F.Y. M.

Tech (Mechanical) Design Engg

Force, Torque, and Strain Measurements

Prof.M.D.Hambarde
Department of Mechanical Engineering
4. Force, Torque, and Strain Measurements
1. Force Measurement

Force is represented mathematically as a vector with a point of application. Physically, it is a

directed push or pull. According to Newton’s second law of motion, as written for a particle of
constant mass, force is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration. Thus,

(4.1)

The weight of a body is the force exerted on the body by the acceleration of gravity at sea level so
that

(4.2)
Torque is represented as a moment vector formed by the cross product of a force and radius
vector. In Fig.1 the torque that the force F exerts about the point 0 is given mathematically as

(4.3)

Fig.1. Vector representation for torque.

1.1 Elastic Elements for Force Measurements

Elastic elements are frequently employed to furnish an indication of the magnitude of an applied
force through a displacement measurement. The simple spring is an example of this type of force-
displacement transducer. In this case the force is given by
F=ky (4.4)

where k is the spring constant and y is the displacement from the equilibrium position. For the
simple bar shown in Fig. 2 the force is given by

(4.5)

where A = cross-sectional area

L = length
E = Young’s modulus for the bar material
The deflection of the cantilever beam shown in Fig.3 is related to the loading force by
3𝐸𝐿
𝐹 = 𝐼3 𝑦 (4.6)
where I is the moment of inertia of the beam about the centroidal axis in the direction of the
deflection. Any one of the three devices mentioned above is suitable for use as a force transducer
provided that accurate means are available for indicating the displacements. The differential
transformer (LVDT), for example, may be useful for measurement of these displacements, as well
as capacitance and piezoelectric transducers.
Another elastic device frequently employed for force measurements is the thin ring shown in Fig.4.
The force-deflection relation for this type of elastic element is

(4.7)

where d is the outside ring diameter and I is the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis of the
ring section. The proving ring is a ring transducer that employs a sensitive micrometer for the
deflection measurement, as shown in Fig.5. To obtain a precise measurement, one edge of the
micrometer is mounted on a vibrating-reed device R, which is plucked to obtain a vibratory motion.
The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a noticeable damping of the vibration is
observed. Deflection measurements may be made within ±0.00002 in (0.5 μm) with this method.
The proving ring is used as a calibration standard for large tensile-testing machines.

Figure 2 Simple elastic element Figure 3 Cantilever elastic element. Figure 4 Thin-ring elastic element.

The surface strain (deformation) in elastic elements like those discussed above is, of course, a
measure of the deflection from the no-load condition. This surface strain may be measured very
readily by the electrical-resistance strain gage. The output of the strain gage may thus be taken as
an indication of the impressed force. The main problem with the use of these gages for the force-
measurement applications is that a moment may be impressed on the elastic element because of
eccentric loading. This would result in an alteration of the basic strain distribution as measured by
the strain gage. There are means for compensating for this effect through installation of multiple
gages, properly interconnected to cancel out the deformation resulting from the impressed
moment. Complete assemblies incorporating the elastic element, gages, and signal conditioning
are available commercially for different ranges of force measurements. The electric outputs may
then be used to drive recording equipment. These devices operate on the principle of the
displacement of a linear elastic element with impressed force. The displacements are typically
measured by bonded strain gages, LVDT transducers, or change in capacitance due to the
displacement of a diaphragm. Force ranges for the load cells may be as low as 10 g full scale to
hundreds of thousands of kg. The frequency response for most load cells is usually low but may
be as high as 2 kHz for sensitive LVDT devices. Linearity of 0.2 percent of full scale is typical for
some devices.

Figure 5 Proving ring.

Illustration-

CANTILEVER DEFLECTION MEASUREMENT.

