin holes.
The gudgeon pin may show some flattening in way of the portion under the expansion stroke load,
which may promote the development of cracks.

arine Engineering Surveys Module IN1
Fig 3:9 Broken Piston from High

Speed Engine –
from an IIMS member
Piston damage and associated possible causes may be outlined as follows:
Piston seizure with scoring marks at full circumference and height may be caused by lack of cooling and
Fig 3:9 clearance
insufficient Broken Piston
in from
liner.High Speedseizure
Piston Engine –with
from scoring
an IIMS marks
member in way of skirt, may be caused by an
incorrectly fitted liner or casting defects within the liner itself.
ton damage and associated possible causes may be outlined as follows:
Piston crown melting, perhaps even with a burned hole, is most likely the result of incorrect injection
ton seizure with scoring marks at full circumference and height may be caused by lack of cooling
timing.
d insufficient clearance in liner. Piston seizure with scoring marks in way of skirt, may be caused by
incorrectly fitted liner or casting defects within the liner itself.
Piston top damage by way of contact with valves may be caused by:
ton crown melting, perhaps even with a burned hole, is most likely the result of incorrect injection timing.
• Over-speed operation.
ton top damage
• by way of contact
Insufficient with of
thickness valves may head
cylinder be caused by:(bumping clearance).
packing
• Incorrect valve timing.
Over-speed operation.
Insufficient• thickness
Excessiveof wear of big
cylinder headend bearing.
packing (bumping clearance).
Incorrect valve timing.
Cracks
Excessive wear in way
of big end of recesses, may be caused by:
bearing.
cks in way of recesses, may be

• High charge aircaused by:
pressure.
• Excessive amount of injected fuel.
High charge air pressure.
• Varying
Excessive amount load. fuel.
of injected
Varying load.
cks in the piston skirt may be caused by:
Poor combustion.
Incorrect injection timing.
34
Frequent thermalIIMS - Callduring
shocks +44 (0)23 9238with
starting 5223airorinvisit www.iims.org.uk
relation to number of running hours.
Cracks in the piston skirt may be caused by:
• Incorrect injection timing.
• Frequent thermal shocks during starting with air in relation to number of running hours.
Cracks in way of gudgeon pin bore may be caused by:
• Overload due to excessive amount of fuel and high charge air pressure.
• Incorrect injection timing.
Gudgeon pin breaking/cracking of may be caused by:
• Overload due to water hammering.

• Manufacturing defects.
Ring sticking, soot deposits and lacquering may be caused by:
• Oil not to required specification
• Poor oil treatment.
• High pressure (causing piston blow by).
• Low cooling water temperature.
• Low charge air temperature.
• Low sulphur content of the fuel.
Scoring marks in way of injector holes/fuel spray may be caused by injector failure.
Scoring marks on one side of piston may be caused by poor oil distribution on lower side of liners with
‘V’ engines.
Scoring marks above top ring may be caused by:
• Carbon deposits due to poor combustion.

• Oil not to required specification.
• Extended service causing excessive wear.

Scoring marks in way of injector holes/fuel spray may be caused by injector failure.
Scoring marks on one side of piston may be caused by poor oil distribution on lower side of liners with
UNIT 15‘V’|engines.
Surveying Large Vessel Main Engines
Scoring marks above top ring may be caused by:
• Carbon deposits due to poor combustion.

• Oil not to required specification.
• Extended service causing excessive wear.
2.6.9 Piston Rings

2.6.9 Piston Rings
Typical piston ring condition for a cylinder oil feed rate of 1.0g/kWh
Fig 3:10 Picture of rings seen through Liner Ports.

Fig 3:10 April
From MER magazine Picture of in
2004 rings seenon
article through Liner
Cylinder Ports.Lubrication.
Oil Feed
From MER magazine April 2004 in article on Cylinder Oil Feed Lubrication.
Piston rings are among the most important parts of an engine. They move up and down in the ring
retainer, which is carefully machined to accept the wear.
age 30
A large clearance in the retainer due to wear of the piston ring and/or
Diploma the retainer
in Marine can result
Industry in the
Surveying
breakage of the rings. Broken piston rings may migrate through the engine causing damage to the liners
or cylinder heads and may lead to consequential damage to the exhaust gas turbocharger.
Water in the fuel may result in the breakage of the rings due to thermal shock, corrosion and by causing
incomplete combustion.
Fatigue stresses may cause the chrome layer of chrome-plated rings to break off causing consequential
damage.
Excessive ring wear may be caused by excessive carbon or other abrasive particle deposits; this in turn
will cause liner polishing and will allow blow-past of the products of combustion, which in trunk-type
engines could lead to a crankcase explosion.
Frequent starting at low temperatures and overloading an engine before it reaches operating
temperature can cause piston rings to break. Pre-heating of slow speed engines is essential at all times.
Scored piston rings with heat failure behind the ring may be caused by injector failure.

2.6.10 Turbochargers
Turbochargers greatly improve the breathing and output of an engine. The exhaust gases leave the
cylinders at high temperature and velocity and are directed through a turbine, absorbing energy from
the gases that would otherwise be lost up the funnel. This turbine drives an impeller which draws in
combustion air and compresses it so that more air is delivered to the cylinder, preventing Piston Lag
(where a partial vacuum is created above the descending piston). The increase in the volume of air
within the cylinder allows more fuel to be burnt giving increased power output and improved efficiency
and emissions. Turbos are built to fine tolerances and can fail dramatically from even a small fault; they
are susceptible to poor workmanship and installation.
Wartsila are working with ABB Turbo systems to develop advanced engine technology with two-stage
turbocharging on large diesel engines; this should increase efficiency and reduce emissions.
Failure of the bearings may result in contact wear of the turbine blades with the turbine casing and/or
the
compressor blades with the compressor casing. If this occurs, mechanical damage will be caused and the
labyrinth glands may also be damaged, this can lead to lubricating oil entering the exhaust system.
Damage to the bearings of a turbocharger may be caused by:
• Lack of lubricating oil.

• Poor lubricating oil.
• An out-of-balance rotor.
• Excessive axial pressure due to a high back pressure in the exhaust outlet channel.
• Normal wear.
A rotor may become out-of-balance due to damage to either turbine or intake air compressor impeller.
Such damage may result from foreign object damage due to a broken exhaust valve, inlet air valve, piston
ring or by an object carried in the charge air.
The height of the turbine blades will reduce as a result of normal wear. Worn turbine blades can be
repaired by welding or replaced with new; this is not a task for the ship engineers and needs to be done
by specialists, as the turbine-impellers require dynamic balancing.
The transfer of heat through the pistons rings can result in excessive temperature, exacerbated by fuel
and oil deposits building up in way of the retainer; the deposits can cause blow-by of the gases, increased
piston temperature and ring wear and can lead to the breaking of the rings or seizure of the piston. If
the piston lubrication becomes inhibited then the limited cooling oil becomes too hot, which begins to
burn and as a result the oil canals become clogged.

Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 32
A blade can break due to a defect or excessive vibration. Excessive exhaust temperature may result
in cracks in the casing, nozzles and turbine blades. Repaired blades should not be further repaired by
de can break due to a defect
welding, or excessive
but replaced withvibration.
new. Excessive exhaust temperature may result in
s in the casing, nozzles and turbine blades. Repaired blades should not be further repaired by
ng, but replaced with new.
A damaged labyrinth seal allows blow-by of the gases, which burns the oil, perhaps also filling the
labyrinth with carbon deposits, exacerbating the problem. The engineer may be able to discern the onset
maged labyrinth seal allows blow-by of the gases, which burns the oil, perhaps also filling the
nth with carbonofdeposits,
the problem because
exacerbating theofproblem.
high andThe
increasing
engineeroil
may consumption.
be able to discern the
of the problem because of high and increasing oil consumption.
A casting defect in the cast iron of the casing of the turbocharger may also cause a consequential crack
or cast
ting defect in the eveniron
a hole incasing
of the this casing.
of the Sometimes
turbochargerfragments will break
may also cause off from the casing due to excessive engine
a consequential
or even a holevibration
in this casing. Sometimes
or excessive fragments
loads imposed willby
break
the off from the exhaust
connected casing due to Some turbochargers are water
piping.
sive engine vibration or excessive loads imposed by the connected exhaust piping. Some
cooled and are subject to cracks in the body casting, due to a high cooling water temperature or failure
chargers are water cooled water.
of cooling and are subject to cracks in the body casting, due to a high cooling
temperature or failure of cooling water.
Fuel and oil additives can corrode the turbine wheel and nozzle ring, especially when the engines are
and oil additives can corrode the turbine wheel and nozzle ring, especially when the engines are
running
ng on heavy fuel. on heavyshould
Turbochargers fuel. Turbochargers should
be cleaned regularly be the
when cleaned regularly
engines whenonthe engines are running on
are running
fuel. Turbocharger blades should be cleaned by washing with water, and this is essentialwater,
heavy fuel. Turbocharger blades should be cleaned by washing with when and this is essential when high
residual
esidual fuels are used. fuels are used.
The engine room The engine
records room
should records
confirm thatshould confirm
this has that this
been carried out has
on been carried out on a
ular basis. regular basis.
11 Exhaust2.6.11 Exhaust
and Inlet and Inlet Air Valves
Air Valves
Fig 3:11 Typical Valve Housing and Valves (note
turning Vanes) From Motorship magazine dated
June 2004.
WhenFiga3:11 Typicalvalve
broken ValveisHousing
found,and
it Valves (note turningto
is worthwhile Vanes)
have the fracture investigated by a metallurgist to
From Motorship magazine dated June 2004.
determine the true cause of the fracture.
a broken valve is found, it is worthwhile to have the fracture investigated by a metallurgist to
38
mine the true causeIIMS - Call
of the +44 (0)23 9238 5223 or visit www.iims.org.uk
fracture.
Examples of valve failures:
• The most common cause of burnt valves results from soot particles adhering to the valve seat and
stopping the valve shutting completely, leading to blow by and burning of the seat. Rotating the
exhaust valve reduces this effect enormously so failure of the rotation device (if applicable) could
lead to premature failure of the valve.
• When the valve has exceeded its elastic limit due to a high temperature, the valve will deform, which
can lead to a so-called concaved valve disc.
• High temperature exhaust gases may result in chemical corrosion on the surface of the valve and may
result in wasting of the outer circumference of the valve stem.
• Thermal overload reduces the strength of the valve stem and also embrittles the structure.
• Inter crystalline corrosion increases the ‘nick effect’ allowing cracks to develop.
• Erosion is influenced by sulphur in the fuel as well as oil additives.
• When the iron content of a valve disc is relatively high, corrosion resistance is reduced.
• High levels of sulphur in the fuel can lead to corrosion of a chromium-plated valve stem (necking).
• Thermal or mechanical overload can result in cracks in way of imperfections in the surface due to
machining defects.
• Stress cracks can develop due to cyclic loading. These cracks may eventually result in local burning
or complete fracture.
• Breaking of a valve stem in way of the disc can be the result of mechanical overload due to fatigue
fracture, brittle fracture due to thermal overload and necking.
• A hollow stem, with a hole burnt out, is likely due to thermal overload.
• The valve spring and disc should exactly match the stem and key, otherwise cyclic load may result
in failure.
• Excessive clearance between the valve stem and its guide allows a layer of soot and lacquering to
form. This eventually leads to the valve sticking, which will leads to severe damage.
• A valve can break under cyclic load due to misalignment of seat and guide.
• When a valve cap does not rotate as designed the valve disc can burn out at the seat.
• A fracture of the upper end of the stem may be caused by excessive clearance between the valve and
the rocker and conversely, if the valve clearance is too small the valve disc seat may burn out.
• Cracks in chromium-plated stems, caused by thermal overload or a wrong plating process, can
propagate into the core material and finally result in complete failure of the stem.

2.6.12
2.6.12 Connectingor
Connecting or Piston
Piston Rods
Rods
Fig 3:12 Trunk engine Connecting Rod

Fig 3:12 Trunk
Con Rod for MAN-B&W L+Vengine
48/60BConnecting
engine rated Rod
1200kw per cylinder
Con Rod for MAN-B&W L+V 48/60B engine rated 1200kw per cylinder
The piston rod itself is often damaged due to failure of other components in the engine. Often
consequential evidence is found on the piston rod. In order to judge the extent of damage to a
piston/connecting rod, it must be checked for distortion and the dimensions of the small and big end
The piston rod should
bearings itself isbeoften damaged
checked due
carefully, as to failure
each of otherhas
manufacturer components in the engine.
its own standards Often
of tolerances.
consequential evidence is found on the piston rod. In order to judge the extent of damage to a piston/
Whenrod,
connecting a bigitend bearing
must is oval and
be checked for exceeds the and
distortion limits,
therepair is sometimes
dimensions possible
of the small and
and allowable. If
big end bearings
possible, the big end can be machined and the correct oversize bearing shells fitted. The bearing cap
should be checked carefully, as each manufacturer has its own standards of tolerances.
can be machined in way of the landing with the other half and the original diameter can be achieved,
although the size of the original cap will be reduced.
When a big end bearing is oval and exceeds the limits, repair is sometimes possible and allowable. If
possible,
Thethe big end
reason canbig
for the beend
machined
becoming and the
oval correct
could be theoversize bearing
partial seizure shells
of a pistonfitted.
or theThe bearing
turning of a cap
can be scored
machined in way
big end of the
bearing, butlanding with the
it is normally as a other half
result of and the oil
lubricating original
failure diameter
or excessivecanwear
be and
achieved,
tear
after
although thea size
largeof
number of running
the original caphours.
will be reduced.
The failure of the big end bolts is one of the most common causes of serious engine damage. Big end
The reason for the big end becoming oval could be the partial seizure of a piston or the turning of a
bolts may fail due to material defects, over-stressing beyond its elastic limit or if assembled to the
scored wrong
big end bearing, but it is normally as a result of lubricating oil failure or excessive wear and tear
tension.
after a large number of running hours.
In the event of a big end bolt failure, the surveyor must have full access to assess the cause of the
The failure of the
damage. bigbig
If the endend
bolts
boltsisare
onepresent
of theand
most common
appear causesthey
undamaged of serious engine damage.
must be checked Big end
using a torque
wrench to assess their tightness; they may also be assessed according to the length of the undamaged
bolts may fail due to material defects, over-stressing beyond its elastic limit or if assembled to the wrong
tension.big end bolts or by ultrasonic testing. Pre-stretched big end bolts must never be re-used.

ne Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 35
In the event
Marine Engineering Surveys Module
of a big end bolt failure, the surveyor must have full access to assess IN1
the cause of the
damage. If the big end bolts are present and appear undamaged they must be checked using a torque
wrench to assess their tightness; they may also be assessed according to the length of the undamaged
big end bolts or by ultrasonic testing. Pre-stretched big end bolts must never be re-used.
When investigating a big end bolt failure, remove the piston rod with attached parts without causing
further damage and photograph all parts; study them carefully in detail to determine the cause the
failure.
When investigating a bigDepending on the
end bolt failure, circumstances,
remove thewith
the piston rod services
attachedof parts
a metallurgist might be used to investigate the
without causing
urther damage failed components,
and photograph in order
all parts; studytothem
assess the cause
carefully of failure.
in detail to determine the cause the
ailure. Depending on the circumstances, the services of a metallurgist might be used to investigate
he failed components, in order
Assembling an to assess
engine bythe cause
using of failure.
hydraulic jacking tools to tension the big end bolts is not without risk.
If dirt or particles are present between nut and bearing cap, the pretension is reduced. The care and
ssembling an engine by using hydraulic jacking tools to tension the big end bolts is not without risk. If
expertise of the engineering staff will play a major part in the success of this process.
irt or particles are present between nut and bearing cap, the pretension is reduced. The care and
xpertise of the engineering staff will play a major part in the success of this process.
Tightening nuts with a torque wrench may cause problem as the pre-tension is reduced when the thread
ightening nuts or
withsurface ofwrench
a torque the nutmay
is dirty
causeand inexperience
problem or careless
as the pre-tension use could
is reduced also
when thecause insufficient pretension.
Torque
hread or surface of the wrenches
nut is dirty should be checked
and inexperience and calibrated
or careless regularly.
use could also cause insufficient
retension. Torque wrenches should be checked and calibrated regularly.
2.6.13 Crankshaft
2.6.13 Crankshaft
This is the single most important part of any engine and can be damaged in several ways.
his is the single most important part of any engine and can be damaged in several ways.
Fig 3:14 Crankshaft of Small high

speed engine-spectacularly broken
Fig 3:14 Crankshaft of Small high speed engine-spectacularly broken

6 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 36
e IN1 Marine Engineering Surveys
Damaged crankshaft
Fig 3:15 Damaged Crankshaft of Large Engine From The Motor Ship dated June 2004
With the crankshaft fitted in the engine, crankshaft deflections can be measured; the distance between
Fig 3:15 Damaged Crankshaft of Large Engine
the crank webs is measured as the engine is turned slowly. The readings are then compared with the
From The Motor Ship dated June 2004
equivalent results from basin trials at the shipyard. This does not give a measure of the straightness of
the crankshaft, but indicates the alignment and condition of the main bearings and/or the influence of
With the
the crankshaft
weight of thefitted in the
flywheel engine,
and/or crankshaft
alignment of thedeflections can be measured; the distance between
attached equipment.
the crank webs is measured as the engine is turned slowly. The readings are then compared with the
equivalent results
Crankshaft from basin
deflections aretrials
alwaysattaken
the shipyard.
afloat; withThis does
large mainnot give a measure
propulsion of the
engines the straightness
ballast condition of
the crankshaft, but indicates the alignment and condition
of the ship may also have an influence on the readings. of the main bearings and/or the influence of
the weight of the flywheel and/or alignment of the attached equipment.
The crankpins of crankshafts can also be crack tested while still fitted in the engine. This could be
Crankshaft
carrieddeflections
out by MPI are alwaysparticle
(magnetic taken afloat; with large
investigation) main
or dye propulsion
penetrant crackengines theThe
detection. ballast
depthcondition
of
of thecracks cannot
ship may alsobehave
assessed by means on
an influence of non-destructive
the readings. testing (NDT). Only by grinding the crank in
way of a crack or by machining on a lathe, can the depth of the crack be assessed. The hardness of the
affected crankpin
The crankpins can be measured
of crankshafts can also and be compared
be crack with the
tested while stillmax/mm
fitted inallowed by theThis
the engine. manufacturer.
could be
carried out by MPI (magnetic particle investigation) or dye penetrant crack detection. The depth of
cracksThe depthbe
cannot of assessed
the crack and the hardness
by means and composition
of non-destructive of the
testing metal Only
(NDT). are the
by criteria
grindingfor
theassessment
crank in
of the practicality of repair of a crankshaft.
way of a crack or by machining on a lathe, can the depth of the crack be assessed. The hardness of
the affected crankpin can be measured and be compared with the max/mm allowed by the
Grooves caused by particles may be visible on the surface of the crankpins. After many running hours,
manufacturer.
grooves may be considered as the result of normal wear; however, deep grooves can be found, which
may be caused by metallic or hard debris. The depth as well as the number of grooves can lead to the
The depth of the crack and the hardness and composition of the metal are the criteria for assessment
condemnation of the crankshaft.
of the practicality of repair of a crankshaft.
42Grooves caused by +44

IIMS - Call particles may 5223
(0)23 9238 be visible
or visiton the surface of the crankpins. After many running hours,
www.iims.org.uk
grooves may be considered as the result of normal wear; however, deep grooves can be found, which
If a unit is damaged with a scored big end bearing then the crankpin may also be damaged. The surveyor
should look for cracks, change of hardness, discolouration and even grooves.
Sometimes a crankpin can be machined (re-ground) while it is still in the engine (in situ); this is only
successful when, after machining, the cracks have disappeared and the hardness is within manufacturer’s
limits. This in situ repair depends on the availability of oversized bearing shells as well as on the
material specification with regard to allowable stresses during operation. Not all crankshafts can be
machined, depending on the crankshaft construction. Engine manufacturers will advise and, if applicable,
class approval will be necessary for this type of repair. The downside of an in situ repair is that the
straightness of the crankshaft and the extent of possible torsional deviation cannot be easily measured.
For some larger engines repairing surface cracks is only possible by grinding the main journals and/
or crank pins of a crankshaft in situ. Again, it is difficult to check the straightness and this has to be
considered a somewhat risky form of repair.
The only way to accurately check the straightness and torsional deviation is to remove the crankshaft
and check it on a lathe; however, such a lathe may not be available outside the manufacturer’s factory,
driving the repair into the in situ method.
After many running hours, due to normal wear, the crankpins may become oval. When measured, the
ovality must be within manufacturer’s limitations, as this will cause a breakdown in the lubrication
process leading to big end bearing damage.
Some crankshafts are repaired by means of chromium-plating in order to restore the thickness of the
crankpins; however, this is a highly specialized process. If the plating procedure is not done correctly or
contains defects, it can lead to small cracks in the chromium. These minor cracks can then form the ‘nick
effect’ allowing the growth of cracks into the basic crankshaft material, which can eventually result in
failure of the crankshaft.
Another cause for crankshaft failure may be incorrect crankpin fillet radii in way of the webs; such radii
must be ground carefully in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.
Excessive torsional vibration may lead to failure of the crankshaft. The aftermost crank-web (nearest to
the flywheel) is the usual failure location. Sometimes the front end (nearest to the vibration damper) of
the crankshaft fails due to excessive torsional vibration. The cause of such excessive torsional vibration
may be due to the specification of the vibration damper or any additional equipment that is attached to
the engine such as auxiliary drives.
Crankshaft crack formation may be initiated by fretting and scoring of a bearing. The heat produced
during the process of scoring can lead to surface cracks, which if they propagate, can lead to failure of
the crankshaft, which on occasion causes by a crankcase explosion.

