FLOW ASSURANCE IN SUBSEA PRODUCTION

PIPLINES

October, 2019

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 ABSTRACT

Flow assurance technology has come to have its unlimited foothold in the operations of
offshore and onshore petroleum production pipelines owing to the tendencies of formation of
hydrates, wax, asphaltenes and scales resulting in high-risk and uneconomical operations which
are not acceptable. Methods are developed to proffer lasting and viable solutions to these
problems resulting in time-saving, profitable and economical adventures. In this paper, a
detailed review of the flow assurance scheme; its efficient methods in handling solid deposits
and simulation using ASPEN Hysys was reported. At the Wellhead platform crude comes out
from the reservoir at a very high temperature and pressure which goes through a subsea pipeline
(Mild steel) with 157.4 mm ID, 171.4 mm OD and 152.4 mm nominal diameter having a length
of 3990 km at elevation of 2 m and 100 cells. Graphical analysis showed that the increase in
pressure corresponds with a substantial increase in temperature. Therefore, the hydrate
formation range lies in the region lower than 10 degrees Fahrenheit and at a high temperature.
Flow assurance is very wide, encompassing many discrete and specialized fields of engineering
disciplines.

Keywords: Flow assurance, Hysys, production pipelines, solid deposits, temperature, pressure

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Acknowledgement ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. v
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS ........................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of Study ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1.1 Case Study .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Flow Assurance Challenges .............................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Aims and Objectives of The Project ........................................................................................... 4
1.4 Scope of Work ............................................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 5
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Mechanisms for Solid Depositions ............................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Solubility Effect ......................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1.1 Factors Affecting Solubility ............................................................................................ 5
2.2.2 Colloidal Effect ................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.3 Aggregation Effect .............................................................................................................. 7
2.2.4 Electro Kinetic Effect.......................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Reasons/ Justification for Project ................................................................................................ 9
2.4 Component and System Design Consideration ............................................................................... 11
2.5 Multiphase Flow Considerations .............................................................................................. 11
2.6 Technology Development ......................................................................................................... 11
2.7 Factors That Influence Flow Assurance.................................................................................... 12
2.8 Types of Solid Deposition .............................................................................................................. 12
2.8.1 Hydrates Formation........................................................................................................... 12
2.8.2 Wax Formation ................................................................................................................. 21
2.8.3 Scales Formation ............................................................................................................... 23
2.8.4 Asphaltene Deposition ............................................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS AND MATERIAL .......................................................................... 27

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3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Method Selection and Description ............................................................................................ 27
3.3 Cold Flow Technology.............................................................................................................. 29
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS/DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 33
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION ............................................................... 42
5.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 42
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................ 42
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 44
APPENDICES ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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 LIST OF TABLES
S/N TABLES PAGE
2.1 Typical Natural Gas Components 14
2.2 The Three Common Hydrates Unit Crystal Structures. 17
4.1 Molecular Composition of a Produced Well 33
4.2 A Hydrate Curve Table of Pressure and Temperature 34
4.3 Compressible fluid pipeline conditions 36
4.4 Compressible fluid pipeline composition 36
4.5 Compressible Feedstock Conditions 37
4.6 FPSO Fluid Conditions 37
4.7 A Simulated Worksheet for the CFP 39
4.8 K-Values of the Fluid 42

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 LIST OF FIGURES
S/N FIGURES PAGE
1.1 Flow Assurance Challenges 3
2.1 Peptization of Asphaltene 7
2.2 The Irreversible Aggregate of Asphaltenes 8
2.3 Electro Kinetic Deposition in an Isothermal-Single Phase Pipeline Flow 9
2.4 Full Scope of Flow Assurance 10
2.5 Flow Assurance Matters for Subsea Tieback Systems 10
2.6 Natural Gas Typical Molecule: Models of Molecules of Oxygen (O2),
Water (H2O), Methane (CH4) And Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 13
2.7 Hydrate Plug Removed from a Gas Pipeline 15
2.8 Host Molecules (Water) and Guests (GAS), 15
2.9 Schematics of Structure I, II, AND H Gas Hydrates 16
2.10 Hydrate Formation Conditions Combination 17
2.11 Phase Diagram Showing Typical Pressures and Temperatures for Solid
Formation 18
2.12 Conceptual Representation of Hydrate Formation in An Oil-dominated System 19
2.13 Agglomeration of Water Droplets After Hydrate Initiation 19
2.14 Hydrate Covered with Water Droplet Inside Larger Water Lumps 19
2.15 Conversion of Water to Hydrate by Water Transport to Surface of Large Lumps 20
2.16 Break-Up of Large Hydrate Lumps 20
2.17 A Water Droplet & A Dry Hydrate Particle 20
2.18 Wax Deposit in Pipeline 21
2.19 Wax Precipitation Curve 22
2.20 Scale Deposition in Pipeline 23
2.21 Asphaltenes Deposition in Pipe 25
3.1 Flowchart for Flow Assurance Methodology 28
3.2 Principle of Cold Flow Technology 30
3.3 Some Cold Flow Components 31
4.1 The Main Flowsheet 33
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4.2 A Graph of Pressure (Psia) Against Temperature (Degree F) 35
4.3 Dynamic Specifications of the Wellhead Platform 38
4.4 Rating and Overall Dimensions of the pipeline 38
4.5 Performance Profile 39
4.6 Stratified Vapour-Liquid Flow 40
4.7 Pipe Sizing 40
4.8 Performance Envelope; A Graph of Pressure (kPa) Against Temperature
(Degree C) 41