A small cantilever beam is constructed of spring steel having E = 28.3×106 psi. The beam is 0.186
in wide and 0.035 in thick, with a length of 1.00 ± 0.001 in. An LVDT is used for the displacement-
sensing device, and it is estimated that the uncertainty in the displacement measurement is ± 0.001
in. The uncertainties in the bar dimensions are ± 0.0003 in. Calculate the indicated force and
uncertainty due to dimension tolerances when y = 0.100 in.
Solution
The moment of inertia is calculated with
 (a)
where b is the width and h is the thickness. Thus,

Equation (4.6) may be rewritten as

(b)
According to Kline and McClintock, the uncertainty in the force measurement can be written

(c)
The nominal value of the force becomes

From Eq. (c) the uncertainty is

In this instance 1.0 percent uncertainty would be present even if the dimensions of the beam
were known exactly.

Brand Name : Forsentek

Model Number : FC50

Payment Terms : T/T,Western Union or Paypal

Usage : Compression force sensor

Theory : Strain gauge force sensor

Output : Analog Sensor

SPECIFICATIONS
Measuring ranges 0 to 20 N - 0 kN to 50 kN
Maximun dynamic load ±70% Fnom according to DIN 50100
Nominal deflection < 0.15 mm
Accuracy ± 0.2% full scale (± 0.1% full scale
optional)
Output signal 2 mV/V
Operating temperature -30 °F to 85 °F (-34 °C to 29 °C)
 2. Torque Measurements

Torque, or moment, may be measured by observing the angular deformation of a bar or hollow
cylinder, as shown in Fig. 6. The moment is given by

(4.8)

Figure 6 Hollow cylinder as an elastic element for torque measurement.

where M = moment, in-lbf or N · m

G = shear modulus of elasticity, psi or N/m2
ri = inside radius, in or m
ro = outside radius, in or m
L = length of cylinder, in or m
φ = angular deflection, rad
The shear modulus of elasticity may be calculated from

where μ is Poisson’s ratio, which has a value of about 0.3. Strain gages attached at 450 angles as
shown will indicate strains of

(4.9)

Either the deflection or the strain measurement may be taken as indication of the applied moment.
Multiple strain gages may be installed and connected so that any deformation due to axial or
transverse load is canceled out in the final readout circuit.
Again, complete assemblies are available commercially for different torque ranges. A very old
device for the measurement of torque and dissipation of power from machines is the Prony brake.
A schematic diagram is shown in Fig.7.Wooden or synthetic friction blocks are mounted on a
flexible band or rope, which is connected to the arm. Some arrangement is provided to tighten the
rope to increase the frictional resistance between the blocks and the rotating flywheel of the
machine. The torque exerted on the Prony brake is given by
T = FL (4.10)
The force F may be measured by conventional platform scales or other methods discussed in the
previous paragraphs.

Figure 7 Schematic of a Prony brake. Figure 8 Schematic of a cradled dynamometer.

The power dissipated in the brake is calculated from

(4.11)

where the torque is in foot-pounds-force (ft-lbf ) and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per
minute (rpm). Various other types of brakes are employed for power measurements on mechanical
equipment. The water brake, for example, dissipates the output energy through fluid friction
between a paddle wheel mounted inside a stationary chamber filled with water. The chamber is
freely mounted on bearings so that the torque transmitted to it can be measured through an
appropriate moment arm similar to that used with the Prony brake.
The dc cradled dynamometer is perhaps the most widely used device for power and torque
measurements on internal-combustion engines, pumps, small steam turbines, and other mechanical
equipment. The basic arrangement of this device is shown in Fig.8 . A dc motor generator is
mounted on bearings as shown, with a moment arm extending from the body of the motor to a
force-measurement device, which is usually a pendulum scale. When the device is connected to a
power-producing machine, it acts as a dc generator whose output may be varied by dissipating the
power in resistance racks. The torque impressed on the dynamometer is measured with the moment
arm and the output power calculated with Eq. (4.11). The dynamometer may also be used as an
electric motor to drive some power-absorbing device like a pump. In this case it furnishes a means
for measurement of torque and power input to the machine. Commercial dynamometers are
equipped with controls for precise variation of the load and speed of the machine and are available
with power ratings as high as 3700 kW (5000 hp).