Fretting is the frictional contact between two non-bearing surfaces sliding back and forth without
lubrication, this causes heat which creates microscopic welds, these welds then fail and tear, as the faces
continue to move leaving pits in the surface of the material. The first signs of fretting usually manifests
itself as metallic oxide deposits and pitting. Fretting is produced at the interface between the mating
surfaces of bolted or joined components resulting in deterioration and wear. Another result
ne Mod A 10/06/2011
of fretting is13:58 Page 38and propagation of small cracks, due to tearing of the micro welds. When a
the formation
fretted area is subject to fluctuating stresses, fatigue cracks may develop from the micro cracks induced
by the fretting; however the fretting cracks may remain dormant within the surface of the material.
Marine
The failure of a crankshaft is always serious and should Engineering
be researched toSurveys
establish the cause and if
appropriate the fracture should be investigated by a metallurgist. Vibration Analysis equipment can be
used to measure torsional vibration; these readings can then be compared with the original (datum)
torsional vibration calculations or readings to reveal potentially dangerous changes in the level of
vibration.
2.1.14 Entablature
2.1.14 /Entablature
Engine Block //Crankcase / Bedplate
Engine Block / Crankcase / Bedplate
Large of
arge engines consist engines consist
two parts: of two (upper
entablature parts: entablature (upper
crankcase) and crankcase)
bedplate and bedplate (lower crankcase)
(lower crankcase)
engines
ngines fitted with fitted withand
the entablature thebedplate
entablature andcrankshaft
have the bedplate have
‘lying’the crankshaft
in the bedplate.‘lying’ in the bedplate.
maller enginesSmaller
are constructed
engines with
are aconstructed
one-piece engine
with ablock. Under-slung
one-piece enginecrankshafts are fitted in
block. Under-slung crankshafts are fitted in
ngines with a one-piece engine block and an oil sump pan fixed underneath.
engines with a one-piece engine block and an oil sump pan fixed underneath.
Fig 3:16 Typical Crankcase of old

Cummins engine
Fig 3:16 Typical Crankcase of old Cummins engine
Damages to Entablature / Bedplate
Engines often show visible cracks in way of the supporting edge for the cylinder liners; these cracks
are mainly /caused
Damages to Entablature by fatigue due to the small amount of material at this part of the structure and they
Bedplate
usually
ngines often show appear
visible after
cracks a high
in way number
of the of running
supporting edge forhours. Some liners;
the cylinder enginethese
typescracks
are quite
are sensitive to this kind
mainly caused byoffatigue
crackingdueand thesmall
to the cracks may be
amount repairedatby
of material means
this part ofofthe
machining
structureand
and mounting
they of a separate ring;
sually appear after a high number of running hours. Some engine types are quite sensitive to this
however, this should be considered as a temporary solution, as the thickness of the edge is reduced and
ind of crackingcracks
and themay
cracks may beat
reappear repaired by means
the same of machining and mounting of a separate
location.
ng; however, this should be considered as a temporary solution, as the thickness of the edge is
educed and cracks may reappear at the same location.
44 IIMS - head
racks between a cylinder Call +44
stud(0)23 9238
and the 5223 or visit
supporting edgewww.iims.org.uk
for the cylinder liner are common; these
may be successfully repaired by means of the Metallock method. These cracks may be caused by the
Cracks between a cylinder head stud and the supporting edge for the cylinder liner are common; these
may be successfully repaired by means of the Metallock method. These cracks may be caused by the
incorrect assembly of the studs or by fatigue.
In the past, some engine blocks were constructed as a completely welded structure. After a high number
of running hours, some of these blocks developed cracks immediately alongside the welds. The most
likely cause for these cracks is fatigue stress, which depending on the propagation of the cracks may be
repaired by specialist welding.
Damage to the engine block or entablature may be as a result of major mechanical failure, such as piston
rod failure; liner breakdown etc and pieces can break off. An engine which seizes might also result in
the failure of larger engine block parts. Design and casting defects have also led to cracks in the engine
blocks through torsional vibration and stresses. This type of damage is usually repaired by means of the
‘Metallock’ method depending on the location as well as on the extent of
the damage.
An engine block can also be distorted to a certain extent as a result of extreme heat from, for example,
a big end bearing failure or some other failure. Repair may be possible, depending on the engine
structure.
An engine block can also be subject to corrosion due to:
• Insufficient cooling water treatment.

• Cavitation due to engine vibration and/or insufficient cooling water treatment.
• Insufficient de-aeration and/or high cooling water velocity.
• Construction/shape of the cooling water spaces and canals.
2.1.15 Bearings
White Metalled Bearings (Plain Bearing)
Engines of older design are equipped with thick white metalled bearings, consisting of a steel housing
and a layer of white metal, machined to suit the crankpin. If the white metal layer has partially or
completely loosened early in its life then the effectiveness of the bonding must be suspect. When parts
of the white metal break later in the life of the bearing, this is most likely due to fatigue, also perhaps
due to excessive bearing clearance due to wear.
When the bearing receives insufficient oil or if there is an oil supply failure, the white metal will melt
away, allowing the steel housing of the bearing to contact the crankpin or main journal; this major failure
results in serious mechanical damage. In the case of a main bearing failure, if the shells have turned in
the bearing pocket, the pocket may also be damaged. Re-boring of housings of main bearings using line
boring machinery may be possible, depending on the engine arrangement.

Tin-Metal Bearings with Galvanic Running Layer (Plain Bearing)

To study the condition of the bearing surface, clean with a brush. Cleaning with any other material can
10/06/2011cause
13:58
more Page
damage40and thus give a false indication to the reasons for the damage. During survey all
sides of the bearings must be inspected.
Scores at the bearing surface may be caused by debris; when it is difficult to determine the origin of such
debris, samples can be spectrographicallyMarine
analysed Engineering Surveysprocess. If the surface has
to assist in the detection
only a few scores spaced across the width of the bearing surface then the bearing will not necessarily
need to be replaced.
The galvanic surface layer can deteriorate due to the effects of corrosion, caused by poor oil condition.
When this type of bearing receives insufficient oil or there is an oil failure, the layers can partially
melt and the shell will weld itself to the crankpin or main journal of the crankshaft; this will cause the
shells to turn in their pockets and have a devastating effect on the engine, causing major wear to the
entablature bearing seats and cutting any further supply of oil to the bearing, accelerating the failure.
A bearing failure can also be the result of:
• Failure of the piston rod.

• Incorrect assembly.
• A manufacturing defect of the shells.
• Incorrect size and bearing clearance.
• Insufficient or excessive pre-tension on the shells.
Fig 3:17 Broken big end bearing of high Speed engine

Fig 3:17 Broken big end bearing of high Speed engine
Cavitation may occur due to the construction shape and/or by the high viscosity of the lubricating oil
due to the poor condition or low temperature of the oil. Cavitation is observed in way of a lubricating
oil injection hole and the oil way. There are three types of bearing cavitation as follows:
• Flow cavitation.
• Discharge erosion.
• Lubricating oil bore cavitation.
Flow Cavitation
A sudden change in the sectional area develops turbulence, resulting in cavitation. Evidence of cavitation
may be found in way of oil slots and other irregularities on the surface of the bearing.
Discharge Erosion
When the maximum radial bearing clearance is rapidly exceeded, cavitation in way of the bearing surface
may occur. This type of cavitation is found between the edge and the central oil slot (if applicable) of the
upper main bearing shells and lower crankpin bearing shells (big end bearing shells). The loading forces
of crankpin bearings are influenced by the compression ratio, combustion pressure and the frictional
resistance of the piston. Excessive torsional vibration may also increase an engine’s sensitivity to this
type of cavitation; however, this is difficult to assess.
Lubricating Oil Bore Cavitation

This type of cavitation is found at the centre of the shell and is most often circular in shape. High
combustion pressure and a low stiffness of the piston rod will increase the sensitivity to cavitation. It is
to be expected after any internal failure or excessive wear that there will be debris in the lubricating oil,
the filtration of the lubricating oil should prevent particles larger than the filter mesh size to circulate
through the system reaching the crankshaft or other bearings.
An irregular oil flow due to partial blockage of the oil way may result in localised changes in bearing
quality leading to the development of small craters; this increases the potential for the nick effect, which
may eventually result in fatigue cracks. Flake-like cracks in the surface may result from excessive cyclic
stresses due to mechanical and thermal overload. The effect of cyclic stresses can be seen at the back of
the shells.
Roller/Ball Bearings
Ball and roller bearings are not as accessible for inspection as plain bearings. Ball bearings are usually
contained within a cage; they can accept both radial and axial loadings, but due to high point loadings
their load capacity is lower compared to
roller bearings.
Roller bearings have a higher radial load bearing capacity, but a reduced axial load bearing capacity when
compared to ball bearings, they are also more prone to damage due to misalignment. To give greater
axial load bearing capacity tapered roller bearings are used or double-tapered roller bearings are used
where axial loads are present on both sides of the bearing.

These types of bearing will sustain damage in the event of lack of oil. The signs are that the housings
discolour due to heat and turn blue, burn and may fail completely. They also suffer from a defect known
as brinelling. Brinelling is caused by distortion of the bearing face or the face of the roller; this can be
as a result of debris, surface imperfection or vibration. These indentations in the bearing surface cause
the rotating balls or rollers to skip, creating further indentations at the point of landing, leading to
progressive failure. The signs are excessive noise and vibration.
In smaller engines roller and ball bearings should be carefully pressed into position as impacts can result
in the formation of defects leading to brinelling. Static bearings subjected to vibration can suffer from
false brinelling by creating minor indentations in the bearing surface.
When oil supply is sufficient, but debris is present, scores in the bearing surface as well as on the balls/
rollers can be created.Visual inspection is the only way to detect this defect; scored bearings should be
replaced.
2011 13:58 Page 42
In a ball bearing if the cage breaks then the bearing will fail completely. This could be caused by:
• Mechanical overload.
• Fatigue (normal wear).
• Fatigue due to excessive clearance. Marine Engineering Surveys
• Fatigue due to brinelling.
• Fatigue due to vibration.
2.1.16 Camshafts
Camshafts are less prone to damage than the other engine parts, due to lower rotational speeds
and more constant loadings. Cams can suffer material failure, often due to defects caused during the
hardening process when the shaft is manufactured.
Fig 3:18 A Damaged Fuel Cam Lobe

From The Motor Ship June 2004
48 IIMS - CallA
Fig 3:18 +44 (0)23 9238
Damaged Fuel5223
CamorLobe
visit www.iims.org.uk
From The Motor Ship June 2004
The cam can be damaged as a result of problems with the valve operating gear. The hardened upper
layer can break off due to prolonged stress (fatigue) of the softer, more flexible underlying structure.
When early surface defects on the cam surface are visible as small pits, these may not be develop and
become serious; they may even disappear after a period of time. Periodical inspection should be carried
out after initial pitting is found. Initial pitting is caused by rawness and/or imperfections in the ground
surfaces. Hard particles in the lubricating oil may also affect the cams and bearing surfaces.
Serious pitting is a problem resulting in excessive wear; it is caused by fatigue failure of the lobe surface
IN1 due to Marine
10_11_v2:906 a combination of pressure 13:58
Mod A 10/06/2011 and relative
Page movement
43 of the cam follower. When the fatigue limit
is exceeded locally, cracks developed and finally the surface may start to break up; this process is
accelerated when oil is forced into the tiny cracks.
Marine
The type of oil andEngineering Surveys
viscosity (which Module
is influenced by its temperature) is of great influence to pitting. IN1
Machining imperfection of the surface also contributes to the process.
2.1.17 Engine Fuel Systems

We have discussed the three groups of engines in earlier chapters and each engine type can burn fuel
of different grades. Each grade is distinguished by its specific viscosity, flash point, water content, specific
gravity, calorific value, ash content and sulphur content, etc all of which influence the cost.
Fig 7.1-This fuel diagram is taken from a MAN B&W Installation manual,
illustrating the fuel heating and purifying process.
Fig 7.1-This fuel diagram is taken from a MAN B&W Installation manual, illustrating the fuel heating and purifying process.
High speed engines generally use Gas Oil, which requires no special treatment beyond good cleaning
Call +44 (0)23 9238 5223 or visit www.iims.org.uk - IIMS
through a centrifuge. Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) is also easy to use, and is carried on large vessels for 49
use in the main engine during manoeuvring and start-up.
High speed engines generally use Gas Oil, which requires no special treatment beyond good cleaning
through a centrifuge. Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) is also easy to use, and is carried on large vessels for use
in the main engine during manoeuvring and start-up.
Contamination of Fuel
When it is suspected that the fuel has caused damage to a diesel engine, the first action to take is to
collect a fuel sample from all the ship’s tanks and arrange for the samples to be analysed; if possible,
samples should be collected from:
• Daily service tank.
• Settling tank.
• Bunker tank in use at the time of the failure.
• Last bunker supplier.
When the cause is suspected, but not yet proved, the laboratory should be advised to make a careful
study. The results of the analysis may then be compared with the values allowed by the engine
manufacturers.
The sample received from the supplier might not be reliable evidence. Some suppliers take several samples
from one large quantity of fuel; however, the small part of the whole amount, which was supplied to the
vessel, may differ from the average qualities. For this reason the most reliable sample is a so-called drip
sample, taken during the course of the fuel’s supply to the vessel, e.g. taken at the manifold. A sealed, signed
and properly marked sample should be given to the supplier and one sample should be retained onboard.
This is usually the responsibility of the ship’s engineer who should store all samples.
Once the fuel is in the bunkers and problems with the quality are suspected, the quality of the fuel in
the bunker tanks does not provide legal evidence that this is the same as the oil supplied. The supplier
may claim that the contamination is the result of sludge left in the tank, or due to a small amount of
previously supplied fuel.
Bacteria in Marine Diesel Fuel

When a diesel fuel is affected with bacteria, severe fouling and plugging of tanks, fuel lines, filters and
injectors may result. The consequences are blockages and flow restrictions as well as corrosion. Major
cleaning is necessary which requires the offloading of the fuel bunkers and treatment with chemicals in
order to remove all bacteria.
Bacteria are mainly found in fuel with a residue of water in the tanks or water-compensated fuel tanks.
The fuel is food to bacteria, which lives in the interface between the fuel and water. I am advised that
at the time of writing this module that the marine industry in this country is not supporting the use of
bio-fuels for use in ships due to the issues regarding separation (stability), waxing due to fuel remaining
unused in bunker tanks for prolonged periods and further possible problems associated with mixing
with other grades of fuel and of course the increased risk of biological growth. However, as reported
in an article in September’s MER magazine, the latest EU directive (2009/30/EC), which is to be
implemented in January 2011, will see the supply of red diesel of equivalent specification to that used by
European Road Vehicles with bio-fuel content of up to 7%. This raises concerns over potential problems
with older engines and installations and microbiological contamination.

Rapid microbial proliferation can cause large amounts of biomass; this appears in the form of sticky
slime, which entrains other particulates. The surveyor should check the condensate stripping system
in the tanks to see if the system is working and whether there is still appreciable water in the tanks.
An associated problem is microbial influenced corrosion. Microbes can produce corrosive acids and
sulphide, which can cause rapid pitting corrosion in tank bottoms. This is one of the primary concerns
in microbial infestation of heavy and residual fuels, while blocked filters are a problem with lighter fuel
IN1 systems,
10_11_v2:906 particularly
Marine in gas turbine13:58
Mod A 10/06/2011 fuel systems.
Page 45
Although microbial infestation can develop in bunker tanks, fuel is often already contaminated at the
time of supply. The extent of the contamination is however different and sometimes even unacceptable.
Marine
The engineer willEngineering Surveys
try to take several Module
samples as discussed above, but the bunker fuel may be delivered IN1
from several shore tanks.
The key protective measure for ship Owners is to keep fuel tanks and systems water-free, as water is
the essential element for microbiological growth. Ongoing monitoring and maintenance is necessary.
Sometimes the cause can be attributed to the construction of a tank. When a tank cannot be drained
completely, the remaining amount of water is enough for the bacteria to live in. On-board test kits
enable early detection of contamination. The use of biocides is often the last resort and must be
combined with careful cleaning and filtration strategy.
Fig 7.2-Heavy Fuel Treatment Plant- MER Oct 2003

Fig 7.2-Heavy Fuel Treatment Plant- MER Oct 2003
High Sulphur Content in Marine Diesel Fuel
This is one possible cause of liner lacquering as well as deposits on injectors and valves; however,
when the correct lubricating oil is used and other engine conditions are adjusted, this can be avoided.
High Water Content

When this is found in the fuel, this may result in:
• Deposit formation.
High Sulphur Content in Marine Diesel Fuel

This is one possible cause of liner lacquering as well as deposits on injectors and valves; however, when
the correct lubricating oil is used and other engine conditions are adjusted, this can be avoided.
High Water Content

When this is found in the fuel, this may result in:
• Deposit formation.
• Corrosion.
• Incomplete combustion.
• High wear rate of fuel pumps and injectors.
• Cavitation of the fuel pump plungers.
High content of Asphaltenes (ao Vanadium)

This is one of the sources for soot deposits on injectors and valves.
High Content of Catfines

Catfines (Silicon in conjunction with aluminium on a 2.5-3:1 ratio, arising from the catalytic cracking
process) may cause excessive liner wear.
2.1.18 Injectors
Fuel injectors may suffer from extreme / excessive wear due to poor quality or water-contaminated
fuel. Scoring of the bores and plungers responsible for the injection of the fuel will lead to the failure of
the injector to atomise the fuel. This will result in poor combustion inside the cylinder, carbon deposits
on the piston crown, thermal stressing of the cylinder liner and ultimately the possible failure of
components. Injectors are subject to normal wear and need require routine specialist maintenance.
• Settling tank.
• Bunker tank in use at the time of the failure.
• Last bunker supplier.
When the cause is suspected, but not yet proved, the laboratory should be advised to make a careful study.
The results of the analysis may then be compared with the values allowed by the engine manufacturers.
The sample received from the supplier might not be reliable evidence. Some suppliers take several samples
from one large quantity of fuel; however, the small part of the whole amount, which was supplied to the
vessel, may differ from the average qualities. For this reason the most reliable sample is a so-called drip
sample, taken during the course of the fuel’s supply to the vessel, e.g. taken at the manifold. A sealed, signed
and properly marked sample should be given to the supplier and one sample should be retained onboard.
This is usually the responsibility of the ship’s engineer who should store all samples.
Injectors may fail dramatically if the needle lift exceeds the manufacturer’s specification; this may even
result in damage to the end of the nozzle resulting in fuel being injected in such a way as to cause
combustion problems.