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS
SYMBOLS MEANING UNIT
P Pressure psia

P Pressure difference psia

R Universal Gas Constant J/mol (oR)
o
T Temperature F, oR
V Volume ft3
Vi initial Volume ft3
Vi,aq initial Volume of aqueous solution ft3

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACRONYMS FULL MEANING
B.C. Before Christ
B.p British petroleum
CFT Cold flow technology
DEHS Di-Ethyl-Hexyl-Sebacat
LDHIs Low Dosage Hydrate Inhibitors
MEG Mono-ethylene-glycol
MSL Mean Sea Level
NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology
OPL Open Publication License
SSBI Subsea Separation, Boosting & Injection
TLP Tension Leg Platform

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Flow assurance, by definition, focuses on the whole engineering and product life cycle from
the reservoir through refining, to ensure with high confidence that the reservoir fluids can be
moved from the reservoir to the refinery smoothly and without interruption.
With the upsurge in demand for energy, the oil industry probe into a more stimulating and more
tasking environment (Offshore and Ultra-deep water), due to the declining conventional
onshore and shallow water sources of hydrocarbon. Offshore and Ultra deep-water exploration
and production is now going from deep water (3000ft to 6000ft) towards Ultra-deep water
(6000ft to 10000ft), Bell et al.2005. The Subsea environment which involves low temperature,
as well as high pressures, high water cuts and longer transfer times, provide conditions that are
ideal for hydrates and wax formation, and other solid deposits. These are the fundamental
impediments to the production of oil and gas through long-distance subsea pipelines, especially
at shut down and restart situations. Though the existing subsea processing and transportation
facilities enable this exploitation, adequate flow assurance is needed. Some sectors of the oil
and gas industry may believe the transport of single-phase natural gas using long-distance deep-
water pipelines is a straightforward process, compared with operating multiphase pipelines or
production flow lines. Yet, even in these single-phase deep-water lines, significant challenges
exist to ensure gas remains single-phase and hydrate-free.
Besides, flow assurance of the produced hydrocarbon stream is a critical technical concern that
focuses on the design of safe and secure operation techniques for the uninterrupted transport of
reservoir fluids from the reservoir to the point of sale. The formation of solid deposits of gas
hydrates, waxes, asphaltenes, and scale that plug the pipelines represents one of the
principal problems in flow assurance. Due to the rapid formation of hydrates, they are
considered by far the most serious and common problem in flow assurance in the case of deep
subsea transportation compared to other solid deposits. (Sloan, 2005).
The flow assurance concept is used to describe the phenomena of precipitation and deposition
of solids (Multiphase flow) in flow lines and pipelines. It refers to monitoring the effective and
efficient flow of hydrocarbon stream from the wellhead to the end point. Flow assurance is the
most critical task during deepwater energy production because of the high pressures and low
temperatures (4 degrees Celsius) involved (Shuqiang, 2008). This includes thermal check-up
of pipeline, making sure the temperature is above the hydrate formation temperature and also
offers technical solutions at reasonable costs without risk to installations, operators and the
environment. Pipeline, among other means of transporting oil and gas guarantees delivery from
the wellhead to the processing plants and from there to the consumers. Subsea pipelines
represent at least 25% of the total project cost and it is one of the reasons for the flow assurance
studies (Nava et al. 2011). To ensure flow assurance in relatively short pipeline length (For
example, 5-10km), both insulation and electric heating can be used. When the pipeline length
is medium (10-100km), antifreeze chemical can be injected to prevent gas hydrate formation
and fine (specialized) chemicals can be injected to prevent paraffin wax formation, or rather,
keeping wax particles from agglomerating. However, for long pipeline length (100-200km),
the same chemical can be used, but considerable volumes of antifreeze need to be used,
resulting in large increases in both Capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operating expenditure
(OPEX). Specialized chemicals (additives) are also expensive and may pose an environmental
problem at the receiving end of a subsea pipeline (Landing site) (Gudmundsson 2012).