2.1 Measurement of Angular Velocity

One form of tachometer, or angular velocity measurement device, employs a small dc permanent-
magnet generator to generate a voltage proportional to the rotational speed. A measurement of the
output voltage then serves to indicate angular velocity of the shaft. The device may be attached
permanently to the shaft for continuous monitoring of speed, or connected by friction to measure
speed at some desired time.
Optical methods may also be used to measure angular velocity. A strobe light is flashed on the
rotating shaft or object. A marking on the shaft, or the object itself, for example, a propeller, will
appear stationary when the strobe frequency coincides with the rotational speed (frequency).A
reading of strobe frequency then determines angular speed.

3. Strain Measurement
Stress analysis involves a determination of the stress distribution in materials of various shapes
and under different loading conditions. Experimental stress analysis is performed by measuring
the deformation of the piece under load and inferring from this measurement the local stress which
prevails. The measurement of deformation is only one facet of the overall problem, and the
analytical work that must be applied to the experimental data in order to determine the local
stresses is of equal importance. Our concern in the following sections is with the methods that may
be employed for deformation measurements. Some simple analysis of these measurements will be
given to illustrate the reasoning necessary to obtain local stress values.
Consider the bar shown in Fig. 9 subjected to the axial load T. Under no-load conditions the length
of the bar is L and the diameter is D. The cross-sectional area of the bar is designated by A. If the
load is applied such that the stress does not exceed the elastic limit of the material, the axial strain
is given by

(4.12)
where σa is the axial stress and E is Young’s modulus for the material. The unit axial strain €a is
defined by the relation
€a = dL/L (4.13)

i.e., it is the axial deformation per unit length. Resulting from the deformation in the axial direction
is a corresponding deformation in the cross-sectional area of the bar. The change in area is
evidenced by a change in the diameter or, more specifically, by a change in the transverse
dimension. The ratio of the unit strain in the transverse direction to the unit strain in the axial
direction is defined as Poisson’s ratio and must be determined experimentally for various
materials.

Figure 9 Simple bar in axial strain.

 (4.14)
A typical value for Poisson’s ratio for many materials is 0.3. If the material is in the plastic state,
the volume remains constant with the change in strain so that
dV = L dA+ A dL = 0
or

Expressed in terms of the diameter, this relation is

so that μ = 0.5 under these conditions.

3.1 Electrical-Resistance Strain Gages

The electrical-resistance strain gage is the most widely used device for strain measurement. Its
operation is based on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor changes when it is
subjected to mechanical deformation. Typically, an electric conductor is bonded to the specimen
with an insulating cement under no-load conditions. A load is then applied, which produces a
deformation in both the specimen and the resistance element. This deformation is indicated
through a measurement of the change in resistance of the element and a calculation procedure
which is described below.
Let us now develop the basic relations for the resistance strain gage. The resistance of the
conductor is

(4.15)

where L = length
A = cross-sectional area
ρ = resistivity of the material
Differentiating Eq.(4.15), we have

(4.16)
The area may be related to the square of some transverse dimension, such as the diameter of the
resistance wire. Designating this dimension by D, we have

(4.17)

Introducing the definition of the axial strain and Poisson’s ratio from Eqs.(4.13) and (4.14), we
have

(4.18)
The gage factor F is defined by
 (4.19)

So that

(4.20)

We may thus express the local strain in terms of the gage factor, the resistance of the gage, and the
change in resistance with the strain:

(4.21)
The value of the gage factor and the resistance are usually specified by the manufacturer so that
the user only needs to measure the value of ∆R in order to determine the local strain. For most
gages the value of F is constant over a rather wide range of strains. It is worthwhile, however, to
examine the influence of various physical properties of the resistance material on the value of F.
If the resistivity of the material does not vary with the strain, we have from Eq. (4.20)

(4.22)