2.1.19 High Pressure Fuel Injection Pumps

The plungers of the pump can be affected by erosion, which is caused by water or solid particles in the
fuel. This should be identified during routine maintenance after the plungers have been in service for
15,000 - 20,000 running hours and should be considered as normal wear.
When severe erosion is found after a few thousand running hours, the erosion caused is most likely due
to excessively contaminated fuel. Poor quality fuel or fuel with a too-high viscosity can cause scoring of
the plunger. High-pressure outlet valves can be affected by water contaminated fuel (erosion).
The lubrication of larger pumps can fail, resulting in seizing of the plunger. Such pumps often have a
lubricating hole in the plunger barrel at half the height of the plunger stroke.
2.1.20 Damage From Unusual Sources

Hydraulic Lock
One or more cylinders above the piston may contain a level of water due to leaking head gaskets or
cracked liners. There have also been instances of levels of oil and even fuel above the piston, causin
increased compression and hydraulic lock. This situation mainly occurs when an engine is stationary.
The water can be detected by turning the engine over prior to starting with the indicator cocks open.
If the water is not removed in this way, then when the engine is started with water in the cylinders
serious damage will occur such as:
• Bent / broken valves.

• Broken pistons.
• Cracked or broken cylinder heads.
• Bent piston rods.
• Bent valve push rods.
• Bent or broken rocker arms.
• Broken liners.
• Damaged big end bearings.
• Bent crankshaft.
Over-speed
When an engine over-speeds, the amount of damage depends on the overspeed RPM. The manufacturer
will usually advise the method and extent of inspection of an engine which suffered an over-speed
condition. Depending on the maximum achieved speed, the following damage is possible:
• Bent / broken valves with push rods.

• Indented / broken pistons.
• Damaged big end bearings.
• Overstressed piston rod bolts and counterweight bolts.

2.1.21 Cooling Water

Slow and Medium Speed engines often use common cooling water systems where the cooling water for
a particular engine or group of engines is arranged in common. Another feature is the use of two cooling
water circuits, one hot for the cylinder heads and a cooler system for taking the heat from the cylinders.
Each engine is fitted with its own electrically driven pumps.
High Speed engines use integral heat exchangers and the fresh water is stored within the engine and the
system is serviced by engine-driven integral freshwater and seawater pumps. The surveyor will want to
check all processes of the system, from pumps to heat exchangers.
The quality and correct quantity of the cylinder cooling water is one of the most important support
systems of an engine. The water needs to be treated with chemicals (inhibitor) as protection against
corrosion of the engine parts as well as against protection against freezing (anti-freeze). The engine
can be filled with different chemicals, depending on the materials of the different engine parts; this is
especially true for aluminium.
When the cooling water is treated properly and the concentration of the chemicals is kept above the
minimum level, the liners will be protected from cavitation damage.
There may be isolated cases where old engines may have never used treated cooling water; these
engines need special care, as the addition of chemicals will loosen the existing deposits in the engine
system and may clog the system, resulting in serious damage.
2.1.22 Microbiological Fouling

Open and closed recirculating systems may experience problems due to microbiological fouling.
Airborne contamination of closed systems is limited; however, these systems often experience microbiological
fouling, particularly when the make-up rate is significant or leaks allow bacterial or fungal growth.
Just as oil is utilised by a significant number of micro-organisms as a food source, so also, Ethylene
Glycol, which is an organic syrupy-sweet compound, when used as antifreeze in a system can be
broken down, particularly by moulds and yeast, resulting in rubbery slime deposits causing blockage
in coolers and / or heat exchangers. Delivery of contaminated water by barge can also be a source of
contamination.
If oxygen is present, the growth of slime forming bacteria can lead to gelatinous slime deposits in the
system. Slime forming bacteria are aerobic bacteria, i.e. oxygen is required to optimise growth. They
produce a sticky polysaechanide slime, which may be coloured. The slime deposit can occur throughout
the system wherever there is sufficient oxygen for growth. Certain types of these bacteria are facultative
anaerobic, i.e. they can undergo limited growth in oxygen free conditions switching from oxygen to
other food source and vice versa. They can survive in all conditions as they adapt to the changing food
source, hence problems still occur.
The presence of corrosion products of microbiological slime will enhance the growth of anaerobic
bacteria. Deposits provide the ideal oxygen free condition necessary for the growth of these bacteria,
particularly sulphate reducing bacteria. Such bacteria are particularly troublesome; they obtain energy

by reducing inorganic sulphate to acidic hydrogen sulphide, which is highly corrosive and, frequently
combines with iron to form black insoluble iron oxide. Sulphate reducing bacteria are often the
cause of pitting corrosion. They produce foul odours due to the production of hydrogen sulphide. As
sulphatereducing bacteria grow in a protected environment beneath deposits, they can be difficult to
eliminate from the system without a thorough system clean.
Often nitrite is used as a common inhibitor for closed systems; this can be utilised by various
microorganisms. The presence of these nitrite-oxidising bacteria oxidises nitrite to nitrate and can lead
to major over-consumption of nitrite corrosion inhibitors as, in certain cases, 1,000ppm of nitrite can be
consumed in 24 hours. Nitrite reducing bacteria which convert nitrite to gaseous end-products, possibly
ammonia. These end products may then be utilised by other micro-organisms and then be lost from the
system without any noticeable effect in acidity (loss in pH). These bacteria grow preferentially within
deposits and are naturally protected from the action of treating with biocides. Other bacteria which
cause reduction of nitrite are slime forming bacteria belonging to the pseudomonas or flavobacteria.
These usually grow on the surface of deposits and can be easier to eliminate than those bacteria
growing within deposits.
If the closed system is treated with Ethylene Glycol, problems may occur due to Pseudomonas; certain
forms of this slime-forming bacteria can utilise glycol as a food source resulting in the formation of
gelatinous slime deposit and foul odours. The growth of pseudomonas could also lead to degradation of
the glycol. Moulds and Yeast also utilise glycol as a food source leading to the formation of thick rubbery
slime deposits and possible degradation of the glycol.
Some slow speed diesel engines are equipped with water-cooled pistons; this water needs treatment
with special chemicals due to the high temperatures.
2.1.23 Heat Exchangers

There are several types of heat exchanger, particularly Tube heat exchangers and Plate heat exchangers;
each is subject to leakage. Damage to plate heat exchangers is rarely due to the quality of steel plate.
Leakage within a heat exchanger allows the external cooling medium (fresh or salt water) to
contaminate the secondary circuit, which requires cooling (oil, freshwater, charge air, etc). Of course fuel
is heated by steam or hot oil and the heat flow is the other way around. Leakages can be caused by:
• A loose tube plate connection (tube heat exchanger).

• Two plates not fixed tightly together (plate heat exchanger).
• Internal or external erosions of pipes.
• Corrosion.
• Stress corrosion.
• Galvanic corrosion.
• Electrolysis.

A loose tube to tube plate connection can be the result of bad workmanship during manufacture. The
ends of the tubes are expanded using a flaring tool after they are placed in the hole in the tube plate.
Other causes are vibrations of the tube stack, erosion in way of the pipe entrance and corrosion.
Vibration of the tube stack can also result in cracks. The cause of vibration may be the speed of flow of
the medium as well as external vibration and may be influenced by the free length of the tube stack.
Erosion of the heat exchanger header is influenced by the flow speed of the medium, treatment of the
medium as well as the properties of the medium and the pipe-work. Corrosion between pipe-work
and the tube plate as well as galvanic corrosion depend on the properties of both pipes and plate and
are chosen carefully by the designer. Erosion also occurs over the complete length of the tubes due to
particles in the medium such as sand or salt. Local erosion may be caused by imperfections.
When sea water is involved, the heat exchanger can be protected against galvanic corrosion by means
of sacrificial anodes and in the choice of coating; however, the choice of the parent metals is very
important and must be dependent upon the medium. Always check the anodes; these are fitted to the
ends of screwed plugs fitted in the end casings.
In addition to normal wear and tear, tube heat exchangers can be subject to defects from faulty design
and faulty manufacturing of the tubes or casting of the body.
Assessment of the cause of a leakage is not always possible. Leaking tubes can be plugged as a rule of
thumb 5% to 10% may be repaired before the heat exchangers efficiency is reduced to the level that
re-tubing or replacement is necessary. When a heat exchanger is repaired by replacement, the affected
areas can be cut open for further investigation or analysis by a metallurgist. Also analysis of the used
metals and properties of the applied medium are important for final assessment.
A variant of heat exchanger technology for main engines is the use of Box Coolers where the elements
are within an open sea chest or keel coolers where the elements are external along the hull; both these
systems avoid the requirement of a sea water pump. These coolers are particularly useful in heavily silted
water and are commonly employed in vessels navigating the American rivers. Vessels which dry out may
also have a facility to pass the cooling medium through ballast tank cooler elements.

N1 10_11_v2:906 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 50
FigFig
7.4-Box
7.4-BoxCooler-Klima
Cooler-Klima

2.2 Machinery Installations

Although the Marine Engineering Surveyor is not usually a structural engineer, they should understand
that engine beds are highly stressed and may suffer damage, particularly in way of welds. These can be
very difficult to see in an oily and dark environment, but should be inspected visually and by hammer
sounding or in very lightweight vessels employ a crack detection system.
The following comments about engine beds discuss some of the issues that the Marine Engineering
Surveyor should consider.
2.2.1 Foundation
All equipment has its own mass and because the vessel will move in a seaway, the loads imposed on the
structure will greatly exceed the apparent weight. Vibration from moving parts will create noise, which
will be carried through the vessel. Accordingly all vibrating or humming equipment should be carried on
anti-vibration mounts of sufficient strength and design.
2.2.2 Working Access (Installation and Maintenance)

Removal routes should be planned during build. The removal of large equipment such engines and
generators, although infrequent, may require bolted hatches or soft patches in the structure and joinery
to suit so that the removal costs are not out of proportion to the overall work.
2.2.3 Engine Room Ventilation

Engine room ventilation is often given insufficient attention and all sorts of problems arise from elevated
temperatures, as the heat generated by the equipment is trapped in the compartment. Typical of these
problems will be reduced capacity from equipment such as the batteries, early hardening of plastic
items such as cable insulation and underperformance of the engines taking their air supply from the
compartment.
The engines will lose performance because hotter air contains less oxygen per volume and thus cannot
burn as much fuel and develop the output promised in the engine brochure. Each engine rating is related
to a specific air temperature and barometric pressure and naturally aspirated engines will therefore lose
power with rise of temperature, turbocharged units even more so because of the compression of the
intake air by the turbocharger, further increasing the temperature. This can however, be compensated
for to a degree by any inter-cooling.
Many small vessels rely on combustion air to ventilate the machinery compartment, but unless the hot
air is removed from the top of the engine room or unless a large volume of cool air is supplied to the
compartment from atmosphere it is very poor practice as the combustion air to the engines will have
picked up much heat and hence the air will be thinner, so engine performance will suffer. It is easy to
understand how engine compartment temperatures will increase given that engines give out radiant
heat, when we think of the engine mass running at up to 90ºC.

The heat rejection rate is sometimes given as a proportion of output power, but datasheets on modern
larger engines give a heat rejection rate in kW; it is then simple to calculate the airflow required to take
away this heat (plus all the ancillary heat loads). In ship applications it is acceptable for the operating
temperature of the machinery room to be up to 10ºC above the ambient air temperature; in smaller
vessels, an increase of up to 15-20ºC above ambient air temperatures is acceptable.
Where heat rejection rates are not known, an empirical ventilation rate depending on the type of
engine, the size of the engine room and cruising grounds of the vessel is used to calculate the figure for
the combustion air, using the same figure for ventilation. Obviously the intake air should include both
the combustion and the ventilation air and thus an exhaust fan gives a better ventilation effect than the
same rated fan blowing into the space. Providing that the intakes are large enough to supply the exhaust
fan and the engine this also means that the engine room runs under a slight underpressure, which helps
to contain smells to the engine compartments.
Larger engine rooms, drawing air down through several decks are normally fitted with intake and
exhaust fans. The air ducts should be sized to suit the airflow and air velocities in ducts should be in
the range 7.5 to 10 m/sec. Air velocity through intake grilles should be kept below 6 m/sec to minimise
water droplets being carried into the space by the airflow. Smaller vessels with open grilles should
duct the air upwards and over a water trap to avoid excessive spray and salt intake. Most vessels are
now fitted with single stage inertial spray-eliminating jalousies or grilles, which can remove the water
droplets from the air and reduce significantly the amount of salt staining on the equipment under the air
intakes. Gas turbine vessels require a higher level of filtration of the intake air and often fit three stage
vane systems.
Fig 2:7 Illustration of Inertia Grille

(Altair Single Stage Separator)

ne
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53
The ventilation systems should have fire flaps fitted in the air ducts to allow the space to be shut down
in event of fire. Also the engines, fuel, lubricating oil pumps and fans should be capable of being switched
off and isolated from outside the compartment.
The fire insulation should extend up to the fire flaps, which should be fire resistant to the level required
Marine
arine Engineering
Engineering Surveys
Surveys
by applicable legislation. The fire flaps should be operable from outside the compartment, preferably
within a ‘fire locker’ containing all the switches, pulls, hoses, etc required for fire-fighting.
Fans are generally of the axial flow type, which fit inside the ducts or on the open deck with intake
cowls fitted on top. In line silencers can be fitted to the fans to reduce the noise reaching the deck.
Formal battery ventilation fans are often of the centrifugal type, as the motor is not in the airflow,
reducing the possibilities of explosion from the hydrogen that can come from batteries when being
charged near to capacity. For small engine compartments it is often good practice to duct the intake
air to the lower part of the compartment and the exhaust duct from the top. This allows the space to
ventilate naturally, to some extent, when the fans are shut down.
Axial
AxialFlow
FlowFan
Fan Centrifugal
CentrifugalFan
Fan
Axial Flow Fan Centrifugal Fan
Fig 2:8 Elta Marine Catalogue

Fig
Fig2:8
2:8Elta
EltaMarine
MarineCatalogue
Catalogue
2.4
.2.4 Machinery
MachinerySpace
SpaceInsulation
Insulation
ulation
sulationofofthe
themachinery
machineryspaces
spacesserves
servestwo
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services:
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2.2.4 Machinery Space Insulation

Insulation of the machinery spaces serves two important services:
• Attenuation of engine noise into the accommodation.

• Containment of a fire in the compartment.
Compartments in a vessel in which machinery is fitted should be surrounded by bulkheads, having a

standard of insulation, which when subjected to a prescribed fire hazard will inhibit the flow of heat
so that the bulkhead will not experience a greater than given temperature for a given time and will
maintain its structural integrity.
Fire-insulated bulkheads are assigned the letter ‘A’ followed by the period of protection, typically A60
for 60 minutes, A30 for 30 minutes, etc. The insulation materials that can handle these temperatures /
time periods are typically Rockwool, Glass Wool or very expensive exotic materials based on ceramics.
The following drawing shows the certified arrangement of how to protect a steel bulkhead to the
various standards.

IN1 10_11_v2:906 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 54
Rockwool
Rockwool Drawing
Drawing 1003, 1003,
Rockwool Rockwool
Brochure Brochure
on Marine Certification on Marine Certification
Fig
Fig 2:9
2:9
The illustration shows that 75mm of insulation is requireda steel
The illustration shows that 75mm of insulation is required for for bulkhead
a steelonbulkhead
one side onlyon
(fireone
riskside
side); only
however(fire
for risk side);
aluminium 80mm of insulation is usually required for both sides, as the aluminium bulkhead would melt in the fierce 1000+oC
however for aluminium 80mm of insulation is usually required for both sides, as the aluminium bulkhead would
test, causing
o the collapse of the bulkhead.
melt in the fierce 1000+ C test, causing the collapse of the bulkhead.
62
Page 54 IIMS - Call +44 (0)23 9238 5223 or visit www.iims.org.uk
Fibreglass (GRP / FRP) requires an approach similar to the protection for aluminium with further safeguards.
The subject of structural fire protection, escape routes, flammable materials, etc is the duty of the designer.
Referring specifically to machinery compartments they need A60 protection on all bulkheads, deckheads
and doors; all ventilation trunks, fire flaps, etc have to be similarly rated.
The requirement for structural fire protection has had beneficial results in modern ship design; it has
concentrated the designer’s mind on the subject of insulation and modern ships are quieter (noise
attenuation) and cooler (as better thermal insulation allows good air conditioning for less power).
2.2.5 Fire Fighting Installations and Equipment

Machinery spaces should be protected by fixed fire fighting systems; these should be of adequate size,
operable from outside the compartment and fitted with a warning system. Large compartments should also
have suitable portable extinguishers positioned at strategic points and adjacent to access hatches and ladders.
2.3 What May be Learned from the External Appearance

of an Engine?
The component studies in the previous paragraphs will assist in the inspection and assessment of large
and small engines; however, on initial inspection of a marine diesel installation, it is essential to check on
all immediately visible evidences to determine the condition of the installation.
Most commercial ships are worked hard and will have been given minimal-cost maintenance by
indifferently-trained personnel; it is to be expected that after a few years the shortfall begins to show.
In any marine diesel engine survey it is worth checking the general condition before studying any
specific areas; this should include the following observations:
• What is the condition of the engine? - clean or oil streaked?
• Are the nuts on regularly removed components in good condition or have the corners been rounded
off by poorly fitting spanners or suffering from corrosion, indicating lack of attention?
• What is the condition of the spare cylinder heads, valves, injectors, etc?
• Exhaust system - condition of exhaust flanges, pipe-work, insulation and hangers.
• Engine holding-down bolts - hammer sound will indicate whether they are tight and sound?
• Alignment shims - have they fretted?
• Conditions of drip trays or bilges under the engines.
• Condition of turning gear; ask for it to be engaged if not operating.
• What is the condition of the top of the funnel? On boarding the vessel, what is the smoke condition
of exhaust of the running generator?
• Look at the maintenance log - how well has it been filled in?
• Ask for the programme of planned maintenance.
• What is the condition of the ship’s tools? Poorly maintained and stored tools offer good witness as
to the care taken by previous or present engineers.
• Condition of the overhead handling equipment.
• Sole plates - loose or bolted down?
• Condition of ladders and platforms.

3 STEAM TURBINE PROPULSION ENGINES

3.1 Introduction
Steam was historically the first power transfer system and effectively ended the age of the sail powered
ship. The development of steam powered ships has continued for two hundred years into this century
and includes such specialized vessels, as nuclear powered warships. Today’s Engine Surveyor will perhaps
never see a steam plant, but should as there are still uses other than propulsion it is still of value to have
a working understanding of steam systems.
Steam is still used on many ships to transfer heat, for such duties as fuel heating, (keeping heavy fuel oil
fluid in bunker tanks), heating and domestic systems etc. Such steam is probably raised in an exhaust
heat boiler, with perhaps oil fired back-up.
The first steam engines were reciprocating piston engines, with multi-cylinders, but these were replaced
by steam turbines which had greater efficiency and higher power output. The diesel engine is being built
in increasingly greater outputs that were previously the province of the steam turbine, and can now
develop 80,000kW in a single engine.
Earlier propulsion systems relied on the output of up to four main propulsion units, more recently this
has been reduced to a single large engine, but the increasing use of electric drive allows several engines
to drive alternators, whose output can be added together to drive very large propulsion motors and
manoeuvring thrusters.
3.2 Boilers
The first boilers were of rectangular, riveted iron construction, burning coal and using seawater with
frequent blow down to remove the accumulated salt. The boiler pressure was very low- perhaps only 5
psi (about 0.3 bars) and the piston engines powered by the steam drove paddles or an early propeller.
Boilers developed very quickly and the Scotch (or fire tube) boiler became ubiquitous and can still be
seen on some old vessels. They were limited to about 10 bar pressure (150psi) and although originally
coal burning most, if not all have been converted to burn oil or diesel oil. They were very heavy, holding
tons of water, and required a long period to raise steam.
Due to the limitations of Scotch boilers- (or fire tube boilers), several boilers were often used to
service the engine –
as illustrated overleaf
As steam pressures were raised to increase the efficiency of the steam plant, the water tube boiler
was developed which reduced the time taken to raise steam and improved efficiency, and could be
constructed to deliver very large volumes of steam. The steam cycle was made more efficient by the
fitment of heat exchangers (economisers) in the exhaust uptakes.