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1.1.1 Case Study
As reported by Stake (1994), a "case study" is not a method but a choice of objects to be studied.
It is the technique used in collecting data from the case which are the methods. Case study can
also be defined as an "empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within
its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not evident;
and in which multiple sources of evidence are used" (Yin 1989).
A case study can involve one or several cases and different levels of analysis. It is of advantage
because; different types of data collecting methods can be combined. These include methods
such as archives, interviews, surveys and observations (Yin 1989; Eisenhardt 1989).
In this work, major sources of information were archives and observations. Observation is what
a person notices as every day's life is revealed. However, it does not reveal what is going on
inside the observed people's minds. Hence, the observers can only come up with potential
solutions according to Dingwall (1997). On the other hand, archives provide a large amount of
background information that complements observations. The use of the internet (World Wide
Web) was the basic source for the archival investigations. The two methods were combined to
reduce the possibility of misinterpretations and to help validate the results. Observation has
been chosen as one of the data collection methods in this work because interviews with the
companies and industry people were not feasible for me with the limited time.
To understand the subject matter of this research, the research work was commenced by
studying the available literature particularly flow assurance, to broaden my knowledge on the
subject. Some questions were developed based on the description of the research work by the
supervisor that guided me during this research. As the work will be progressing, some
modifications to most of the questions will be made to direct one's thoughts to get better work
done.

1.2 Flow Assurance Challenges

This phrase "Garantia de Fluxo" was coined by Petro bras meaning "Guarantee the flow" in the
early 1990s (Trick 2005). Flow assurance deals with the risks and problems arising from the
challenging properties and behavior of the produced hydrocarbons, associated fluids, and
solids. It is an evaluation process that ensures that produced fluids from the wells are delivered
safely to its desired location. It is a structured engineering analysis process that utilizes the in-
depth knowledge of fluid properties and thermal-hydraulic analysis of the system to develop
strategies for control of solids such as hydrates, wax, asphaltenes and scale (Kaczmarski and
Lorimer 2001)
As discussed earlier, deep-water production environment and transportation through longer
tiebacks, pipelines and flow lines provides a condition that brought about flow assurance
challenges. These flow assurance challenges are illustrated in Fig 1.1 below:

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 Fig 1.1: Flow Assurance Challenges
The challenges posed in this environment can also be complicated due to the changes in the
prevailing conditions and production profiles over the field's life. It is also worthy to also note
that for effective subsea production, it is important to identify the potential for and quantify the
extent of any solid deposition in the system. It is difficult and costly to remove a plugin in a
pipeline especially in a subsea environment. As the industry is moving into the deep and ultra-
deep-water environment which is more remote, the need for technology that will enhance cost-
effective flow assurance becomes very imperative. This is so because the development of new
fields will demand long-distance tie backs to an existing infrastructure or onshore facility for
processing. Flow assurance challenges focus mainly on the prevention and control of solid
deposits that could potentially block the flow of product. The solids of concern generally are
hydrates, wax, asphaltenes, and scales, sometimes sand are also included. For a given
hydrocarbon fluid, these solids appear at certain combinations of pressure and temperature and
deposit on the walls of the production equipment and flow lines.
It is difficult and costly to remove a plugin in a pipeline especially in a subsea environment.
As the industry is moving into the deep and ultra-deepwater environment which is more remote,
the need fora technology that will enhance cost-effective flow assurance becomes very
imperative. This is so because the development of new fields will demand long-distance
tiebacks to an existing infrastructure or onshore facility for processing.
The present solutions used today are losing their value particularly when it comes to long-
distance step out. A potentially emerging technology (cold flow technology) with a high-value
proposition would provide a subsea field development concept for hydrocarbon transportation
in a bare steel pipeline over long distances. Thus, an increase in oil field developments will be
enhanced.
In the next chapter, some flow assurance challenges such as hydrates and wax formation and
deposition on the subsea pipeline will be discussed. Asphaltenes and scales deposition
problems will also be presented briefly only in this section, but will not be considered as major
problem in further studies in this work.

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The solids control strategies used for hydrates, wax, and asphaltenes include the following:

• Thermodynamic control: This involves keeping the pressure and temperature of the
entire system out of a region or regions where the solids may form.
• Kinetic control: This involves controlling the conditions under which solids form so
that deposits do not form.
• Mechanical control: This involves allowing solids to deposit, but periodically
removing them by pigging.
The last control strategy mentioned, Mechanical control is widely used in the oil and gas
industry today, as pigging is now regarded as a foremost method for removing deposits in
pipelines in both onshore and offshore locations.