Taking a typical value of μ as 0.3, we would obtain F =1.6. In this case the change in resistance of
the material results solely from the change in physical dimensions. If the resistivity decreases with
strain, the value of F will be less than 1.6. When the resistivity increases with strain, F will be
greater than 1.6. Gage factors for various materials have been observed from -140 to +175. If the
resistance material is strained to the point that it is operating in the plastic region, μ = 0.5 and the
resistivity remains essentially constant. Under these conditions the gage factor approaches a value
of 2. For most commercial strain gages the gage factor is the same for both compressive and tensile
strains. A high gage factor is desirable in practice because a larger change in resistance ∆R is
produced for a given strain input, thereby necessitating less sensitive readout circuitry.
Three common types of resistance strain gages are shown in Fig.10. The bonded-wire gage
employs wire sizes varying between 0.0005 and 0.001 in (12 and 25μm). The foil gage usually
employs a foil less than 0.001 in thick and is available in a wide variety of configurations which
may be adapted to different stress-measurement situations. Because of this flexibility, it is the most
commonly used gage.

Figure 10 Three types of resistance strain gages. (a) Wire gage; (b) foil gage; (c) semiconductor gage.
The semiconductor gage employs a silicon base material that is strain-sensitive and has the
advantage that very large values of F may be obtained (F ∼100). The material is usually produced
in brittle wafers having a thickness of about 0.01 in (0.25 mm). Semiconductor gages also have
very high temperature coefficients of resistance.
Wire and foil gages may be manufactured in various ways, but the important point is that the
resistance element must be securely bonded to its mounting. It is essential that the bond between
the resistance element and the cement joining it to the work piece be stronger than the resistance
wire itself. In this way the strength of the resistance element is the smaller, and hence the
deformation of the entire gage is governed by the deformation of the resistance element. Most wire
strain gages employ either a nitrocellulose cement or a phenolic resin for the bonding agent with
a thin paper backing to maintain the wire configuration. Such gages may be used up to 1500C
(3000F). A Bakelite mounting is usually employed for temperatures up to 2600C (5000F). Foil
gages are manufactured by an etching process similar to that used with printed circuit boards and
use base materials of paper, Bakelite, and epoxy film. Epoxy cements are also employed for both
wire and foil gages.
When strain gages are mounted on a specimen, two notes of caution should be observed: (1) The
surface must be absolutely clean. Cleaning with an emery cloth followed by acetone is usually
satisfactory. (2) Sufficient time must be allowed for the cement to dry and harden completely.
Even though the cement is dry around the edge of the gage, it may still be wet under the gage. If
possible, 24 h should be allowed for drying at room temperature. Drying time may be reduced for
higher temperatures.
For low-temperature applications (−100 to +1000C) Duco cement (nitrocellulose) is normally
employed with paper-covered gages and Eastman 910 (cyanoacrylate) with foil gages mounted on
epoxy. Problems associated with strain-gage installations generally fall into three categories: (1)
temperature effects, (2) moisture effects, and (3) wiring problems. It is assumed that the gage is
properly mounted. Temperature problems arise because of differential thermal expansion between
the resistance element and the material to which it is bonded. Semiconductor gages offer the
advantage that they have a lower expansion coefficient than either wire or foil gages. In addition
to the expansion problem, there is a change in resistance of the gage with temperature, which must
be adequately compensated for. Moisture absorption by the paper and cement can change the
electrical resistance between the gage and the ground potential and thus affect the output-resistance
readings. Wiring problems are those situations that arise because of faulty connections between
the gage-resistance element and the external readout circuit. These problems may develop from
poorly soldered connections or from inflexible wiring, which may pull the gage loose from the test
specimen or break the gage altogether. Electrical-resistance strain gages cannot be easily calibrated
because once they are attached to a calibration work piece, removal cannot be made without
destroying the gage. In practice, then, the gage factor is taken as the value specified by the
manufacturer and a semi calibration effected by checking the bridge measurement and readout
system. Excellent technical manuals are available from manufacturers like Balwin-Lima Hamilton,
Micro-Measurements Group, and Omega Engineering.
Fig.11 Installation of strain gages