_11_v2:906 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 57

Steam at sea
Fig 4-1 Typical Double Ended Scotch Boiler

Fig 4-1 Typical Double Ended Scotch Boiler

UNIT 1510/06/2011
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Large Vessel Main Engines
ule IN1 Marine Engineering Surveys
Fig 4-2 Engine and Boiler Room in

early Liner showing Uptakes from
“Steam at Sea” by Denis Griffiths.
Fig 4-2 Engine and Boiler Room in early Liner showing Uptakes from “Steam at Sea” by Denis Griffiths.
Illustrating arrays of water tubes connecting water drum at bottom and steam drum at top. Note: the
uptake
Illustrating arraysisoffitted withconnecting
water tubes a heat exchanger
water drum at tobottom
regain andsome
steamof theat exhaust
drum top. Note:heat.
the
uptake is fitted with a heat exchanger to regain some of the exhaust heat.
The old Admiralty Three Drum Boiler fed by heavy fuel oil was open front meaning that the boiler
The old Admiralty Three Drum Boiler fed by heavy fuel oil was open front meaning that the boiler air
air supply
supply came from thecame from boiler
pressurised the pressurised boiler
room, these boilers room,
operated these
at 300 psi boilers operated
and typically all the at 300 psi and typically all
thewas
machinery machinery was with
steam powered, steam powered,
diesel generatorswith
for usediesel generators
when shore steam wasfor use when
available or shore steam was available or
emergency power was required.
emergency power was required.
The Three Drum was replaced by the Y100 and later Y136 boilers used by the royal navy in the last of
Thepowered
their steam Three ships
Drum was replaced
operated by the
at 550 psi with Y100 and
superheated later
steam Y136 boilers
temperatures of 850 used
deg F. by
the royal navy in the last of
their steam powered ships operated at 550 psi with superheated steam temperatures of 850 deg F.

arine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 59
Fig 4-3 Y100 Boiler

Fig 4-3FigY100 Boiler
4-3 Y100 (insert
Boiler (insert drawing Babcock%20boiler)
drawing Babcock%20boiler)
Key to drawing:
1/. Air flow through casing
2/. Fuel Sprayers
3/. Water Drum
4/. Super Heater
5/. Water Tubes
6/. Water wall drum
7/. Furnace
Fig 4-4 Y100 Boiler sectional drawing (insert drawing boiler%20working)
Key to drawing:
1/. Air flow through casing
2/. Fuel Sprayers
3/. Water Drum
Fig 4-4 Y100 Boiler sectional drawing
4/. Super Heater
5/. Water Tubes
Fig 4-4 Y100 Boiler sectional drawing (insert drawing boiler%20working)
6/. Water wall drum
wing:
7/. Furnace
w through casing Call +44 (0)23 9238 5223 or visit www.iims.org.uk - IIMS 67
prayers
The Y100 systems fitted developed 15,000 SHP on each shaft 5,000 SHP in astern. Steam flow at the
main stop valve was 54 tons per hour.
Boilers on board of vessels are now usually oil-fired, but coal fired boilers may be found on older
colliers, and some boilers are fuelled by gas boiling off the cargo in LPG tankers.
Boilers were historically fitted to raise steam to the main propulsion engine as well as to power
auxiliary equipment but today Exhaust Gas boilers are fitted into diesel and gas turbine exhaust systems
to provide ancillary steam for the ship.
3.2.1 Notes on Boiler Examination

Boilers have two main levels of inspection, External and Internal; both are part of scheduled
maintenance.
External inspections are to determine the condition of:-

• Smoke detection devices and mirrors (cleaning and operation)
• Uptakes (soot levels)
• Soot blowing valves (operation, valve seats, spindle packing).
• Economiser (deposits / corrosion).
• Boiler tube inspection (pitting and surface defects).
• Furnace brickwork inspection (cracking and loose brickwork).
• Inspection of sliding feet (evidence of lubrication and freedom of movement).
• Casing inspection (distortion and leaks).
Internal inspections are to determine the condition of:-

• Steam and water drum (corrosion)
• Water separators, scrubbers in steam drum (security and condition)
• Boiler tube ends (erosion and corrosion)
• Witness cleaning and checking boiler tube bore cleanliness (ball bearings passed through tubes
between steam and water drum).
Water pressure tests to be witnessed on completion of inspection.
Much of the damage suffered by a steam plant arises from as a result of mismanagement and
inexperience of the operator(s) of the plant. This is especially true today as experienced operators in
steam are becoming fewer. Automatic control of the boiler systems cannot always prevent such damage.

Deformation of the economiser, water tubes and super heater may be due to excessive temperatures
experienced by the steel structure. Such excessive temperatures can be caused by:
• Mis-alignment of fuel sprayers.
• High amount of deposits.
• Insufficient circulation of the air.
• Insufficient water circulation or clogging.
Cracks in pipes are generally the result of frequent temperature changes or severe corrosion and
erosion. Corrosion of the water tubes can either be chemical or electro chemical, and is influenced by a
high amount of oxygen as well as high pressure and temperature.
A low pH value of the feed water may result in pitting corrosion as the high velocity of water/steam
circulates in the tubes. Water quality is critical to avoid corrosion and internal deposits, and treatment
of the feed water is mandatory. The hardness of the feed water is determined by the proportion of
absorbed salts such as calcium and magnesium which promote scale formation. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide may also cause corrosion in the boiler.
The amount of oxygen should be lower than 0.1 mg/litre — 0.05 mg/litre, according to the
recommendations of the boilermaker.
The steel of the bore of the water tubes and header is protected by:
• Ferric oxide (FeO) (under layer)

• Magnetite (Fe3O4)
• Ferric oxide (Fe203 (upper layer)
Where the furnace temperature is below 575°C, the Ferric Oxide is unstable and can result in an attack
of the base steel of the tubes. Carbon dioxide also forms an acid which will attack the steel.
Ebullition (Increased water level, foaming as the feed water is converted to steam) can be due to a high
proportion of insoluble parts which may result from insufficient blow down of the boiler.
For the investigation into the cause of boiler damage, the previous test results must be checked and new
tests can be carried out on the feed-water for:
• Salinity
• Hardness
• Phosphate level
• Alkalinity
• Chlorides level
• Density

High temperature corrosion of the water tubes and headers on the furnace or gas side may be caused
by vanadium, sulphur and sodium compounds in combination with the high furnace temperature.
High temperature corrosion is also caused by an excessive pipe wall temperature, high air speed and
poor combustion. Regular washing and soot blowing plus special fuel additives can avoid this type of
corrosion.
Sulphuric acid can be developed at low temperature causing corrosion of the pipework. This occurs when
the acid dew point of the flue gas is reached. Keeping the pipe wall temperature above the dew point
largely avoids such condensation. Special additives in the fuel can avoid the formation of sulphuric acid.
Pitting due to erosion and cavitation are almost impossible to avoid which results in mechanical wear.
Pre-heaters are mainly subject to low temperature corrosion (acid dew point) but can easily be repaired
by inserting a new pipe inside the damaged pipe.
Refractory brickwork is affected by severe changes of temperature, contamination by un-burnt fuel in

these circumstances pieces can break off. When the refractory is not to correct specification, or built
badly, larger pieces may break off and cracks may be found. The brickwork can also melt due to ash and
clinker deposits.
Furnace pipes studded with pins are usually chromium plated to avoid clinker deposits. The surface must
be kept rough to avoid pieces breaking out after cooling down. When the pins cool, then cracks will
open and will close when the temperature is back to normal.
A fire in the pre-heater or economiser due to an excessive amount of soot can be stopped by covering
with salt (NaCI) and with CO2. The danger of such fire can be avoided by regular soot blowing. These
fires are so hot that if water is used then it can break into its component parts of oxygen and hydrogen,
which then fuels the fire! This happened to HMS Bulwark destroying one of her boilers in 1979.
3.2.2 Auxiliary and Exhaust Boilers

These types of boiler are used to supply auxiliary and domestic heating requirements such as fuel
heaters heating systems and steam galley ranges. They are either fuel fired or heated by exhaust gas from
generators.
The boiler itself is usually of simple design not unlike a domestic central heating boiler. The horizontal or
vertical designed tube boilers may also consist of a multiple spiral.
The tubes can be deformed due to excessive steel temperatures. Excessive temperatures can be caused by:
• High amounts of deposits at the outside of the tubes.

• Insufficient internal circulation.
Cracks and necking of the tubes are generally the result of frequent temperature changes or severe
corrosion and erosion at the outside of the spiral.

High temperature corrosion at the outside of the spiral is caused by vanadium, sulphur and sodium
compounds in combination with high temperature. The level of deposits however, depends on the fuel
which is burned.
High temperature corrosion is also caused by an excessive pipe wall temperature high air speed and
poor combustion.
The external corrosion of boiler tubes in common with all exhaust systems are affected by the products
of combustion which are Sulphur and Water as follows:-
Water H2O + Sulphur dioxide S02 = H2O + S02 = H2S04 (Sulphuric Acid)
Low temperature corrosion of the pipes occurs when the acid dew point is reached: condensation of
sulphuric acid. This is, however, also depending on the fuel being burnt. When the pipe wall temperature
is above the dew point, condensation is avoided. Special additives in the fuel can avoid formation of
sulphuric acid.
As with main boilers the brickwork can be affected by severe temperature changes and fuel
contamination, creating cracks in the insulation allowing pieces to fall off. This can also occur when
the brickwork has not been installed correctly and suitable insulation not used, then the structure can
become unstable and large pieces may break off.
Corrosion and clogging of the outlet side of the economiser can be due to low feed water temperature
overcooling the flue gases below the acid dew point. A clogged economiser can be cleaned by means of
washing.
Taken from MER magazine of May 2004 A new exhaust gas boiler designed for use with gas turbines
developed by Alstom Power Oil and Gas.
It creates very low resistance to the exhaust gases which is necessary for the back pressure limitations
of the gas turbine and it also serves as a silencer
It is also designed to be installed in pieces and is aimed at oil rig installations, but the principle holds
good for marine applications Simple exhaust boilers (typically by Spanner) are fitted to diesel engines to
generate steam for on board heating of heavy fuel, auxiliary and domestic systems

Steam
Steam Piping
Piping Systems
Systems
Pipesand
Pipes andflanges
flanges may
may become
become deformed
deformed or oreven
evencrack
crackdue
duetoto
rapid
rapidthermal
thermalexpansion
expansioncaused
causedby
bythe
therapid
rapidheating
heatingofofaasystem,
system,
such
such as when the steam is released to a deck line. As withall
as when the steam is released to a deck line. As with all steam
steam pipe systems
pipe systems deck pipework
deck pipework must must be warmed
be warmed through
through carefully to
carefully to enable
enable the the developing
developing condensatecondensate
to be drainedto be drained
preventing
preventingwater
waterhammer.
hammer.
3.3 Steam Turbines

3.3 Steam Turbines
InIna asteam
steamturbine,
turbine,either
eitherdry
dryhigh-pressure
high-pressureand andhigh-temperature
high-temperature
steamororlow
steam lowpressure
pressuresaturated
saturatedsteam
steamenters
entersthetheturbine
turbinecasing
casing
through
throughnozzle
nozzlevalves;
valves;the
thepassage
passage ofof steam
steam is is deflected
deflected through
through
the
thefixed
fixedcasing
casingblades
bladesgiving
giving momentum
momentum to tothe
therotor
rotorblades.
blades.The
The
blades are of increasing surface area to allow the most
blades are of increasing surface area to allow the most flow and flow and
pressure
pressuretotobebeextracted
extracted from
fromthethe
steam
steam which
which eventually
eventually exhausts
exhausts
totoeither a condenser beneath the turbine which may
either a condenser beneath the turbine which may be at around be at around
25”
25”vacuum
vacuumtotogivegivethe
thegreatest
greatestpressure
pressuredifferential
differentialininthe
thecase
case
ofofpropulsion
propulsion turbines or perhaps an exhaust steam system inthe
turbines or perhaps an exhaust steam system in the
case
caseofofan anauxiliary
auxiliaryturbine
turbinewhere
wherethe thesteam
steamisiscondensed
condensedbybyuse use in
inheating
heatingorordomestics
domesticsor orbybyanother
another unit’s
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condenser.
Steam
Steamturbines
turbinesarearecapable
capable of ofbeing
being built
built to
tosuit
suitthe
thelargest
largestpower
power
requirements, but the steam cycle, even with super-heaters,
requirements, but the steam cycle, even with super-heaters,
economisers
economisersand andhigh
highvacuum
vacuumcondensers,
condensers, cannot
cannot match
match the
the
efficiency of the big diesels. Despite this, there are still
efficiency of the big diesels. Despite this, there are still specialized
specialized
areas where areas
the where
steam the steam
turbine hasturbine
a role has a role
linked linked
either either
to the
toinfinite
the infinite energy of the atomic powered boiler, or
energy of the atomic powered boiler, or where boilers where boilers
fuelled
fuelled bythe
by thewaste-boil
waste-boiloffofffrom
fromananLPG
LPGcarrier or or
carrier offshore
offshoreoil oil
rig
FPSO (a Floating
rig FPSO Production,
(a Floating Storage
Production, and Offloading
Storage vessel)
and Offloading vessel)
produce steam to power turbo generators.
produce steam to power turbo generators.
Main propulsion steam turbines control of power output is simply a

Main propulsion steam turbines control of power output is simply
matter of opening the sequential nozzle valves to increase or
a matter of opening the sequential nozzle valves to increase or
decrease the flow of steam, they also have astern turbine rotors
decrease the flow of steam, they also have astern turbine rotors
and manoeuvring is achieved by closing the ahead nozzle valves
and manoeuvring is achieved by closing the ahead nozzle valves and
and as the rotor slows opening the astern nozzle valves.
as the rotor slows opening the astern nozzle valves.
Fig 4.3 Exhaust Gas Steam Generator.
Fig 4.3 Exhaust Gas Steam

Generator.

Fig 4.4 A Steam Turbine with cover removed-

Motor Ship Magazine June 2004
e is to drive an alternator for an FPSO and uses steam from the gas produced during the
This turbine
ess. The alternator is ratedisatto12MW.
drive an alternator for an FPSO and uses steam from the gas produced during the
drilling process. The alternator is rated at 12MW.
e is to drive an alternator for an FPSO and uses steam from the gas produced during the
ess. The alternator is rated at 12MW.
Fig 4.5 This alternator is driven by the steam turbine

illustrated left. MotorShip Magazine June 2004.
The world’s most powerful steam turbine driven alternator set designed and manufactured by Peter
Brotherhood Ltd
Fig 4.5 This alternator is driven by the steam turbine illustrated

MotorShip Magazine June 2004.
above.(0)23 9238 5223 or visit www.iims.org.uk - IIMS
Call +44 73
UNIT 15 | Surveying
_11_v2:906 Marine Mod Large Vessel13:58
A 10/06/2011 Main Engines
Page 65

Fig 4-6 A late Steam Turbine Ship- using LPG boil-Off

Please excuse poor reproduction.
Fig 4-6 A late Steam Turbine Ship- using LPG boil-Off
Fig 4-6 A late Steamexcuse
Turbine Ship- using LPG boil-Off
poor reproduction.
Please
Please excuse poor reproduction.

3.3.1 Typical Problems with Steam Turbines

Steam turbines installed onboard ships for propulsion suffer very few problems, compared with diesel
engines. Providing that they are correctly maintained, other than a possible bearing change a steam
turbine would be expected to last the life of a vessel.
In the event of damage the most common issues would be:
• Damage to turbine blades on the rotor.

• Bearings.
• Labyrinth gland.
• Static blade or housing damage.
• Condenser tube leaks.
Damage to blades and housing may be found during routine inspection and/or overhaul, although some
turbines can be inspected with an endoscope through special openings.
Rotor imbalance is one of the main causes of damage and the possible causes for such turbine imbalance are:
• A rotor shaft which has sagged due to improper cooling down procedure or long periods of idleness
during which time the rotor was not turned regularly.
• A rotor shaft which has hogged due to improper cooling down procedure during which the rotor
was not turned regularly.
• Blade wear or erosion.
• Missing or broken blades due to high condenser levels (water wheeling).
Imbalance results in vibration causing damage to the bearings and crack formation. The labyrinth glands
may also be affected by imbalance or vibration.
Every turbine has a restricted speed area around the critical speed where harmonic vibrations occur
that could lead to damage.
This speed is assessed by the manufacturer when the turbine is new and constant running in the critical
area must be avoided.
Sometimes turbines are also protected by an over-speed trip device; however, over-speed can not always
be avoided (the propeller may race during heavy pitching in ballast) and severe mechanical damage may
occur, perhaps even resulting in the failure of the main rotor.
The rotor is also subject to axial movement during warming up and cooling down of the turbine as
well in the event of thrust bearing wear, or during load changes. Such excessive movement may result in
damage to the bearing(s) and/or labyrinth seals or the blades may come into contact with the casing.
The diffuser blades and even the moving turbine blades can be damaged by foreign objects, despite being
protected by a steam strainer.

Bearings may be damaged by lack of lubricating oil or from excessive heat from steam passing a damaged
labyrinth gland.
Severe damage will occur if condensate is carried with the steam. The inertia of such water will likely
cause damage to the blades and in extreme cases even cause distortion of the rotor.
The condensers are large tube heat exchangers with sea water passing through the tubes to cool the
exhaust steam. The tube ends are inspected by removing the end casings and fluorescent dye is used to
assist in detecting leaking tubes; these are also prone to erosion and corrosion.

4. GAS TURBINE PROPULSION ENGINES

4.1 Introduction
The steam turbine takes its energy from high pressure steam which is passed over the blades, imparting
torque to the output shaft, gearbox and the propeller shaft. The steam is developed in a separate boiler.
The system is heavy, complicated and requires a considerable amount of space.
In 1930 Sir Frank Whittle took out a patent on his design for a Jet engine, which revolutionised aircraft
engines. He used the turbine principle to compress intake air, injected fuel into the now hot and
pressurised air and passed the resultant hot exhaust gas over a small turbine which back-drove an air
compressor (and propeller shaft in a turbo-prop installation). In a jet installation the exhaust gases exit
through a nozzle as hot gases creating a forward force that can propel a fighter plane at 2000 mph
(1738 knots) or a 350 tonne jumbo airliner at 690 mph (600 knots).
It is a very simple power plant, but metallurgical and other development problems slowed its early
progress.
A key development of the jet fitted a power turbine in the jet stream and used the expanding gases
to drive a propeller; this was the principle behind the turbo-prop airliner and is still used for smaller
airliners today. Further development of the principle was to fit a gearbox in place of the propeller
and this led to the gas turbine illustrated below. The first application of the gas turbine in a marine
environment was the Metropolitan-Vickers engine, which was fitted into the Royal Navy MGB 2009
(named “Gatric”) in 1947-8, by Camper and Nicholsons of Gosport.