1.3 Aims and Objectives of The Project

The Focus of the research project is to study the major flow assurance problems in subsea
production pipelines; the effects of these problems in subsea pipelines, explore the new Cold
flow technology as a means of tackling these flow assurance problems.

1.4 Scope of Work

The scope of this work is limited to the simulation of flow in the production pipeline using
ASPEN Hysys.

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 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
As discussed earlier, flow assurance is an engineering analysis process that is used to ensure
that hydrocarbon fluids are transmitted economically from the reservoir to the end-user over
the life of a project in any environment. With flow assurance, our knowledge of fluid properties
and thermal-hydraulic analyses of a system are utilized to develop strategies for controlling
solids such as hydrates, wax, asphaltenes, and scale from the system. The term Flow assurance
was first used by Petrobras in the early 1990s; it originally referred to only the thermal-
hydraulics and production chemistry issues encountered during oil and gas production.
Although the term is relatively new, the problems related to flow assurance have been a critical
issue in the oil and gas industry from the very early days. Hydrates were observed to cause
blockages in gas pipelines as early as the 1930s and were solved with chemical inhibition using
methanol.

2.2 Mechanisms for Solid Depositions

There are four (4) mechanisms used to describe organic deposition that may occur during oil
production, transportation or processing. They are:

• Solubility effect
• Colloidal effect
• Aggregation effect
• Electro-kinetic effect
2.2.1 Solubility Effect
By definition, Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called
solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent to form a homogeneous solution of the
solute in the solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and
chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure and the pH of
the solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the
saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the
solution and begin to precipitate the excess amount of the solute. The extent of solubility ranges
widely, from infinitely soluble (without limit) such as silver chloride in water. Solubility is not
to be confused with the ability to dissolve or liquefy a substance, because the solution might
occur not only because of dissolution but also because of a chemical reaction.
2.1.1.1 Factors Affecting Solubility
Solubility is defined for specific phases. The solubility of one substance in another is
determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and solute and the
entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will
alter this balance, thus changing the solubility. Solubility may also strongly depend on the
presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example, complex-forming anions
(ligands) in liquids. Solubility will also depend on the excess or deficiency of a common ion in
the solution, a phenomenon known as the common-ion effect. The factors affecting solubility
are:

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 • Temperature
The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent typically depends on temperature. For many
solids dissolved in liquid water, the solubility increases with temperature up to 100 degrees
Celsius. In liquid water, at high temperatures, the solubility of ionic solutes tends to decrease
due to the change of properties and structure of liquid water, the lower dielectric constant
results in a less polar solvent. Solubility increases with temperature. It is the case for most of
the solvents. The situation is though different for gases. With the increase of the temperature,
they became less soluble in each other and water, but more soluble in organic solvents.

• Pressure
For condensed phases (solids and liquids), the pressure dependence of solubility is typically
weak and usually neglected in practice. Assuming an ideal solution, the dependence can be
quantified as:

The pressure dependence of solubility does occasionally have practical significance. For
example, precipitation fouling of oil fields and wells by calcium sulfate (which decreases its
solubility with decreasing pressure) can result in decreased productivity with time.

2.2.2 Colloidal Effect

A colloid is a substance in which microscopically dispersed insoluble particles are suspended

throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid.
A colloid contains particles of solid or liquid, or, bubbles of gas while these particles are
suspended within a solid, liquid or gas, except for gas colloid bubbles being suspended in a gas
which is not possible. Colloids are either colored or translucent due to light reflecting on the
particles within them. Some examples of colloids include pumice, gelatine, smoke, dust, and
milk of magnesia. The term colloidal suspension is referring to a substance that has a solid
permanently suspended in a liquid.

To determine if a substance is a colloid or merely a solution you can check for the Brownian
movement, the constant motion of particles in solutions and colloids. This movement and its
constancy are true of both substances yet if the substance is a colloid the particles will resist
settling to the bottom. The particles in a colloidal suspension are a certain size which will
typically be from ten to ten thousand angstroms. Another characteristic of the colloid is that
the particles within its composition are not easily filtered or taken from the solution by any
normal means. Colloidal Solutions are heterogeneous mixes that have particles between the
size of a true solution and a suspension. Things that create smoke make a colloidal solution
that consists of solid particles that float in the air. Colloidal particles will pass through a filter
paper but not through a parchment paper or the membrane of an animal. Near in structure
solutions such as true solutions and suspensions can be confused with colloidal solutions. That
is why it is important to understand the differences between these various substances. Just
before the colloidal solution true solution exists. True solutions are homogeneous, true
solutions have no Tyndall effect, true solutions have particles that are not visible by the naked
human eye and the particles within a true solution can pass through filter paper. The Tyndall

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effect is the occurrence of light scattering within a solution. Colloidal solutions exhibit this
effect. After colloidal solutions you have suspensions. Suspensions cannot pass through any
papers or filters and possibly display a Tyndall effect, yet maybe void of it. A suspension is
also opaque in color and it is heterogeneous. The term heterogeneous, as in the colloidal
solutions, means that the substance or parts of it are not uniform while when something is
homogenous it is uniformly structured. Some of the heavy organics (specially asphaltenes) will
separate from the oil phase into an aggregate (large particles) and then will remain suspended
in oil by some peptizing agents, like resins, which will be absorbed on the surface and keeping
them afloat as demonstrated in figure below.

Fig 2.1: Peptization of Asphaltene

Stability of such steric colloids is considered to be a function of the concentration of the

peptizing agent in the solution, the fraction of heavy organic particle surface sites occupied by
the peptizing agent, and the equilibrium conditions between the peptizing agent in solution and
on the surface of heavy organic particles. The amount of peptizing agent adsorbed is primarily
a function of its concentration in the oil. A concentration variation of a peptizing agent (such
as resins) in oil will cause its adsorbed amount on the surface of heavy organic particles to
change. Migration of peptizing molecules (shown by arrows) from the surface of heavy organic
particles could take place due to the change in their chemical-potential-balance between the
bulk oil phase and the surface phase as shown in Figure 2.1.

2.2.3 Aggregation Effect

The peptizing agent concentration in oil may drop to a point at which its adsorbed amount
would not be high enough to cover the entire surface of heavy organic particles. This causes
the potential for aggregation of heavy organic particles due to the development of free active
sites on their surfaces, and their eventual flocculation. This may then permit the heavy organic
particles to come together (irreversible aggregation), grow in size, and flocculate. The nature
and shape of the resulting aggregates will determine their effect on the behavior of petroleum
fluids. Various aggregating macromolecules follow different aggregation patterns. For
example, the irreversible aggregate of asphaltenes is considered to follow an aggregation
growth shown in figure 2.2 below which is proven to be fractal.

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 Fig 2.2: The Irreversible Aggregate of Asphaltenes
According to the above mechanism, at a critical concentration (Onset of flocculation point),
asphaltenes is depleted from the crude oil phase after an asphaltenes particle collision which
gives rise to a chemical potential gradient with respect to the bulk oil phase. Then, flocculation
starts taking place and the growth of the flocs exhibit characteristics of a fractal-based structure
above a certain floc volume fraction.
2.2.4 Electro Kinetic Effect
This effect takes place due to the development of electrical potential difference along the
conduit due to the motion of charged particles. Electro kinetic phenomena are a family of
several different effects that occur in heterogeneous fluids or in porous bodies filled with fluid,
or in a fast flow over a flat surface. The term heterogeneous is referred to as a fluid containing
particles. There is a common source of all these effects, and it is referred to as the Interfacial
double layer of charges. Influence of an external force on the diffuse layer generates tangential
motion of a fluid with respect to an adjacent charged surface. This force might be electric,
pressure gradient, concentration gradient, or gravity. In addition, the moving phase might be
either continuous fluid or dispersed phase. Various combinations of the driving force and
moving phase determine various electro kinetic effects. Lyklema, (2000) reported the whole
family of electro kinetic phenomena which includes:

• Electrophoresis: as motion of particles under the influence of electric field

• Electro-osmosis: as motion of liquid in porous body under influence of electric
field.
• Diffusiophoresis: as motion of particles under the influence of a chemical potential
gradient.
• Capillary Osmosis: as motion of liquid in porous body under the influence if a
chemical potential gradient.
• Sedimentation potential: as electric field generated by sedimenting colloid
particles.
• Steaming potential/current: as either electric potential or current generated by
fluid moving through porous body, or relative to flat surface.
• Colloid Vibration current: as electric current generated by particles moving in
fluid under the influence of ultrasound.
• Electric sonic amplitude: as ultrasound generated by colloidal particles in
oscillating electric field.
When a crude oil is flowing in a conduit (porous media, well, pipeline, etc.) there is an
additional effect (electro kinetic effect) to be considered in the behaviour of its heavy organic
constituents. This is because of the development of electrical potential difference along the
conduit due to the motion of charged particles. This electrical potential difference could then
cause a change in charges of the colloidal particles further down in the pipe, the ultimate result
of which is their untimely deposition and plugging of the conduit as shown by Figure 2.3. The
factors influencing this effect are the electrical and thermal characteristics of the conduit, flow

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regime, flowing oil properties, characteristics of the polar heavy organics and colloidal
particles, and blending of the oil.