N1 UNIT
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ule IN1 Marine Engineering Surveys
Fig 4-7 The first Gas Turbine vessel “Gatric”

Camper & Nicholsons-Two Centuries of Yacht Building, Ian Dear
Fig 4-7 The first Gas Turbine vessel
“Gatric”Camper & Nicholsons-
This experiment showed one immediate advantage of a gas turbine in that full output was available Two Centuries of Yacht Building,
almost instantly from cold, a steam plant would take 24 hours from cold and even a diesel engine
be achieved.
canGas large outputs are now
Very“Gatric”
Ian Dear
requires a period of warming up before full power
Fig 4-7 The first Turbine vessel
from gas turbines;
This experiment engines
showed with ratings of
one immediate20,000kW and over areoffitted in Royal Navyin that full output was
Centuriesadvantage a gasIanturbine available
available
Camper & Nicholsons-Two of Yacht Building, Dear
destroyers using the Rolls Royce Olympus gas turbines and later derivatives which are now used
almost instantly from cold, a steam plant
routinely as the propulsion power for all Royal Navy ships.
would take 24 hours from cold and even a diesel engine
requires
This experiment a period
showed of warmingadvantage
one immediate up beforeoffull power
a gas turbinecaninbethat
achieved. Verywas
full output large outputs are now available
available
Other
almost fromhave
Navies
instantly gas used
from turbines;
theagas
cold, engines forwith
turbineplant
steam their fast patrol
ratings
very take
would boats, as
of2420,000kW
hours from gives
it and
coldhigh
over
andpower
are
evenforaa diesel
fitted in Royal Navy destroyers
engine
fraction of the weight of an equivalent diesel installation. The illustration below shows an early are now
using the
requires a period Rolls Royce
of warming Olympus
up before full power can be achieved. large outputs
gas turbines and later derivatives which are now used routinely as the
Very
installation of a 4250HP Rolls Royce Proteus gas turbine into a patrol boat.
available frompropulsion powerengines
gas turbines; Navy of
Royalratings
for all with 20,000kW and over are fitted in Royal Navy
ships.
destroyers using the Rolls Royce Olympus gas turbines and later derivatives which are now used
the propulsion
routinely asOther power
Navies have used all Royal
for the Navy ships.
gas turbine for their very fast patrol boats, as it gives high power for
a fraction of the weight of an equivalent diesel installation. The illustration below shows an early
Other Navies have usedofthe gas turbine for their very fast patrol boats, as it gives high power for a
installation a 4250HP Rolls Royce Proteus gas turbine into a patrol boat.
fraction of the weight of an equivalent diesel installation. The illustration below shows an early
installation of a 4250HP Rolls Royce Proteus gasDiploma
turbine into a patrol Industry
in Marine boat. Surveying
Fig 4-8 Gas Turbine Drive through Vee-Gearboxes to Propellers

Fig 4-8 Gas Turbine Drive through Vee-Gearboxes to Propellers
Brave Class patrol Boat – Vosper Thornycroft
Brave Class patrol Boat – Vosper Thornycroft
Vickers G6 gas turbines were fitted to the Combined Steam and Gas powered ships the Type 81 Tribal
VickersClass frigates
G6 gas and County
turbines fitteddestroyers.
were Class to the Combined Steam and Gas powered ships the Type 81 Tribal
Class frigates and County Class destroyers.
The first all gas turbine powered major warship was HMS Exmouth, she started service as a Type 14
Blackwood Class steam frigate. Between 1966 and 1968 she was converted, the boilers were
The first all gasand
removed turbine powered
in their major
place a Rolls warship
Royce OlympuswasTM1
HMSjet Exmouth,
engine wasshe started
installed, service
which was aasmodified
a Type 14
Blackwood
Vulcan bomber engine, with the exhaust passing over the blades of a power turbine driving into a removed
Class steam frigate. Between 1966 and 1968 she was converted, the boilers were
and in combined
their place a RollsARoyce
gearbox. Olympus
large fuel TM1
tank was jetbeneath
fitted engine the
wasengine
installed, which wasfora the
to compensate modified
rise in Vulcan
centre
bomberof engine,
gravity. with the exhaust passing over the blades of a power turbine driving into a combined
gearbox. A large fuel tank was fitted beneath the engine to compensate for the rise in centre of gravity.
In the after engine room there were two Rolls Royce Proteus engines, these were ex-turbo-prop aero
engines with extended drive shafts, driving into the combined gearbox through clutches, giving astern
In the after engine room there were two Rolls Royce Proteus engines, these were ex-turbo-prop aero
propulsion through a variable pitch propeller.
engines with extended drive shafts, driving into the combined gearbox through clutches, giving astern
propulsion through
To port a variable
outboard pitch propeller.
of the Olympus was a ‘Centrax’ gas turbine generator with waste heat boiler; this had
the ability of supplying all the ship’s domestic power and steam requirements. Olympus TM1 engines
To portwere
outboard of theused
subsequently Olympus was Combined
in the only Steam
a ‘Centrax’ gas turbine Type 82 destroyer
and Gas generator HMS Bristol.
with waste heat boiler; this had
the ability of supplying all the ship’s domestic power and steam requirements. Olympus TM1 engines
HMS Exmouthusedwas the fore runner of the Type 21 Frigates and Type 42 Destroyers of Combined Gas
were subsequently in the only Combined Steam and Gas Type 82 destroyer HMS Bristol.
and Gas configuration using the further developed TM3 engines; these ships replaced the remaining
steam ships in the 1980’s and early 1990’s.
HMS Exmouth was the fore runner of the Type 21 Frigates and Type 42 Destroyers of Combined Gas
and GasEarly
configuration
installations using
drove the further
through developed
propellers and a TM3
reverseengines;
functionthese ships replaced
was required. the vessels
Most naval remaining
steam ships
used ainControllable
the 1980’sPitch
and Propeller
early 1990’s.
system, the Invincible Class Aircraft Carriers had the largest
reversing gearboxes ever built for the Royal Navy.
Early installations drove through propellers and a reverse function was required. Most naval vessels used
a Controllable Pitch Propeller system, the Invincible Class Aircraft Carriers had the largest reversing
gearboxes ever built for the Royal Navy.

UNIT 15 |
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4.2 Gas Turbine Installations

The adding up of power from multiple engines requires either special controllable pitch propellers or
waterjets.
4.2 Many
Gasfast Installations
ferries and
Turbine high speed vessels use a combination of engines which are identified by
their first letters as the following examples:
The adding up of power from multiple engines requires either special controllable pitch propellers or
waterjets. Many fast ferries and high speed vessels use a combination of engines which are identified
COSAG Combination of Steam and Gas turbine where steam turbines are used as cruising engines and
by their first letters as the following examples:
power is boosted by gas turbines when required.
CODAG
COSAG Combination
CombinationofofDiesel
SteamandandGas
Gasturbine
turbinewhere
wherediesels
steam are used are
turbines used asengines
as cruising engines
cruisingand power
is and
boosted
powerbyisgas turbines
boosted when
by gas required;
turbines whenthisrequired.
requires complex gear arrangements.
CODAG Combination of Diesel and Gas turbine where diesels are used as cruising engines and
CODOG Combination of diesel or Gas Turbines where the diesel unit is used for cruising speeds
power is boosted by gas turbines when required; this requires complex gear arrangements.
and manoeuvring and the gas turbine is used for high power.
CODOG Combination of diesel or Gas Turbines where the diesel unit is used for cruising speeds and
COGAG Combination
manoeuvring ofand
Gasthe
turbine and Gas
gas turbine is turbine
used for(Small cruising gas turbines plus larger units
high power.
high speed).of Gas turbine and Gas turbine (Small cruising gas turbines plus larger units
COGAG forCombination
for high speed).
COGES Combination of Gas turbine and Steam turbine Integrated Electric Drive System (The exhaust
COGES Combination of Gas turbine and Steam turbine Integrated Electric Drive System (The
gases from the gas turbines are passed through a boiler creating steam for the steam turbine
exhaust gases from the gas turbines are passed through a boiler creating steam for the
alternators which all in turn power the electric drive system).
steam turbine alternators which all in turn power the electric drive system).
CODLAG
CODLAG Combination
CombinationofofDiesel
Diesel and
and Gas
GasTurbine
Turbine -- Electric Drive
Drive(as
(asininthe QueenMary
theQueen Mary2).2).
CODED Combination of Diesel Electric and Diesel Mechanical as illustrated below has a hybrid drive
CODED Combination of Diesel Electric and Diesel Mechanical as illustrated below has a hybrid drive
consisting of a centreline controllable pitch propeller driven directly from the engines plus
consisting of a centreline controllable pitch propeller driven directly from the engines plus
electric pods.
electric pods.
A coded answer
fig 4-9
fig 4-9 A novel
A novel Drive
Drive System,using
System, Dieselengines
variants ofof Diesel
using variants engines
MER magazine- July/August
MERmagazine- 2003
July/August 2003
The gas turbine is a very simple engine in itself, although the installation requires special attention.
The gas turbine is sometimes fitted with its own gearbox, reducing the speed to a more-manageable
3000 rpm. A second gearbox is often required to suit a water jet (which often gives the best
combination for a multi-drive vessel). Gas turbine units designed as jet engines require an additional
turbine to drive the ship. The jet engine is mounted in the entrance to an exhaust volute chamber
A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 71
Engineering Surveys Module IN1

The gas turbine is a very simple engine in itself, although the installation requires special attention.
The gas turbine is sometimes fitted with its own gearbox, reducing the speed to a more-manageable
3000 rpm. A second gearbox is often required to suit a water jet (which often gives the best
combination for a multi-drive vessel). Gas turbine units designed as jet engines require an additional
Marine Mod A 10/06/2011
turbine 13:58
to drive the ship. 71 jet engine is mounted in the entrance to an exhaust volute chamber where
PageThe
the exhaust gasses are directed through a turbine wheel, which drives through a thrust bearing into
a gearbox. This has the added advantage of reducing the very high revs of the gas turbine to a more
manageable speed for the gearbox or drive system.
A Rolls Royce Olympus gas turbine is 7.112m long 1.212m in diameter with a compression ratio of 15:1
weighing only 3,175 Kg but producing 28,000 shaft horsepower.
Fig 4.9.1 61_Rolls Royce%20r Insert

Fig 4.9.1 61_Rolls Royce%20r Insert (Drawing of Olympus Gas Turbine)
(Drawing of Olympus Gas Turbine)
Fig 4.9.1 61_Rolls Royce%20r Insert (Drawing of Olympus Gas Turbine)
Fig 4.9.2 550-Rolls-Royce_Olympus

Insert (Sectional Drawing of Olympus
Gas Turbine)
Fig 4.9.2 550-Rolls-Royce_Olympus Insert (Sectional Drawing of Olympus Gas Turbine)
Fig 4.9.2 550-Rolls-Royce_Olympus Insert (Sectional Drawing of Olympus Gas Turbine)
In general it seems better to manoeuvre on auxiliary engines and use the gas turbines for ahead
propulsion only, which is why the CODOG arrangement is now more commonly used.
l it seems better to manoeuvre on auxiliary engines and use the gas turbines for ahead
n only, is why
whichvalues
The relative of the CODOG
thetwo arrangement
engine types are illustrated now
is by more
some commonly
general used. with
statistics associated
the Brave Class Patrol Boats. In cruise mode on the diesels, a range of about 3000 miles at 10 knots
was possible. Withtwo gas-turbines
the engine engaged, the speed increased
by some to 55
general the range dropped
knots butstatistics associated with
ve values of the types are illustrated
to 350 miles and no astern movement was possible.
Class Patrol Boats. In cruise mode on the diesels, a range of about 3000 miles at 10 knots
With the
ible.Although gas-turbines
the gas engaged,
turbine uses more the
fuel than speed
a diesel increased
engine to 55
of the same power, it canbut
knots provide range dropped
theboost
power for fast vessels with diesel
iles and no astern movement was possible.engines as the main propulsion power
Call and
+44 in the
(0)23 COGES
9238
Gas Turbine waste heat is used to power turbo alternators, thereby increasing efficiency.
system
5223 or the www.iims.org.uk - IIMS
visit 81
In general it seems better to manoeuvre on auxiliary engines and use the gas turbines for ahead
propulsion only, which is why the CODOG arrangement is now more commonly used.
The relative values of the two engine types are illustrated by some general statistics associated with the
Brave Class Patrol Boats. In cruise mode on the diesels, a range of about 3000 miles at 10 knots was
possible. With the gas-turbines engaged, the speed increased to 55 knots but the range dropped to 350
miles and no astern movement was possible.
Although the gas turbine uses more fuel than a diesel engine of the same power, it can provide boost
power for fast vessels with diesel engines as the main propulsion power and in the COGES system the
Gas Turbine waste heat is used to power turbo alternators, thereby increasing efficiency.
A further interesting comment on the range under gas turbine drive concerns the relatively poor
efficiency of the gas turbine at low powers. In a vessel with wing diesels driving water jets and a
centreline gas turbine also driving a water jet the diesels could drive the hull up to 20 knots. Above this
speed the gas turbine was started and all three waterjets became operative, increasing the speed range
to between 20-45 knots, dependent on the throttle setting of the gas turbine. The operating range of the
vessel at 20-45 knots was very nearly constant, because the higher power was developed at increased
efficiency as the gas turbine relieved load from the diesel driven units.
The comparative advantages of diesel engines and gas turbine engines are as follows:
Item Diesel Engines Gas Turbines

Initial Costs Lower  
Maintenance costs Lower  
Fuel Consumption Lower  
Heavy Fuel Oil Compatibility Yes  
Light / Part Load operation Yes  
Response to load changes 
Weight and Size Main Advantage 
Vibration / structure borne noise level Acoustic Enclosure 
Airborne noise level 
Lubricating oil consumption 
NOx Emissions 
SOx Emissions 
CO2 Emissions 
Operation in varying ambient conditions 

The engine fuel system for a gas turbine engine is complicated, the fuel supply system is filtered and
pressurised, but otherwise is no more complicated than other fuel systems. The fuel system of the
Olympus for example, has a number of built-in safety factors; one is a high speed shut off valve to enable
instant shut down, preventing mechanical damage in the event of an over-speeding engine; for example,
if the propeller cavitates in rough seas, there is a partial over-speed trip which instantly limits fuel until
load is reestablished.
The combustion air system takes up a considerable amount of space due to the huge volume of air that
the turbine requires; for this reason, the trunkings are commonly used as engine removal routes. The
intake air filtration system is often of three stages, reducing salt particle content to less than one part
in a million, the design of these splitter silencer intake filters has now become the industry standard
for installations in large motor yachts for example. The vanes are shaped similar to turbine blades so
that the air flow changes direction three times, leaving behind any air borne water and salt without
restricting the flow; the units are fitted with gutters and drains to allow any water to flow freely away.
A Planned 13:58
10/06/2011 maintenance
Pageis the
73 key to ensuring the maximum life from a gas turbine. The engines require
regular washing and EHM (Engine Health Monitoring) checks, the results of which are retained, regular
magnetic plug oil system samples are taken, which show the presence of metal particles in the oil; other
routine checks include internal inspections using endoscopes and periodic combustion chamber changes
(Can Change).
Engineering Surveys Module IN1
The engines have a limited life beyond which they should not be run; to do so risks engine failure. The
limiting factors are vibration levels and the exhaust gas temperature. The gas turbine engine installation
should be designed for easy engine change operations, spare engines are often carried within the
removal route system to limit down time. The power turbine/propulsion turbine is more robustly
constructed and is expected to outlast several engine changes and perhaps even for the life of the vessel.
Fig 4-10 A Rolls Royce MT30 Gas

Turbine- Capable of 36000MW
at ambient temperature of 26°C.
(from Rolls Royce brochure)
Fig 4-10 A Rolls Royce MT30 Gas Turbine-
Capable of 36000MW at ambient temperature of 26°C. (from Rolls Royce brochure)
ne has a fuel consumption of 210g/kWh giving a thermal efficiency greater than 40%, which is
Fig 4-10 A Rolls Royce MT30 Gas Turbine-

Capable of 36000MW at ambient temperature of 26°C. (from Rolls Royce brochure)
ThisThis engine
engine hashas a fuelconsumption
a fuel consumption of of 210g/kWh
210g/kWh giving a thermal
giving efficiency
a thermal greater
efficiency than 40%,
greater thanwhich
40%,iswhich is
better
better thanthan early
early diesels
diesels couldmanage
could manage and
andcertainly
certainlybetter
betterthan thethe
than steam turbine;
steam this could
turbine; be further
this could be
improved to give a cycle efficiency of 45 to 50% using the COGES system.
further improved to give a cycle efficiency of 45 to 50% using the COGES system.
FigFig 4-11
4-11 thethe
gasgasturbine
turbinecan
canbebepackaged
packaged to drive an alternator
alternator as
asthe
thedrawing
drawingabove.
above.(From
(FromRR
RR brochure)
brochure)
On its skid mounting the assembly weighs 77 tonne and thus gives a power-weight-ratio of 2.13 kW / kg,
which is remarkable when compared with even high-speed diesels.

4.3 Examination of a Gas Turbine Installation

The single most important part of the survey procedure is the examination of the engines maintenance
records and history.
The average surveyor will not be equipped to formally clear or condemn a gas turbine machinery
system, as the installation data and knowledge is very specialised. When asked to comment on such an
installation, it is recommended that a representative of the engine builder is present who is qualified to
comment.
The surveyor will be able to comment on the following related equipment:
• The exhaust system, which is usually a big steel trunk leading to atmosphere. Look for corrosion
inside and out and check the insulation and support brackets.
• General condition of the engine intake trunking surfaces, which should be clean. If the air intake
filtration system is operating correctly there should be no evidence of salt crystals.
• Check that the three stage air filtration grilles are clean and the drains are free.
• Check the external gearbox.
• Check the condition of the power turbine exhaust volute.
• Check the condition of the power turbine itself.
• Check the condition of the power turbine thrust bearing (wear down readings).
• Check the condition of the fuel filtration system.
Probably the best proof of a sound engine is to have it run up under power and check its performance,
making a careful record of the engine instrumentation and a print out from the engine monitoring
system, which can be sent to the manufacturer for comment.
If the surveyor must act alone he should contact the engine builder for guidance of what to check and
what instruments to record.

5.0 PROPULSION SYSTEMS

5.1 Introduction
The ancient mariner with his early boat was faced with the problem of how to propel his craft to where
he wanted it to go. He quickly learned how to paddle his raft/boat with his hands and instinctively used
the principle of all drives, namely, what was to become Newton’s Law “To every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction”. He would, as quickly, learn that his hands were not big enough to impart much
thrust and probably shaped a piece of wood with a blade of larger area. Further developments extended
the blade with a spindle to give even greater purchase on the water, which was one order of levers.
Later still it was found that a longer oar arm and a pivot point would be even better at imparting thrust;
this used a higher order of the mechanics of levers!
It would be difficult to beat the efficiency of paddles or oars, as there are very few mechanical losses,
and the equipment is simple easily repairable and readily at hand. The Greeks are thought to have built
a trireme, with three banks of oars, which was replicated recently and a trained crew achieved almost
10 miles in an hour, but this form of propulsion could not be sustained continuously. However the
galley continued as an opportunist warship in the Mediterranean till the nineteenth century. The art of
building and running commercial sailing ships was developed over the centuries and probably reached its
effective peak just before the turn of the nineteenth century, with the great clippers and practical coastal
craft. However fast, these picture-postcard ships could not guarantee an arrival date, unlike the despised
steamship which could almost run to time, and so as the steam engine was developed and inventors
tried every conceivable method of developing thrust from a rotating engine source.
We will not analyse all these inventions but will mention the paddle wheel drive, which was the earliest
development. It had many practical problems, specifically the paddle wheel size and complexity (for
feathering paddles), and their unsuitability for vessels with a large change of displacement.
Paddle wheels were also very resistive when being trailed on a sailing vessel. The Admiralty created an
Experimental Squadron and compared two similar vessels HMS Rattler driven by two blade propeller
and Alecto driven by two paddle wheels. They developed the same power, but in a series of races
Rattlers propulsion proved superior. In one 80 mile race in calm conditions Rattler defeated Alecto by
23½ minutes, later the screw driven ship pulled the paddle wheeler backwards at 2½ knots. Rattler was
then attached to the Squadron of Evolution. Following this experiment the use of propellers continued
to replace paddle wheels in warships, but paddle driven tugs were still in use in Portsmouth until
Forceful, the last of these was de-commissioned in 1981.
There are essentially two forms of propulsion that are used today in ships, the propeller and the water
jet, and their variations will be covered within this module.