Fig 2.3: Electro Kinetic Deposition in an Isothermal-Single Phase Pipeline Flow

2.3 Reasons/ Justification for Project

Petroleum contains a variety of light and heavy hydrocarbons wherein the lighter components
keep the heavier components in solution. However, when temperature and pressure drop or the
composition of the solution is changed, the solubility of the heavy components is reduced,
thereby causing solid deposition. Flow assurance is defined as the capacity to economically
produce petroleum fluids from the reservoir to designed production facilities over the life of
the reservoir in any environment. The information which would be obtained from the analysis
and modeling of fluid behavior serves as a basis for developing an overall product strategy to
minimize the risk towards heavy solid formation and deposition.

One question of maximum interest to the oil industry is “when and how many heavy solids will
flocculate out and deposit under certain conditions?". When such blockages occur, they are
costly because they interrupt production and often lead to expensive remedial operations to
clear the lines. To optimize returns on investment, Oil and gas operators must identify and
manage any changes that might affect reservoir fluids as they move through the production
system to the process facilities. Some of these changes are counter-intuitive and are recognized
only through analysis of the reservoir fluid samples and modeling of fluid behaviors between
the reservoir and the process facility. Flow assurance, by definition, focuses on the whole
engineering and product life cycle from the reservoir through refining, to ensure with high
confidence that the reservoir fluids can be moved from the reservoir to the refinery smoothly
and without interruption. The full scope of flow assurance is shown in Fig. 2.4. Flow assurance
matters specific to subsea tieback systems are shown in Fig. 2.5. Flow assurance is sometimes
referred to as “cash assurance” because breakdown in flow assurance anywhere in the entire
cycle would be expected to lead to monetary losses. A few specific flow assurance issues are
discussed next.

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 Fig. 2.4: Full Scope of Flow Assurance (Courtesy of MSL Engineering)

Fig. 2.5: Flow Assurance Matters for Subsea Tieback Systems (Courtesy of Bp)

Pressure Support Consideration

Sufficient pressure must be available to transport the hydrocarbons at the required flow rates
from the reservoir to the processing unit. Matters that require consideration in this regard
include:

• Pressure loss in flow lines

• Separator pressure setpoint

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 • Pressure loss in wells
• Artificial lift method selection
• Remote multiphase boosting
• Drag reduction
• Slugging in horizontal wells
• Gas lift system stability
• Interaction with reservoir performance

2.4 Component and System Design Consideration

Components and systems should be designed and operated to ensure that flow rate targets are
achieved and that flow is continuous. Issues to be taken into account include:

• Hydrate formation
• Wax deposition
• Asphaltenes
• Sand and solids transport
• Corrosion
• Erosion
• Scale deposition
• Interaction of slugging and pipe fittings
• Interaction of slugging and risers
• Relief and blow-down
• Pigging
• Liquid inventory management
• Well shut-in pressure

2.5 Multiphase Flow Considerations

For multiphase flow lines, the process must be able to handle the fluid delivery, and
consideration should be given to several issues including

• Interaction with facilities performance

• Slugging (steady-state)
• Slugging (transient)
• Slug-catcher design
• Severe slugging prevention
• Effect of flow rate change
• Temperature loss prediction
• Piping layout
• Remote multiphase metering
• Gas and dense phase export
• Oil and condensate export
• Separator performance

2.6 Technology Development

The need for well testing and overall production system optimization contributes to flow
assurance issues. Significant advances have been made in this field. Flow assurance will

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continue to remain critical technology as deep-water developments progress and as longer
tiebacks from subsea wellhead systems are considered.

Flow assurance is more than just a crucial component of the oil and gas industry, it is absolutely
an integral and key component and, if compromised, can wreck productivity and cost millions
of dollars. Expert flow assurance gets the job done flawlessly and on schedule, ensuring
projects move forward as planned, with no loss to time and budget.

2.7 Factors That Influence Flow Assurance

As the name suggests, flow assurance concentrates on moving oil and gas from the drilling site
to its final destination. This may not always involve a pipeline, but it is an incredibly common
element of guaranteeing the best possible transportation. No matter the technologies utilized,
however, optimum flow assurance involves complex interplay and cooperation between
different design and engineering disciplines. Numerous factors ultimately influence flow
assurance, including, but not limited to, the following:

• Location of the pipeline (onshore or offshore)

• Wellhead and environmental pressure
• Facilities
• Properties of the oil and gas being transported
• Temperature inside and outside the containment unit
• Fluid dynamics

One of the most common disruptions to flow assurance occurs when too many disparate solids
build-up and obstruct, if not outright block, movement. Expert engineers understand how the
different substances attract and repel one another, and adjust their flow assurance protocol to
avoid negative repercussions.

2.8 Types of Solid Deposition

There are four (4) different types of solid deposits namely:

• Hydrates Formation
• Wax Formation
• Scales Formation
• Asphaltene Formation

2.8.1 Hydrates Formation

2.8.1.1 The Gas Hydrate Problem
This section will look at the history of Natural gas briefly, the components of natural gas, a
brief history of natural gas hydrates, the structure of gas hydrates, and the conditions that are
necessary for hydrates formation as well as hydrate formation and growth in pipeline.

2.8.1.2 Brief History of Natural Gas

The history of natural gas can be traced back to the ancient Mesopotamia, or the cradle of
civilization that is known today as the Middle East. Natural gas has been observed since ancient
times (Ingersoll 1996). However, it was until a few centuries ago that countries such as Great

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Britain, China, and the USA, among others, started using natural gas as a means of
supplementing their need for energy (Mokhatab et al., 2006). Moreover, the construction of a
sustainable gas infrastructure, including storage, pre-processing and transport facilities allows
natural gas to become commercially available throughout the world (Sanchez 2010).
According to Mokhatab et al. (2006), the Chinese drilled the first known natural gas well in
211 B.C. A few centuries later (around 500 B.C.), they employed crude bamboos as a means
to transport natural gas. In Europe, even though the British discovered natural gas in the middle
of the 17th century, it was until the late 18th century (around 1785) that they started trading
natural gas obtained from coal seams for lighting of houses and streets (Rojey et al. 1994).
An intriguing factor that caused a faster expansion of the use of natural gas around the world
in the last decade of the 19th century was the fact that many cities began replacing their gas
lamps with electric lamps. Thus, the gas industry was required to look for new markets, perhaps
far away from their usual customers (Sanchez, 2010).
Natural gas had been extinguished by electricity. However, at that time the real problem was
certainly the lack of a pipeline infrastructure to transport and distribute natural gas, as well as
the lack of facilities to store it (Chapoy, 2004).

2.8.1.3 Typical Components of Natural Gas

Natural gas is a non-renewable resource that is expected to be widely expanded in the decades
to come. It is considered a very safe energy source when transported, stored and used. It is a
mixture consisting mainly (70-95%) of methane (CH4, a covalent bond composed of one
carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms), as shown in Figure 2. It also contains other gaseous
hydrocarbons such as ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), normal butane (n-C4H10), isobutane
(i-C4H10), and pentane (C5H12), among other higher molecular weight hydrocarbons
(Sanchez 2010).

Fig 2.6: Natural Gas Typical Molecule: Models of Molecules of Oxygen (O2), Water (H2O),
Methane (CH4) And Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (Sanchez, 2010)

Natural gas also contains impurities or contaminants that have to be removed before it can be
used as a consumer fuel after its extraction from the reservoir. These impurities include acid
gases, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), mercaptans (methanethiol –
CH3SH, and ethanethiol–C2H5SH), nitrogen (N2), helium (He), and water vapor (H2O).
Sometimes, mercaptans are kept or added for safety reasons (Sanchez, 2010). However, a
typical composition of natural gas is given in Table 2.1.

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 Table 2.1: Typical Natural Gas Components, (Chapoy, 2004).

Hydrocarbons Non –
Hydrocarbons
Components Mole % Components Mole %
Methane 70 - 98 nitrogen Trace - 15
Ethane 1 -10 Carbon dioxide Trace – 20
Propane Trace – 5 Hydrogen sulphide Trace – 20
Butane Trace – 2 Helium Up to 5 (non
usually)
Pentane Trace – 1
Hexane Trace - 0.5

In the reservoir, oil and natural gas normally coexist with water. Water comes as the wetted
phase and from the sub-adjacent aquifer. The presence of water also causes crystallization of
salts after hydration due to salt concentration increase (when water is consumed).
Furthermore, when gas is produced offshore, the separation of liquid fractions and the removal
of water are not always carried out before the production stream is sent into pipelines.
Consequently, the unprocessed hydrocarbon stream coming from a production field can contain
water and light hydrocarbon molecules (methane, ethane, propane and other components).
Given the correct temperature and pressure conditions, (particularly large temperature
gradients which lead to higher pressure), these can lead to hydrate formation during transport
through pipelines. The next section will briefly delve into the history of natural gas hydrates.