5.2.1 Shaft Systems

Generally, a complete propulsion plant consists of:
• Main Propulsion Engine (Diesel engine, steam or gas turbine or electric Motor)
• Drive coupling (if applicable)
• Gearbox (if applicable)
• Clutches (if applicable)
• Flexible coupling (if applicable)
• Intermediate Shaft
• Tailshaft
• Propeller
The complete transmission arrangement is designed according to the wishes of the ship owner to the
technical possibilities at the time and in consultation with the shipbuilder and plant manufacturers.
5.2.2 Gearboxes
The usual range of propeller RPM for commercial vessels is between 90-500RPM. The lower RPM is
required for large and heavy installations where thrust efficiency is required and the higher RPM relates
to coasters and small trading vessels.
Very large diesel engine are built to run at 60-300 RPM as discussed and these drive the propellers
directly through a thrust block
Medium speed engines run in the range 300-900RPM and require a gearbox to give the required
propeller RPM. Fast vessels use high speed engines running over 900 RPM and require greater reduction
ratio’s to match the various requirements.
The gearbox is also required to allow the unidirectional rotation from the engine to be re-arranged
to give ahead, neutral and astern rotation of the tail shaft. Because the engines are unidirectional and
the propellers are required to give handed or opposite rotation, one gearbox output will run in the
opposite direction by using an additional idler gear, and when selecting gearboxes for a duty, part of the
checks required would be that equal power is possible through both gearboxes.
Another duty of the gearbox may be to contain the thrust bearing as part of the output bearing; this
must be able to absorb ahead and astern thrust.
For high speed installations the gearbox is often flange mounted to the flywheel flange of the engine
so that the engine and gearbox are treated as one unit, although there may be a slim flexible coupling
between flywheel and gearbox within the
bell housing.
For large installations where engine and shaft vibration reduction is critical, the engine may be mounted
on very soft mounts and the free-standing gearbox rigidly mounted (or bolted down on harder flexible

mounts) with a very large flexible coupling between flywheel and gearbox, and perhaps another flexible
coupling between gearbox output flange and tail shaft.
In early gearboxes (and some small modern units) the reversal process used large cone clutches to
engage the required gear train and very large forces were often required to operate the clutches.
Modern clutches are hydraulically operated through multiple plates and the operation is made fingerlight
:906 Marine Mod Aa simple
through 10/06/2011 13:58
diverter valve. Page controls
Electronic 77 are fitted on the larger modern gearbox.
Most gearboxes have the drive from the engine on one side and the drive flange to the shaft on the
other. A variant of this is the V-drive gearbox. This gearbox has both the input and output shafts on the
same side at an angle to each other and this configuration allows an engine to be fitted well aft in the
Marine
hull withEngineering Surveys
the tailshaft departing aft under the engine. On smaller installations this can make inspectionModule I
of the stern gland difficult. For larger powers the engine may be fitted further aft with the flywheel or
drive end of the engine facing forward. The drive to the gearbox is made through a double universal joint
allowing up to 16 degrees change of shaft line, which again allows the tail shaft to run under the engine,
with improved access to the stern gland.
Fig 6.2-Alternative Gearbox Configurations for Fast Vessels-ZF
Fig 6.2-Alternative Gearbox Configurations for Fast Vessels-ZF
88 SomeIIMS
fast -vessels
Call +44are so 9238
(0)23 over-powered that
5223 or visit they are very hard to control at even their lowest engine
www.iims.org.uk
RPM. They accelerate to 10 or more knots as soon as the gear is engaged. Some gearboxes can be
Some fast vessels are so over-powered that they are very hard to control at even their lowest engine
RPM. They accelerate to 10 or more knots as soon as the gear is engaged. Some gearboxes can be fitted
with “Trolling Valves” which is a very clever system allowing the clutches to slip at low powers, giving the
ability to have propeller speeds well below the normal fully engaged tickover RPM. This system is very
useful, but the controls are more difficult to arrange.
Operational Problems with Gearboxes

A simple gearbox for changing speed or direction of rotation can suffer from damage to its gear wheels,
bearings, shafts and housing. A reversing gear, which could be part of the propulsion system, has the
additional possibility of suffering from damage to the clutches. When damage is suspected and metal
fragments are found on the magnetic sump plugs or in the filter, analysis of the metal particles may give
an indication to the parts that are possibly affected.
Gear wheel damage is difficult to judge without a degree of knowledge about metallurgy and the
equipment concerned. For that reason if a detailed assessment of the cause is necessary, then an
investigation by a metallurgist might be the solution.
However, several examples of gear wheel failures are given here.
The principle causes for gear failure are given here –

a) An error of design, Design errors may be due to causes like improper gear geometry, use of wrong
materials, quality, lubrication and other specifications.
b) An application error, Application errors can be due to problems like vibration, mounting and
installation, cooling and maintenance.
c) A manufacturing error. While manufacturing errors can be in the form of mistakes in machining or
problems in heat treating.
• Wear, is the first in the category of failure. This is where metal is gradually worn away from the
contact points of the gear teeth. It takes place in a uniform manner. Some wear of course is quite
normal. When initial wear on the surface is visible as small pits, this is not serious and may even
disappear after a some time. Periodical inspection is to be advised when this initial pitting is found.
• Moderate Wear :- Moderate wear comes up as a type of contact pattern where metal gets removed
from both the addendum and dedendum tooth surfaces. The operating pitch line will remain as a
continuous line. The cause may be oil contamination, viscosity or operating temperature.
• Abrasive Wear :- Abrasive wear is found when the surface is grey/matt, it may also show radial
scratches or grooves on the surface where the teeth make contact. This takes place initially and is the
result of particles in the oil. Excessive abrasive wear can result in the development of noise, vibrations
and even damage. This is mainly caused by unclean oil. When the peripheral
velocity is too low, the lubrication can be insufficient, which results in excessive wear.
• Corrosive Wear:- The evidence will be a general deterioration of the gear tooth surface. The cause is
a chemical reaction due to acids, particulate contamination, moisture, additives etc.
• Scoring:- Usually attributed to oil film failure as a result of overheating, mis-alignment leading to non-
uniform loads.

• Pitting:- Usually on the dedendum area of the teeth, large pits are the result of severe overload.
More extensive pitting is a serious problem and results in excessive tooth wear. Serious pitting is
mainly found on the smaller gear wheels. The cause is fatigue failure of the tooth surface due to a
combination of pressure and movement.
• Spalling is similar to pitting but the surface breaks away along the area of contact and is the result of
high contact stress levels.
• Flaking:- is also a serious problem and a result of exceeding the fatigue limit. This flaking is mainly
found in the case of hardened teeth.
• Micro-pitting:- Appears as staining similar to a grey frosting of the dedendum tooth face but also on
the addendum due to high surface loads and heat generation.
• Case Crushing / Surface Cracking:- Is surface fatigue failure of heavily loaded gears when the fatigue
limit is exceeded locally and appears as its name suggests, the surface crazes and is a result of faults
in the gear surfacing hardening process where the subsurface fails, cracks develop and finally pieces
break off. This process is accelerated when oil is forced into these cracks. If case crushing occurs as a
result of weak core material then the fault should be considered as a manufacturing defect.
• Rippling:- Rippling is a plastic flow deformation. The height of these ripples is not more than a few
microns. This is sometimes found on heavily loaded teeth due to high surface pressure and insufficient
lubrication. Rippling is quite common on hardened gear surfaces, it is rarely a problem unless it is
severe.
• Ridging:- Caused by the high contact with low sliding velocities found in pinion gear drives.
• Fracture:- Either part or whole tooth breaking at the root, which is the part that suffers from the
highest stresses. This is caused by stresses beyond the strength of the tooth, sudden overload
due to bending, overload or large debris entrapment.
Diagnosing a surface fracture or a fatigue failure is not a simple task. A fatigue crack is developed
gradually within a certain period and finally breaks through completely. The surface of the final breakage
is an indication of the stresses during the crack formation.
Gear wheel overload can often be avoided (in case of a reverse reduction gear) by the presence of a
friction coupling.
The type of the oil as well and the viscosity is of great influence to the pitting, together with
imperfections and newness of the surface are contributing factors.

5.2.3 Friction Clutches

Older clutch plates were made with “Ferodo” lining. Nowadays clutches consist of plates made in sinter
bronze, which are oil lubricated.
A ‘Ferodo’ lining may loosen when the rivets are worn due to normal wear or due to slipping. Slipping
occurs when the clutch pressure is insufficient or when the propeller makes contact with an object
outside the ship. As a result of this, high temperatures may even cause distortion of the clutch plates.
Sinter bronze plates may also be damaged by slipping. On the surface, polished spots are visible.
Slipping is either caused by insufficient oil pressure or propeller contact. If the plates fuse, the clutch
drum sometimes turns blue due to the heat produced.
The splined teeth of the shaft in way of the clutch plates may be indented by the inner clutch plates
(long term process) due to:
• High clutch oil pressure
• Rapid increase of clutch oil pressure during engaging
• Excessive force during engaging
When a reverse clutch is damaged; scored or even fused and shows rippled clutch plate surface, this may
be caused by excessive torsional vibrations of the idle running clutch.
The Thrust Bearing

The bearing is sometimes found to be indented by the inner clutch plate teeth. This is a result of long
term operation or a too high control oil pressure or bending forces of the shaft itself.
5.2.4 Gearbox Holding Down Bolts

The gearbox is usually secured by fitted bolts through the engine girders, plus collision chocks at the
forward end. Sometimes the gearbox has been aligned using poured resin such as ‘Chockfast’ Resin.
Check the bolts for solidity with a hammer and the nuts for security.
Excessive heat in way of the thrust bearing under way may suggest an alignment problem, this may show
as paint blistering or a change of paint colour
Separators (for fuel and Lubrication oil)

Large gearboxes will often use centrifugal separators to clean the oil and remove moisture. They
operate by rotating a stack of cone shaped metal plates at high speed, the oil is passed through the
centrifuge from the top, as the oil passes between the plates debris is trapped, water being heavier
collects around the upper outside wall of the centrifuge bowl and the cleaned oil passes out through the
centre of the bottom of the bowl. There are certain oils suitable for use with centrifuges as the additives
in certain oils can be removed in the process.
Separators are not often subject to damage. Occasionally the driving electric motor as well as the
transmission is affected. For such equipment, see the installation manuals.

10/06/2011 13:58 Page 80
Damage to the separators itself is mainly restricted to the discs. The causes will normally be due to
faulty assembly, material defects and normal wear. The friction brake should always be used when the
machine is stopped. This helps to reduce any vibration due to out of balance forces that might be set up
because of a building-up of sludge inside the bowl.
Fig 6.3-Alfa Laval Separator for Smaller Vessels
Fig 6.3-Alfa Laval Separator for Smaller Vessels
termediate and Tail Shafts

dimensions and type of steel are chosen in accordance with the standard required and
ss specifications. These constraints will determine the strength, length, location of
bearings couplings, size of key way and the propeller taper.
on is also designed to withstand torsional vibrations. Torsional vibrations unlike axial and
ons are difficult to detect. These are sometimes checked by measurements taken while
service. Some classification societies require that such measurements are taken as a
cedure. The torsional vibration performance is initially determined by means of calculation
he data of all the involved components:
ne/motor
g
g
5.3.1 Intermediate and Tail Shafts

The shafting dimensions and type of steel are chosen in accordance with the standard required
and approved class specifications. These constraints will determine the strength, length, location of
intermediate bearings couplings, size of key way and the propeller taper.
The installation is also designed to withstand torsional vibrations. Torsional vibrations unlike axial and
lateral vibrations are difficult to detect. These are sometimes checked by measurements taken while the
:906 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 81
ship is in service. Some classification societies require that such measurements are taken as a standard
procedure. The torsional vibration performance is initially determined by means of calculation based
upon the data of all the involved components:
Engine/turbine/motor
Drive coupling
Module
Gearbox
Shaft coupling
Shafting
Propeller
Hull shape in way of propeller
Shape of the nozzle (if applicable)
Other attached components
Fig 5.1-Typical Shaftline- from MAN B&W Alpha Brochure

Fig 5.1-Typical Shaftline- from MAN B&W Alpha Brochure
5.3.2 Typical Problems Experienced in Shafting Systems

Excessive torsional vibrations can result in the fracture of the shaft or the failure of the couplings,
gearbox, or engine. The components causing torsional vibration create frequency waves, cylinders and
cranks produce regular sine waves unless there is a combustion problem, other influences create their
own wave forms this leads to the ‘barred speed range’ where unless this speed is passed through
quickly vibrations will build leading to excessive vibration. When the torsional vibrations are excessive,
the flexible coupling will try to absorb the excess energy, resulting in a rapid deterioration in the
condition of the coupling. This will be evidenced by the development of cracks and finally complete
failure of the rubber elements. For the same reason, a torsional vibration damper, usually mounted at
the front end of the engine, can also be prone to rapid failure.
The cause for excessive torsional vibration may be:
5.3.2 Typical Problems Experienced in Shafting Systems

Excessive torsional vibrations can result in the fracture of the shaft or the failure of the couplings,
gearbox, or engine. The components causing torsional vibration create frequency waves, cylinders and
cranks produce regular sine waves unless there is a combustion problem, other influences create their
own wave forms this leads to the ‘barred speed range’ where unless this speed is passed through quickly
vibrations will build leading to excessive vibration. When the torsional vibrations are excessive, the
flexible coupling will try to absorb the excess energy, resulting in a rapid deterioration in the condition
of the coupling. This will be evidenced by the development of cracks and finally complete failure of the
rubber elements. For the same reason, a torsional vibration damper, usually mounted at the front end of
the engine, can also be prone to rapid failure.
The cause for excessive torsional vibration may be:

• Miscalculation at the design stage
• Engine combustion failure of one or more cylinders
• Defective vibration damper on the engine
• Damaged propeller
• Change of the plant components
• Running within barred speed range(s)
Excessive torsional vibration generated by the propeller may damage the shafting in the form of crack
development, but may also damage the shaft bearings and gearbox. Such vibrations can be caused by
damaged propeller blade(s) or by a partially immersed propeller.
Previous repairs can result in shafting failures.
Worn shafts are sometimes spiral welded and machined afterwards in way of the bearings, on occasions
sleeves are fitted in way of bearing wear. Crack development is likely where the welding runs out as well
as in way of possible changes in section. At these locations high stresses are present and therefore this is
where cracks may develop.
Small cracks may also develop in way of any chromium plated parts of the shaft, as this may result in
further crack development in the basic steel. See also the section on Crankshafts.
At the forward end of the propeller taper, the tailshaft is subject to normal erosion and corrosion, due
to galvanic reaction between shaft and propeller and/or hull. Eventually the taper may break because of
such corrosion.

5.3.3 Inboard Bearings

The shafting will be supported by bearings, depending on the length and the methods of lubrication,
the tailshaft may be supported by one or two bushes. The tailshaft and intermediate shaft(s) can be
supported by one or more plummer (plain) bearings.
Shaft misalignment, an out of balance propeller or a bent shaft may affect the stern bushes, as well as the
plummer bearings.
The plummer bearings (‘Mitchell Bearings’) are usually lubricated by an internal oil-splash ring or similar
arrangement. A common oil system serving many bearings may be cooled by water with a separate heat
exchanger, although larger bearing housings may include a water gallery with a water supply from the
engine or separate system. Plummer type bearings are mainly damaged by lack of oil and insufficient or
failure of the cooling system.
Plummer bearings for shafts may also use roller bearings with split housings (‘Cooper Roller Bearings’).
Roller bearings also form part of through bulkhead flexible bearings and glands.
5.4.1 Sterntubes and Bearings

Sterntubes are arranged to reconcile the narrow angle between the shaft line and the rising buttock of
the hull and to accommodate the bearings and sterngland. The bearings in the tubes can be lubricated by
seawater from the engine cooling circuit or by oil, in which case the oil is retained in the tube by glands
at both ends as the illustration following.
Early seawater lubricated bearings were made from Lignum Vitae, the hardest known wood, which also
has self lubricating properties. It was cut into long staves, with the upper staves cut in line with the
grain, but the lower staves were cut across the grain which gave a better wearing arrangement. Modern
water-lubricated bearings may be of rubber (Cutlass or similar) and other specialised resin reinforced
materials such as Thordon or Railko. These bearings are used also for “A” bracket and ‘P’ bracket
external shaft supporting bearings which are water-lubricated.
Some smaller sterntubes are lubricated by grease and use metal bearings. This system is rarely used
today because of the pollution that comes from the extruded grease.
The oil lubricated stern tube originally used white metal bearings lubricated by a thick heavy oil (Neox).
Today they use resin bonded woven materials (such as ‘Railko’), as mentioned above, but the anxiety of
leaking oil to the sea requires specialised glands and treatment and the article from MER reproduced
below shows a modern approach by Thordon.

UNIT 15 |
IN1 10_11_v2:906 Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58
Page 83
fig 5.2-Anfigoil
5.2-An
filledoil stern
filled stern tube by
tube by Thordon-
Thordon- MER MarchMarch
MER 2003. 2003.
Stern tubes are rarely damaged, but might become damaged as a result failure of other machinery.
Severe hull damage may disturb the alignment of a stern tube or damage stern tube bearing.
Stern tubes are rarely damaged, but might become damaged as a result failure of other machinery.
Severe hull damage may disturb the alignment of a stern tube or damage stern tube bearing.
Page 83
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Depending on the extent, a stern tube can be loosened, aligned and re-welded or the stern tube can be
machined. It must be understood that, after this, the complete propulsion plant must be realigned.
If local cracks have developed at the aft end of the stern tube, welding and other hot work must be
carried out with great care. The alignment of engine and shafting must always be checked after refloating
the vessel.
Water lubricated stern bushes can be damaged by dirt and debris and by a lack of water, a common
cause of which is air locking.
A stern bush which is lubricated by grease may be damaged when the grease supply is disturbed or if
the grease is contaminated with abrasive dirt.
With an oil lubricated stern bush, the seal must be in good condition to prevent the loss of oil. The
consequences are not only an oil spill, but an engine shutdown might be necessary in order to prevent
the bush running without oil. It is mainly the aft seal that is subject to problems, caused by fishing lines,
sand or other foreign objects.
Water lubricated stern tubes can have problems where the vessel is used in shallow or sandy water.
Unless greater efforts are made to filter out the entrained grains of sand in the water there is likely to
be an increase of the normal wear process of the bearings and corresponding sleeve on the shaft.
5.4.2 Alignment
The alignment of the engine crankshaft, gearbox output or thrust bearing, to the shafting system
supporting the heavy propeller at the aft end is a difficult problem in itself. The problem is exacerbated
by fitting the assembly into a hull, which flexes with localised internal weights, and then suffers hogging
and sagging in heavy seas, plus changes in displacement when the vessel is loaded or in ballast. This is
well illustrated in the following picture which shows the effect of local weights in the hull.
fig 5.3-Simulation of Hull Flexure on a Container Ship-MER February 2003

Note: The vertical scale is greatly less than the horizontal scale to dramatise the effect.
If the alignment of the shafting is disturbed, then there may be serious effects on the gearbox, or the
thrust bearing and even the crankshaft of the main engine.
Misalignment can be due to the incorrect installation of the shaft during build and the illustration above
highlights the difficulty of reconciling a shafting system in the changing circumstances of the hull at sea. It
requires much calculation and collaboration between all parties to work out a practical compromise for
all the permutations of load, waves etc.
Misalignment will almost certainly follow deformation of the hull structure, which may be caused
by grounding, collision etc. Significant structural changes involving “hot work” may also promote
misalignment.

If misalignment is established, this is by splitting the coupling flanges rotating the shaft and comparing
face tolerances, the shafting system must be realigned, using the build measurements as a guide.
Misalignment is likely to damage:
• Shaft bearings
• Bearing at the aft end of the gearbox (if applicable)
• Flexible coupling
• Main engine bearings
In the event that misalignment is suspected in a large vessel after stranding or suchlike, and it is
impossible to consult the builders, it is recommended that the surveyor contacts the various suppliers
to obtain the tolerances of their equipment. It may be necessary to locate an engineer with specific
experience in alignment of such vessels to advise on the realignment process.
This interesting article from the “Motor Ship” highlights the difficulties of aligning the tail shaft in ships
with very heavy machinery. Recent significant articles on “Alignment” have appeared in the technical
press, which would repay study by surveyors facing such problems. The articles were in the following
magazines as:-
Propulsion- April 2004-page 17 onwards

The Motor Ship- October 2004-page 46 onwards
Marine Propulsion -August/September 2005 pages 111 onwards
Other sources are:-

www.bureauveritas.com
www.lamalotech.com (case studies)
5.5.1 Propellers
There are many types of propeller, but they all achieve their thrust by accelerating the water entrained
in the propeller wake.
The propeller for a tugboat requires that maximum priority is given to the bollard pull, i.e. how much
force or thrust is generated to move the liner or whatever is being towed. The priority in the design
of the tug-boat hull is centred around the largest propeller that can be swung and the underwater hull
shape is made to suit this propeller or propellers, which will give good thrust for the power of the
engine. To achieve this most tug propellers are within Kort Nozzles which concentrate the thrust and
also give directional thrust. The propeller will be designed to give low speed thrust and this combined
with the hull shape means that the tug will not be as fast, when free running, as might be expected from
the power installed.
The motor ship requires good propulsive efficiency, running at higher hull speeds, and intermediate hull
forms are necessary. The naval architect when designing the hull has a definite speed to achieve, and
the required power of the engines is made with respect to the open water efficiency of the propellers.

Generally larger propellers will give better efficiency, but are harder to fit within the hull parameters.
Noise generated by the propellers is very important to the hull designer. He should allow a propeller-tip
to hull clearance of at least 15%, of the propeller diameter but the ideal clearance is 20% or more.
This may be impractical so the table below gives the minimum tip clearances:-
200 – 500 RPM 8%
300 – 1800 RPM 10%
1000 and above RPM 15%
High speed planing craft 20%
These figures represent the absolute minimum; in all instances the clearance should be greater if
possible to reduce the pulse effect of the propeller tips as they pass the hull.
There is also the fore and aft blade clearances these are essential to provide a clear flow of water
through the propeller with as little restriction as possible from both ahead and astern of the propeller.
The hull form and any supporting ‘P’ brackets and ‘A’ brackets forward of the propeller should be
faired back to at least 30% of the diameter, but still allow the supporting bearing to be as close to the
propeller as possible.
Aft of the propeller the distance between the propeller and rudder should be approximately 15% of the
diameter too great a clearance can reduce rudder performance and manoeuvrability.
Terms associated with propellers are:-

Diameter-
The diameter from tip to tip-expressed in imperial (Inches) or metric (Centimetres).
Pitch-
The theoretical distance that the blade would move forward in one revolution if the propeller were in a
solid material rather than water. Expressed in imperial (inches) or Metric (Centimetres).
Number of Blades-
In theory a single blade propeller imitating the paddle where only one blade is immersed in clear water
at any one time may be considered to be the most efficient, the practicalities of imbalance almost
preclude this apart from perhaps the surface piercing propeller of ultra high speed boats. Therefore
development centred around the screw propeller.
Although a two bladed propeller may be the most efficient screw propeller, it would be large and the
pulse effect of the blades passing the hull would be greater. Three bladed propellers are normal but
four blades are used when there is a diameter restriction. Five blades and more are fitted for minimal
vibration into the fast ferry or yacht.
Rotation-
This is called Right Hand Rotation when the propeller rotates clockwise, when viewed from aft and Left
Hand Rotation for anti-clockwise.

Blade Area Ratio, or Disc Area Ratio-

These terms mean a similar thing, i.e. the total area of the blades of the propeller as a ratio of the swept
area of the blade tips. Efficient lightly loaded propellers will be 30-40%DAR whilst high performance
high-speed propellers will be 80-110%
The calculations associated with propeller design have been codified to a great degree and the naval
architect can buy a software program to help in the primary selection of the propeller diameter. For
performance vessels it is always better to optimise propeller efficiency (and thus define the reduction
ratio of the gearbox) with the help of a specialist propeller designer as propeller efficiency is usually the
most productive area in which dramatic gains in performance can be achieved.
The book “Propeller Handbook” by Dave Gerr is a very thorough reference in explaining a
comprehensive understanding of propeller design measurement and performance, and is recommended
as a book of reference.
There are several types of propeller:-
Fixed Pitch
The majority of propellers in use today are fixed pitch, as they can offer high efficiency at economical
cost. A fixed pitch propeller, however, is designed for only one condition of the displacement and speed
of the vessel, full power in the fully loaded condition.
If a propeller is incorrectly sized to a vessels design and displacement performance will suffer. If the
propeller is, over size/over pitch, the engine will fail to reach maximum rpm and power, this will result in
increased combustion and exhaust gas temperatures and perhaps over-fuelling with grey-black exhaust
smoke, this can lead to mechanical damage.
If a propeller is undersized the engine will achieve maximum revs and power before the vessel achieves
the maximum designed hull speed.
As a result propellers for a displacement hull are usually designed for the maximum designed
displacement plus an additional allowance (under-sizing), this takes into account fouling of the hull and
possible increases in load/displacement. This allowance may prevent the engines from being overloaded,
but this also means that they will not develop full power and accordingly the hull will not be as fast as
theoretically possible. When there is a large difference between full load and light load, this can be a
serious problem, which is well understood by the operators of such vessels as tankers and ore carriers
which may travel fully loaded on the outward journey and return empty.
With twin propellers, the pitch of each propeller is set up to match the full speed condition, with both
engines running. When the vessel runs on one engine, the speed is reduced and the working engine will
be grossly overloaded without reducing RPM as above.
Conventionally, fixed pitch propellers are arranged counter rotating and outward turning at the top
when in ahead mode and viewed from the stern.

As a result propellers for a displacement hull are usually designed for the maximum designed
displacement plus an additional allowance (under-sizing), this takes into account fouling of the hull and
possible increases in load/displacement. This allowance may prevent the engines from being
overloaded, but this also means that they will not develop fullSurveying Large Vessel
power and accordingly the hullMain
will notEngines
be | UNIT 15
as fast as theoretically possible. When there is a large difference between full load and light load, this
can be a serious problem, which is well understood by the operators of such vessels as tankers and ore
carriers which may travel fully loaded on the outward journey and return empty.
With twin propellers, the pitch of each propeller is set up to match the full speed condition, with both
engines running. When the vessel runs on one engine, the speed is reduced and the working engine
will be grossly overloaded without reducing RPM as above.
Conventionally, fixed pitch propellers are arranged counter rotating and outward turning at the top when
in ahead mode and viewed from the stern.
Fig 5.4- Influence of Duty on Blade Design-Promarin Propeller and Marinetecknik

Fig 5.4- Influence of Duty on Blade Design-Promarin Propeller and Marinetecknik
5.5.2 Points to note on inspection/survey of propellers:-
Fixed and controllable pitch propellers are often damaged due to coming into contact with water borne
5.5.2 Points togrounding.
debris and note on inspection/survey of propellers:-
Fixed and controllable pitch propellers are often damaged due to coming into contact with water borne
debris and grounding.
When a propeller is severely damaged, as a consequence the gearbox (if applicable), tailshaft, couplings
Page 87
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and engine mountings
Diplomamay also have
in Marine sustained
Industry damage. In these cases the whole propulsion system must
Surveying
be inspected.
If a blade is bent near the hub, the propeller may be beyond repair. When a damaged propeller is
repaired, in the process the tensile strength may have been reduced below an acceptable level. When a
cast iron or stainless steel propeller is severely damaged and blades are partially broken off, they will be
repaired by welding. However, when the failure is near the hub, the propeller may be beyond repair for
the reasons of loss of strength.
Cracks in the hub can sometimes be repaired, but this should be considered a temporary repair method,
renewal of the propeller is the only way to ensure the lowest possibility of further failure. Cracks in the
hub could be as a result of a casting defect and such cracks are often developed by changes in section.
Cracks in the hub can also be caused by damage, most likely repeated damage, but also could be as a
result of vibration and/or imbalance of the propeller.
Cracks are sometimes developed when a propeller has loosened from the taper often due to
incomplete fitting between taper and hub.

5.5.3 Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)

During development the limitations of the fixed blade propeller were discovered, this led to the
development of a relatively simple solution of adjusting the pitch of the propeller blades to match the
operational conditions.
The fishing industry wanted their boats to get out to the fishing grounds at maximum speed (say 12
knots). Once there they would stream their trawls and tow them (at full power of the engine) at say 2-4
knots. Full power may be required for both modes of operation, but the two conditions are mutually
incompatible with a fixed pitch propeller.
With a CP Propeller the engine could be run at full RPM and with a coarse setting of the propeller pitch
the boat would achieve full hull speed. When towing the trawl, the engines would again be at full power,
but now with a fine propeller pitch the very heavy tow load can be accommodated.
Similarly with multi-propeller installations, the pitch of the working propeller(s) could be adjusted to
allow the full power of each engine to be efficiently converted into thrust, whether on one, two or
more shafts. Manoeuvring with CPP installations is achieved by pitch adjustment into ahead, zero pitch
(feathering / neutral) and astern. This can be very quick, as it does not require reversal of the shaft
system, which is a real advantage for unidirectional engines, gas turbines particularly. The controls and
instrumentation for a CPP system are very critical and the pitch control system and its feedback require
special attention. The larger systems are hydraulically operated by push-rod in the hollow tailshaft, or
from within the hub itself these have a complicated control system due to the difference in the oil
displaced either side of the actuator piston in the propeller hub; due to the piston rod on the drive side.
A simpler system using large springs to move the blades ahead and hydraulics to take pitch off and give
astern pitch. This system also had the advantage of enabling ahead propulsion in the event of a system
failure and high system pressures only being required during manoeuvring.
Another simpler system is offered for smaller hulls where manoeuvring is achieved by a standard
reverse-reduction gearbox for ahead and astern movements as in a fixed pitch propeller installation and
pitch control used only to match the propeller pitch to the load condition required, i.e. from full ahead
mode to zero pitch (feathering).
A single CPP installation is generally arranged with right-hand rotation, so that the helmsman will
anticipate the so-called propeller walk which will be as a standard fixed pitch propeller.
Twin CPP propeller installations on warships for example, seem to favour inwards turning propellers
for fast vessels and large displacement hulls, but the relative position and arrangement of the rudder(s)
should be considered.

A single CPP installation is generally arranged with right-hand rotation, so that the helmsman will
anticipate the so-called propeller walk which will be as a standard fixed pitch propeller.
Twin CPP propeller installations on warships for example, seem to favour inwards turning propellers for
fast vessels and large displacement hulls, but the relative position and arrangement of the rudder(s)
should be considered.
FigFig5.5-An
5.5-An MAN B&WMedium
MAN B&W MediumSpeed
SpeedEngine
Enginewith
withReduction
ReductionGearbox
Gearboxand
andCPCPPropeller
Propeller
Comments
Commentson Controllable Pitch Propellers
on Controllable (CCP)
Pitch Propellers (CCP)
A CCPA can
CCPbe cancontrolled
be controlled either
either mechanicallywith
mechanically withpush/pull
push/pull rod
rod oror hydraulically.
hydraulically. As mentioned earlier
hydraulically
As mentioned controlled
earlier CPP tendcontrolled
hydraulically to have complicated
CPP tend system
to havecontrols to operate
complicated systemthe closed
controlshydraulic
to operate
system required to minimise damage by entrained dirt particles in the oil. Some CPP’s
the closed hydraulic system required to minimise damage by entrained dirt particles in the oil. Some are equipped
CPP’swith
areseparate
equipped control
with oil and lubricating
separate control oil
oil systems, these systems
and lubricating are less these
oil systems, prone to damageare
systems than a prone
less
combined oil system.
to damage than a combined oil system.
A great deal of damage can be caused by the blade coming into contact with a solid object. This affects
A great deal of damage can be caused by the blade coming into contact with a solid object. This
not only the blade, but also the blade carrier, including bearings. The collar type bearing has a lower
affects not only
reaction the
force blade,
level than but
the also the type
trunnion bladebearing.
carrier,
A including
hub with a bearings. Theofcollar
small number type bearing
constituent parts is has a
lowerclearly
reaction force
more levelthan
reliable than thewith
a hub trunnion
a largetype bearing.
number A hub with a small number of constituent
of parts.
parts is clearly more reliable than a hub with a large number of parts.
The hollow shaft, oil tube and push/pull rod can also be subject to extension due to screwed sections
The hollow
workingshaft,
loose oil tubeloss
causing andofpush/pull
movement. rod canthe
Often also be subject
blade to extension
roots have due to screwed
indicators showing sections
the degree of
pitchloose
working achieved; theseloss
causing can of
be movement.
checked afloat by diver.
Often the blade roots have indicators showing the degree of
pitch achieved; these can be checked afloat by diver.
Vibration in normal service can also result in crack formation.
Vibration in normal service can also result in crack formation.
The common causes of vibration are:
• Torsional vibration.
The common causes of vibration are:
• • Torsional
Imbalance of the propeller.
vibration.
• Imbalance of the propeller.

Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 90
5.5.4. Other Drive Systems

Variants of inboard-outboards are the “azimuthing” drives which are used in ferries and barges where
very quick steering response is required. The drive leg is fitted inside a well in the engine room and
5.4. Other Drive Systems
is driven through universal joints from the engine. The leg with its propeller can rotate through 360
iants of inboard-outboards are theexcellent
degrees, giving “azimuthing” drives which
steering, are used
although in ferries
requiring and barges
some spatialwhere
awareness skill on the part of the
y quick steering response is required. The drive leg is fitted inside a well in the engine room and is
helmsman. On some barges the engine is mounted on the aft deck and the leg extends down the
en through universal joints from the engine. The leg with its propeller can rotate through 360
transom, giving an economical, retractable / transferable drive.
rees, giving excellent steering, although requiring some spatial awareness skill on the part of the
msman. On some barges the engine is mounted on the aft deck and the leg extends down the
A specialized
nsom, giving an economical, drive that
retractable is neitherdrive.
/ transferable propeller nor waterjet is the Voith-Schneider
drive system, which
consists of a drum, which rotates with vertical blades which vector as they rotate giving a very efficient
pecialized drive that is neither propeller nor waterjet is the Voith-Schneider drive system, which
and directional drive. They are mostly seen on tugs and ferries.
sists of a drum, which rotates with vertical blades which vector as they rotate giving a very efficient
d directional drive. They are mostly seen on tugs and ferries.
Fig 5.6-Voigt Schneider Drive- Mer Magazine

Fig 5.6-Voigt Schneider Drive- Mer Magazine
5.5 Surface Piercing Propellers

5.5.5
face drive systems are usedSurface
for high speedPiercing Propellers
craft. This development of inboard / outboard stern
e technology has enabled the propeller to be taken to the limits
Surface drive systems are used for high speed craft. of speed through
This the water. The of inboard / outboard stern drive
development
tem gives increased efficiency in the conversion of engine power to vessel speed especially in
technology has enabled the propeller to be taken to the limits of speed through the water. The system
eds in excess of 25 knots. In effect only half the surface area of the propeller blade is immersed at
gives increased
one time, this coupled to a lack ofefficiency in thestern
shaft supporting conversion
gear givesofa engine
reductionpower toThe
in drag. vessel speed especially in speeds in
tem requires an excess of 25operator
experienced knots.toInachieve
effect the
only half
best the surface
performance area
from theof the propeller
system. The blade is immersed at any one
time, this coupled to a lack of shaft supporting stern gear gives a reduction in drag. The system requires
veyor needs to take care during inspection to check the condition of the drive couplings, bearings,
ible bellows, pivot
anpins and bushes,operator
experienced hydraulic hoses and connections
to achieve and of course the
the best performance condition
from of
the system. The surveyor needs to take
propeller. The systems that you may encounter will include Arneson and Seafury.
care during inspection to check the condition of the drive couplings, bearings, flexible bellows, pivot pins
anddrive
advantages of this bushes, hydraulic
system are:- hoses and connections and of course the condition of the propeller. The systems
that you
15% to 30% speed may over
increase encounter will systems.
conventional include Arneson and Seafury.
15% to 30% increase in fuel efficiency.
More efficient than Inboard Outboard stern drives
Corrosion resistant most models are available in Magnesium Bronze or Aluminum.
Size adaptability, from 100 hp to over 10,000 hp applications.
Low maintenance requirements.
Ability to adjust propeller submergence while underway.
104 IIMS - Call to
Ability to adjust submergence
appropriately needed.
+44 (0)23
match 9238 5223
horsepower or visit
output www.iims.org.uk
permits conversion of more thrust as
The advantages of this drive system are:-

• 5% to 30% speed increase over conventional systems.
• 15% to 30% increase in fuel efficiency.
• More efficient than Inboard Outboard stern drives
• Corrosion resistant most models are available in Magnesium Bronze or Aluminum.
• Size adaptability, from 100 hp to over 10,000 hp applications.
• Low maintenance requirements.
• Ability to adjust propeller submergence while underway.
• Ability to adjust submergence to match horsepower output permits conversion of more thrust as
appropriately needed.
• Propellers ventilate to the surface rather than cavitate under the hull reducing noise and destructive
hull and prop erosion.
• Flexibility in engine installation location.
• Less Vibration than Inboard or Inboard Outboard applications
• Shallow water operation (elimination of underwater appendages).
• Accessible propeller servicing.
• Steerage by the positive thrust of the propeller and not by the propeller thrust to the rudder.
• For all it’s sophisticated performance, it is a less mechanically complex and fragile design than other
propulsion systems.
• No limitations to shaft angle, blade top clearance, draft to restrict selection of optimum diameter
propeller.
• Adaptable to a wide range of engine applications, whether gas, diesel, or turbine.

5.6.1 Water jets

The water jet is a good alternative to surface drive systems, with further reductions in stern gear drag
but with some disadvantages due to hull form water flow.
For multiple drive vessels the water jet has much to offer because of the manoeuvrability. Initial cost is
high, though perhaps less so that a full CPP installation might be.
The designer obtains;-

• No drag from shafts and rudders
• Minimal draught with nothing below the hull line
• Directional thrust-ahead, rapid directional astern thrust and neutral.
• Very simple installation
• Relatively low maintenance
• Within cavitation limits, the drives can be added up as required to obtain maximum speed or reduced
speed on fewer engines without the drag of redundant stern gear.
• It is virtually impossible to overload the engine
• Engines and drives are sited aft as required by the hull form of high speed hulls
• Fire-fighting water outlet (from some units)
5.6.2 Typical commercial Water jet Applications

Water jet drives are chiefly found among fast specialised craft, where the qualities above are required to
suit specific operational circumstances.
• Pilot and Patrol boats.

• High-speed ferries requiring great power.
The largest current steerable water jet according to the MER magazine of April 2002 is still the Kamewa
200 S11 unit with an internal diameter of 2 metres. It will be driven by a Rolls Royce Trent Gas Turbine
rated at 25MW 33525HP. Two of these large units will drive the 140m fast ferry “Aeolus now Red Sea
1”. There are plans to produce even larger units and therefore water jets will continue to have a part to
play in the future of propulsion systems.
The German Frigate Consortium is reported to be developing a Corvette with a propulsion system
named WARP (Waterjet & Refined Propeller Propulsion).
This will use two 3.4m diameter five blade Lips CP propellers driven by two 5,900KW diesels with an
aft centre line Lips LJ 210E water jet with 2.8m diameter impeller driven by an LM 2500 gas turbine
rated at 20MW, the water jet is suitable for powers up to 50MW.

Water jets are subdivided into three groupings.
1. Low volume, high velocity units such as Castoldi. These are used for small fast run a bouts
2. Mixed flow
Water jets areunits such as
subdivided built
into bygroupings.
three Hamilton of New Zealand which are fitted on patrol boats with
operating speeds of 12-30 knots
1.
3. Very Low
largevolume, high velocity
units such units suchRange
as the Kamewa as Castoldi. These are used for small fast run a bouts
2. Mixed flow units such as built by Hamilton of New Zealand which are fitted on patrol boats with
operating speeds of 12-30 knots
These
3. jets
Verypass
largeanunits
enormous
such as amount of water
the Kamewa Rangeat relatively low velocity. They are highly efficient and are
used in lower speed applications without cavitation in such applications as large ferries. They are driven
from high-speed
These jets pass diesels or gasamount
an enormous turbines and require
of water a reduction
at relatively gearbox
low velocity. to highly
They are give the required
efficient (quite low)
and are
used in lower speed applications without cavitation in such applications as large ferries. They
impeller RPM. Often a reverse function is fitted to the gearbox to allow a flushing facility together withare
driven to
a clutch from high-speed
isolate diesels or gas turbines and require a reduction gearbox to give the required
the drive.
(quite low) impeller RPM. Often a reverse function is fitted to the gearbox to allow a flushing facility
together with a clutch to isolate the drive.
fig fig 5.7-A

5.7-A Kamewa 200
Kamewa 200unit
unitrated at 22000kW
rated from MER
at 22000kW from magazine April 2002April 2002
MER magazine
Selection of the correct type of water jet requires accurate knowledge of the resistance characteristics
of the subject hull, at varying displacements.
Selection of the correct type of water jet requires accurate knowledge of the resistance characteristics
The naval architect designs the General Arrangement of the vessel hull, calculates the weight of the
of finished
the subject hull,
vessel at its
in all varying displacements.
conditions and then defines the hull shape to suit.
The naval model

A scale architect designs
of the the General
hull is made Arrangement
and taken to a test tankofwhere
the vessel hull,iscalculates
the model towed overthe
theweight
speed of the
finished vessel in all its conditions and then defines the hull shape to suit.
and displacement range and the resistance estimate is developed by the naval architects of the facility.
The thrust that will be developed by a given water jet powered by the selected engine is laid over the
resistance
A scale modelgraph, andhull
of the theisspeed
madeonand
onetaken
unit isto
given by the
a test tankintersection
where theofmodel
thrust and resistance.
is towed over Add
the aspeed
second jet and the speed can be derived and so on.
and displacement range and the resistance estimate is developed by the naval architects of the facility.
The
In thrust that
an article in will be developed
the Naval by2002
Architect in a given water
there was ajet powered
report by the selected
on developments engine
by Rolls RoyceisNaval
laid over the
resistance graph, and the speed on one unit is given by the intersection of thrust
Marine on a submerged water jet propulsion system as a candidate for both Naval and Commercial and resistance. Add a
second jet and In
applications. thetank
speed
testscan
thisbe derived
proved to beand
moreso efficient
on. than propellers at around 30 knots with
hope that further developments may reduce the range down to 25 knots.
Call +44
However most water jets have a low speed limit where (0)23 9238
cavitation 5223
starts or visit
to occur andwww.iims.org.uk
the jet should not - IIMS 107
be used below this speed otherwise severe pitting of the impeller will occur. If for reasons of cost or
In an article in the Naval Architect in 2002 there was a report on developments by Rolls Royce Naval
Marine on a submerged water jet propulsion system as a candidate for both Naval and Commercial
applications. In tank tests this proved to be more efficient than propellers at around 30 knots with hope
that further developments may reduce the range down to 25 knots.
However most water jets have a low speed limit where cavitation starts to occur and the jet should not
be used below this speed otherwise severe pitting of the impeller will occur. If for reasons of cost or
insufficient information a smaller jet is selected in a multi-jet vessel, the situation could occur that the
craft could only run with all water jets operating, which would be undesirable and perhaps unsafe.
Manoeuvring with Water jets requires a different approach than with propellers. With a propeller drive,
the helmsman has a rudder to guide the boat which will have an effect even at low speeds.
Manoeuvring with single shaft is a combination of rudder angle and bursts of power, twin shaft vessels
will normally be manoeuvred by engine only leaving the rudder amidships with the engine running at tick
over. A burst of power will stop the boat, or whatever is required to match the situation.
The water jet requires a completely different approach as low RPM gives very poor steering effect and
very little stopping thrust. Generally the helmsman must set the engine RPM quite high and manoeuvre
only on the water jet reversal device, which gives a neutral thrust position, and directional thrust
according to the bucket position. Thus significant thrust is always available, and given this approach,
steering with even small water jets is straightforward.

5.6.3 Points to note on inspection/survey of Water Jet

Propulsion Systems:-
Water Jets suffer from erosion within the jet tube due to the high velocities, this has led to the
development of various materials to line the tubes, Epoxy coatings are common, but ceramics have also
been used. Damage or detachment of the liner will lead to damage to the underlying structure. Fast
aluminium ferries commonly use water jet drives and damage to the tube lining will lead to rapid surface
damage to the underlying aluminium tube.
There are Impeller damage issues which are largely identical to the issues with standard propellers. To
avoid impact damage from water born flotsam and jetsam some vessels have gratings over the jet tube
inlets, however these have an effect on the flow of water, so unless the vessel operates in particularly
affected areas these tend not to be used.
The shaft seals are prone to damage from debris for example ferries operating in the Solent suffer from
seal damage due to fishing lines.
The units themselves have pins and bushes for steering pivots and bucket hood ahead and astern movement,
these suffer from wear and require significant locking arrangements (often welded stopper plates).
5.7.1 Diesel Electric Drives

The first diesel motorship was also the first diesel-electric ship, the Russian tanker Vandal, which was
launched in 1903. Steam turbine-electric propulsion has been in use since the 1920s (Tennessee class
battleships), using diesel-electric powerplants in surface ships has increased lately. The Finnish coastal
defence ship Ilmarinen, laid down in 1929, was among the first surface ships to use dieselelectric
transmission. Later the technology was used in diesel powered icebreakers.
Early submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and propeller, switching
between diesel engines for surface running, and electric motors for submerged propulsion. True
diesel-electric transmissions for submarines were first proposed by the United States Navy’s Bureau
of Engineering in 1928; instead of driving the propeller directly while running on the surface, the
submarine’s diesel would instead drive a generator which could either charge the submarine’s batteries
or drive the electric motor. This meant that motor speed was independent of the diesel engine’s speed,
and the diesel could run at an optimum and non-critical speed, while one or more of the diesel engines
could be shut down for maintenance while the submarine continued to run using battery power. The
concept was pioneered in 1929 in the S-class submarines. No other navy adopted the system before
1945, though some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy used separate diesel generators for low
speed running. In a diesel-electric direct drive arrangement, the (usually single) propeller is driven
directly by an electric motor, while two or more diesel-generators provide electric energy for charging
the batteries and/or driving the electric motor. This mechanically isolates the noisy engine compartment
from the outer pressure hull and reduces the acoustic signature of the submarine. Additionally some
nuclear submarines also decouple their reactor room this way, having turbo-electric propulsion driven
by reactor steam. Many submarines with diesel and electrical propulsion are mistakenly referred to as
“diesel-electric” when they in fact have separately coupled diesel and electric engines.

Today very large vessels are adopting diesel-electric propulsion systems, with a number of large diesel
generators handling the ships hotel load plus the electric propulsion motors. Gas turbines are also used
for electrical power generation, and some ships use a combination: the Queen Mary 2 has a set of diesel
engines in the bottom of the ship plus two gas turbines mounted near the main funnel; all are used for
generating electrical power, including that used to drive the propellers.
There are several basic configurations of electric drive:
• DC in the form of the Ward-Leonard system

• AC in the form of the electronic variable speed drive
• AC with synchronous drive from generator to propulsion motor
5.7.2 Ward-Leonard System

Here a dc generator supplies a dc motor on the propeller shaft and the shaft speed is controlled by
varying the output of the generator. While being a simple and effective system, it suffers from relatively
low efficiency and high maintenance. Both the generator and the motor have carbon brushes and
commutators, which are subject to wear and need regular inspection.
There is a variation to this system, where the dc generator is replaced by a constant voltage and
frequency ac generator and the dc motor is supplied via an electronic converter giving a variable dc
voltage output. In this system the generator can supply the ship’s ac electrical power as well as the drive
requirements.
The Ward-Leonard system will be found mainly on older ships.
Things to check:
Generator Engine:
• Inspect as for main engines
DC Generator:
• Commutator - excessive wear with grooves worn by brushes and glazed copper segments.
• Brushgear – excessive wear of carbon brushes (brushes very short), broken brushes, brushes stuck in
holders, broken cable connections to brush holders.
• General – state of cleanliness inside the motor, excess carbon dust build-up around the brushgear
and on stator windings.
• Motor enclosure – inspection/maintenance covers in place, all clips or securing screws available/in
place, rust or corrosion present, damaged paint finish.
• Cable terminal box – cables correctly glanded, cables correctly terminated terminals tight, no
moisture inside, cover complete with all fixings and gasket if needed.

DC Motor:
• Mainly as for dc generator, except that there will probably be a separate cooling fan on the motor to
cater for slow speed running, where a shaft fan would not give sufficient air-flow at minimum speed,
this should be checked as below.
In examining an electrical motor or other such electrical item, that has failed, the surveyor should use
several approaches to discerning the problem.
• Closely examine the item externally and internally as possible through inspection panels
• Determine the source of any untoward smells
• Check electrical connections and measure insulation levels, etc
• Check any associated liquids or items found under or around the equipment.
A visual inspection should be made as soon as possible after any failure. The internal inspection can be
made with an endoscope, or the machine partly dismantled. Check the alignment of driven parts and the
associated motor.
Measurements and the visual examinations should be made before cleaning. The surveyor should also
oversee any subsequent strip-down by a repairer, and a photographic record made before and after
cleaning. Bearings should be examined for lubrication and soundness.
Samples of dust and any other untoward particle should be collected in a plastic bag, sealed and carefully
annotated with full description and observations.
When the plant is fully stripped down, checked and measured as appropriate, a record should be made
of the parts that may be sound, and those requiring repair or replacement.
Where a hybrid system is found, the generators will be checked as for ac generators above and the
motor will be checked as the dc motor above. However, there will also be a variable speed drive
converter. This should be checked generally as for other electrical equipment, but internally it requires
specialist knowledge and inspection by the manufacturer or his agent.
5.7.2 Ward-Leonard System

While there are a number of different approaches to this kind of drive, the basic principle is that one or
more constant speed synchronous ac generators deliver power to one or more shaft motors through
devices known as Variable Speed Drives (VSDs), which provide a varying voltage and frequency supply.
Varying the voltage and frequency of the motor supply, in turn, varies the speed of the propulsion motors.
Since the generators run at constant speed and voltage they can also supply the ship’s services load.
The propulsion motors are very simple squirrel cage induction motors with no brush-gear to be
maintained.

VSDs are solid state electronic devices with no moving parts. However, they do take up a lot of room
and need significant cooling, but motor speed can be controlled smoothly and consistently from 0 to
100%. Surveying this type of installation follows the same principles as other electrical equipment, except
that the VSDs require specialist attention.
5.7.4 Synchronous Drive

During the war the USA built a range of oil tankers, known as the “T2” class, which were very much
more modern and made the equivalent British tankers look antiquated.
The propeller shaft was driven by an electric motor of approximately 4 metres in diameter, which was
electrically linked to a steam turbine-alternator. The motor was started and driven up to speed by
induction poles on the outer diameter, and then switched into synchronised mode, so that a change in
the turbo-generator RPM produced equivalent change in the propulsive motor.
Such a propulsion system was not designed to support the hotel load of the tanker as the frequency of
the turbo-generator was not constant.
A separate alternator provided the ship’s load, which highlights the value of the modern system which
uses electronics controls to take hold of standard 50 or 60Hz supply and converts it into variable
frequency which gives the required speed control of the propeller motor
The modern diesel electric drive system meets the very large hotel loads of the cruise liner on say one
generator, and brings the other sets on-line, as propulsion is required. The switchboard and control
system for such an arrangement is significant as the speed control for the motors is made electronically.
There are advantages in the ability to spread the generators throughout the hull of the ship to suit the
ships trim and make best use of the available space for accommodation and tankage in passenger ships.
‘Oasis of the Seas’ has been built within the new SOLAS 2009 probabilistic (non-constructive) stability
rules and is also built to the new Safe Return To Port (SRTP) rules, which came into force on 01-07-10.
Included in the rules is a requirement that the main propulsion system and generating plant is within
two individual watertight compartments to allow for redundancy. The propulsion motors are very
quiet in operation with little noise transmission through the structure; however they are large, and
the arrangement is expensive in initial cost. The motor(s) may be internal driving through conventional
shaft(s), or as is becoming more usual driving an external Azimuth Drive pod through gearing allowing
360 degree rotation. The Larger units often have the electric motor and any gearing contained within
the pod itself giving further space saving internally and providing unit cooling. The Pod system gives a
very high degree of manoeuvrability which enables very large cruise ships to operate in the confined
space of even small harbour areas without the need for tugs; the system also enables station keeping
weathervaning at anchor etc.

stability rules and is also built to the new Safe Return To Port (SRTP) rules, which came into force on
01-07-10. Included in the rules is a requirement that the mainSurveying Large
propulsion Vessel
system andMain | UNIT 15
Enginesplant
generating
is within two individual watertight compartments to allow for redundancy. The propulsion motors are
very quiet in operation with little noise transmission through the structure; however they are large, and
the arrangement is expensive in initial cost. The motor(s) may be internal driving through conventional
shaft(s), or as is becoming more usual driving an external Azimuth Drive pod through gearing allowing
360 degree rotation. The Larger units often have the electric motor and any gearing contained within
the pod itself giving further space saving internally and providing unit cooling. The Pod system gives a
very high degree of manoeuvrability which enables very large cruise ships to operate in the confined
space of even small harbour areas without the need for tugs; the system also enables station keeping
weathervaning at anchor etc.
Fig 5.8- Rotatable “Azipull “ pod drive, by Rolls Royce Ulstein Aquamaster.
Fig 5.8- Rotatable “Azipull “ pod drive, by Rolls Royce Ulstein Aquamaster.
Note the propeller is in front of the leg.
Note the propeller
From MERis May in front
2002of the leg.
From MER May 2002
5.8.1 Alternative Propulsion Systems

5.8.1 Alternative Propulsion Systems
NoneNone Displacement
Displacement andand Light
Light DisplacementAir
Displacement AirCushion
Cushion Craft.
Craft.
None displacement craft (Hovercraft) have the ability to travel over water or land and therefore use
None displacement craft (Hovercraft) have the ability to travel over water or land and therefore use
aircraft propulsion systems which would generally be considered to be outside the realm of the marine
aircraft propulsion
surveyor. systems
However which
airborne would
foreign generally
object be considered
debris damage to be
a principal areaoutside the realm of the marine
of concern.
surveyor. However airborne foreign object debris damage a principal area of concern.
Light Displacement Craft (Air Cushion Catamarans) use standard propulsion systems such as
Light Displacement Craft
conventional shaft (AironCushion
drives Catamarans) use standard propulsion systems such as
water jets.
conventional shaft drives on water jets.
Hydrofoils use deep shaft drive systems which give rise to shaft support issues but in general are
surveyed as such.
Hydrofoils use deep shaft drive systems which give rise to shaft support issues but in general are
surveyed as such.
Apart from the transmission inspection checks the main issue in regard to all these propulsion systems
is the operating conditions. Spray can lead to water ingress into the machinery compartments and
Apartsuitable
from theair transmission inspection
inlet spray eliminators checks
should the main
be fitted issue in regard
but associated to all these
water damage propulsion
and corrosion systems
issues
is the should
operating conditions.
be the Spray can
principal concern leadsurveyor.
for the to water ingress into the machinery compartments and
suitable air inlet spray eliminators should be fitted but associated water damage and corrosion issues
should be the principal concern for the surveyor.
Page 97
Page 97

5.8.2 Hybrid Propulsion

The March 2010 Warship Technology Magazine reports on a hybrid propulsion system installed in the
Norwegian Coastguard Vessel ‘KV Harstad’ this system consists of two main RR Bergen marine diesels
driving through a reduction gear to a Kamewar CPPropeller, the shafts have shaft generators which
can provide 2250 KVA power or 1,500 Kw as a propulsion motor, with three auxiliary generators.
Propulsion can be any combination of diesel and / or electric drive with the advantage of 50% reduced
emissions and fuel consumption.
As detailed in an article in Novembers MER magazine Rolls Royce have developed a Hybrid Shaft
Generator System (HSG-Concept) for which a patent is pending. The concept is an advanced power
electric system for conditioning power generated by a shaft generator driven off the back of the main
propulsion gearbox, this gives the switchboard a constant voltage and frequency with the correct
phase angle to compliment other generators running in parallel. The HSG can also control the shaft
generator so that it acts as a motor giving power to drive the propeller. This system does away with the
concept that engines and propeller shafts must run at fixed speeds. By reducing shaft and engine speed
both propeller and engine efficiency can be optimised using a controllable pitch propeller. Vessels with
medium speed engines driving CP propellers are the ideal for the HSG Concept.
5.8.3 Fuel Cell

The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838.
The first fuel cell was demonstrated by Sir William Robert Grove in 1839. The fuel cell he made used
similar materials to today’s phosphoric-acid fuel cell.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts a fuel source into an electric current. It generates
electricity inside a cell through reactions between a fuel and an oxidant, triggered in the presence
of an electrolyte. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the
electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells can operate continuously as long as the necessary reactant and
oxidant flows are maintained.
Fuel cells are different from conventional electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant
from an external source, which must be replenished, creating a thermodynamically open system. By
contrast, batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a thermodynamically closed
system.
Many combinations of fuels and oxidants are possible. A hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as its fuel and
oxygen (usually from air) as its oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols. Other oxidants
include chlorine and chlorine dioxide.
The development of fuel cells is being advanced, the Norwegian Research Council produced the 5,900
ton 92.2 meter-long ship ‘Viking Lady’ North Sea ship project powered using a 320 KW fuel cell with
a molten carbonate electrolyte and LNG. This could be reconfigured, if necessary, to run on methanol.
There are storage tanks for hydrogen and carbon dioxide to get the fuel cell started and machines
to regasify the fuel. The fuel cell operates at 650 degrees Celsius. Wartsila has obtained EU funding is
being used to advance the Methapu project (The full name is: Validation of Renewable Methanol Based

Marine Mod A 10/06/2011 13:58 Page 99
Auxiliary Power System for Commercial Vessels), this is an auxiliary power unit producing 20KW using
solid oxide as the electrolyte, Wallenius Marine, Lloyds Register, The University of Genoa and DNV have
all made contributions to this project to develop a Methanol based fuel cell.
Mod
Since 2004 Wallenius have been involved in the development of a zero emissions vessel. The E/S Orcelle
(ES stands for Environmentally Sound) will be a 250 meter vehicle carrier with a service speed of 15
knots. The idea combines hydrogen fuel cells, wind, solar and wave power to propel the vessel, via two
IN1 variable speed
10_11_v2:906 electrical
Marine motor pods
Mod A 10/06/2011 givingPage
13:58 36099degree manoeuvrability. The design has considerable
weight saving with no need for oil or ballast water.
Fig 5.9- Orcelle.

Fig 5.9- Orcelle.
Fig 5.9- Orcelle.
5.8.4 Wind 5.8.4

Propulsion
Wind Propulsion
5.8.4 Wind Propulsion
There are wind assisted propulsion systems using Kites and rotating sails. The ‘MV Michael A’ kite produced 8 tonnes of
There are wind assisted propulsion systems using Kites and rotating sails. The ‘MV Michael A’ kite
propulsive power produced
and a recent (2008)
8 tonnes experiment
of propulsive byand
power Beluga shipping,
a recent (2008)the Beluga Sky
experiment sail proved
by Beluga that
shipping, theeven a moderately sized
Beluga
There are
160wind
sq meterassisted
kite Sky sailpropulsion
achieved 20%that
proved of the systems
evenengines power.
a moderately using 160 Kites
Beluga
sized sq meter and
shipping is now
kite rotating20% ofsails.
developing
achieved a new
the The
generation
engines ‘MV
power. Michael
of heavy A’ kite
lift ships
Beluga shipping is now developing a new generation of heavy lift ships with kites of 600 sq meters.
produced 8 tonnes of
with kites of 600 sq propulsive power and a recent (2008) experiment by Beluga shipping, the Beluga
meters. As passage speeds of existing ships is reduced in an effort to lower fuel
As passage speeds of existing ships is reduced in an effort to lower fuel consumption and emissions
consumption and emissions
the concept of sailthe powered
concept ships
of sail begins
poweredtoships
become
beginsa to
more practical
a moresolution.
Sky sail proved that even a moderately sized 160 sq meter kite achieved 20% of the engines power.
become practical solution.
Beluga shipping is now developing a new generation of heavy lift ships with kites of 600 sq meters.
As passage speeds of existing ships is reduced in an effort to lower fuel consumption and emissions
the concept of sail powered ships begins to become a more practical solution.
Fig 5.10 Beluga Sky Sail

Fig 5.10 Beluga Sky Sail



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Surveying Large Vessel Main Engine

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1. INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENGINE SURVEYING............................................ 4

2. DIESEL ENGINES ............................................................................................................................. 20

5. INTRODUCTION TO PROPULSION SYSTEMS SURVEYING............................. 86

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1. INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENGINE SURVEYS

1.2 Marine Engine Development

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The steam engine experienced a significant development

Figure 1:The First Diesel

Figure 1: The First Diesel Propulsion Engine

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1.3 Health and Safety for the Marine Engineering Surveyor

1.3.1 Marine Survey Practice

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1.3.2 Survey Preparation

1.3.3 Survey Equipment

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Marine Engineering Surveys Module

A basic outline of the Marine Engineering Surveyor’s kit may include:

10/06/2011 13:58 Page 8

1.3.4 Safety Equipment (PPE)

Figure 3: Relevant PPE

Figure 3: Relevant PPE

1.3.6 Surveying Courtesy

1.4 Marine Survey Practice

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Marine Engineering Surveys Module IN1

Figure 3: The survey process.

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1.4.3 Joint Surveys

1.4.4 Co-operation with Third Party Surveyors

1.4.5 Attendance and Investigation

Data to be recorded on survey should include:

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If further diagnostic investigation is necessary, it is important to be present during dismantling of the

1.4.6 Client Liaison

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1.4.7 Classification Societies

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1.4.7 Classification Societies

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1.4.10 Surveying Marine Machinery

1.5 Glossary of Terms

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Spectrograph – This is a laboratory based method of determining the metal contamination of a

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It had taken years of research, trial and error to

The illustration shows the first commercial diesel

Photograph from the Deutschen Museum, Munich.

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Fig 3:2 Picture of Selandia’s engines.

3 Low Speed Engines (60 to 300 rpm)

2.3 Low Speed Engines (60 to 300 rpm)

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2.3.1 Specific Problems related to Low Speed Engines

2.4 Medium Speed Engines (300 to 900 rpm)

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2.4.1 Specific Problems related to Medium Speed Engines

Module IN1 linear vibrations may be caused by imbalance due to misaligned

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2.5 High Speed Engines (Over 900 rpm)

2.5.1 Specific Problems related to High Speed Engines