2.8.1.4 History of Natural Gas Hydrate

Gas hydrates were first identified in 1810 by Sir Humphrey Davy and their composition
established by Faraday, Koh (2002). They are crystalline compounds formed by the chemical
combination of natural gas and water under pressure and temperature considerably above the
freezing point of water (Sloan, 1998). Hammer Schmidt, in 1934 determined that the plugging
of natural gas pipelines was not due to ice formation but to the formation of clathrate hydrates
of natural gas (Gaillard et al., 1999). They had it that, this discovery was the determining factor
in causing a more pragmatic interest from oil and gas companies.
The first algorithm to calculate the amount of methanol necessary to prevent or inhibit a stable
hydrate formation was presented by Hammer Schmidt in 1939. In 1965, Makogon discovered
natural gas hydrates as an energy source (Makogon, 1997). Hydrates, having been recognized
as a possible source of highly undesirably costs arising from the operational problems caused
in technical applications, has turned from a mere curiosity into a real troublemaker in the
natural gas industry. From here, there was an urgent need to go into systematic research
activities to understand the conditions: pressure, temperature, gas compositions, under which
natural gas hydrates form (Oellrich, 2004). As said earlier, natural gas hydrates in oil and gas
pipelines may block the pipelines, facilities, and instruments. These can cause flow and
pressure monitoring errors, reducing gas transportation volume, increasing pipeline pressure
differences and damaging pipe fittings. The nature of a hydrate plug removed from a subsea
pipeline is as shown in Figure 2.7.

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 Fig 2.7: Hydrate Plug Removed from a Gas Pipeline (Zarinabadi and Samimi, 2011)

2.8.1.5 Structure of Natural Gas Hydrates

Hydrates are solid crystalline compounds, which have a structure wherein guest molecules are
entrapped in a cage-like framework of the host molecule without forming a chemical bond.
Thus, hydrates form as a result of a hydrogen bond with water. The hydrogen bond causes the
water molecules to align in regular orientations. The presence of certain compounds causes the
aligned molecules to stabilize, and solid mixture precipitates. The water molecules are referred
to as the host molecules, and the other compounds, which stabilize the crystal, are called the
guest molecules. The hydrate crystals have complex, three-dimensional structures in which the
water molecules form a cage and the guest molecules are entrapped in the cages.
The structures of the crystals fall into the class of clathrates with the water molecules forming
a hydrogen-bonded cage-like structure which is stabilized by ‘guest' molecules located within
the lattice, Makogon (1997) and Sloan (1998). Gas hydrates which are crystalline ice-like solids
are formed from water and a range of lower molecular weight molecules, typically methane,
ethane, and propane. The water molecules are referred to as the ‘host molecules' and the other
compounds which stabilize the crystal are called the ‘guest molecules’. The hydrate crystals
have complex, three-dimensional structures in which the water molecules form a cage and the
guest molecules are entrapped in the cages as shown in Figure 2.8.

Fig 2.8: Host Molecules (Water) and Guests (GAS), (Zarinabadi and Samimi, 2011)

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There are three known hydrate structures referred to as structures I, II and H (abbreviated as
sI, sII and sH) as contained in Pickering et al., 2001.

The schematics of the three different structures are presented in Figure 2.9.

Fig 2.9: Schematics of Structure I, II, AND H Gas Hydrates (Feesa, 2011)

Structure I hydrates contain 46 water molecules per 8 gas molecules giving a hydrate number
of 5.75. The water molecules form two small dodecahedral voids and six large tetra-decahedral
voids. The sizes of the voids are relatively small meaning that the guest molecules are restricted
in size to essentially methane and ethane (Pickering et al., 2001).
Structure II hydrates contain 136 water molecules per 24 gas molecules giving a hydrate
number of 5.67. The water molecules form 16 small dodecahedral voids and 8 large
hexoctahedral voids. The larger voids can accommodate molecules including propane,
isobutane, cyclopentane, benzene, and others. However, while the larger cavities can
accommodate larger molecules, the structure is only stable if small ‘help' molecules are
available to fill the smaller lattice cavities (Pickering et al., 2001).
Structure H hydrates contain 34 water molecules for every 6 gas molecules giving a hydrate
number of 5.67. The structure has three cavity sizes with the largest cavity able to accommodate
larger molecules than both sI and sII. Once again, stability is only possible in the presence of
smaller ‘help' molecules such as methane or nitrogen (Pickering et al., 2001). Table 2.2 lists
the properties of the three common unit crystals.
These three structures commonly contain only one non-polar guest molecule within each cage.
The guest molecule size has to be big enough to be stabilized in the cavity, but not too big to
fill the cavity (Christiansen and Sloan, 1994). Therefore, under unusual conditions of very high
pressure, they can have multiple cage occupancy with unusually small guest molecules, for
example, hydrogen and noble gasses (Sloan, 2003).

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Table 2.2: The Three Common Hydrates Unit Crystal Structures. Nomenclature: 51264
indicate a water cage Composed of 12 Pentagonal and four Hexagonal Faces. The
Numbers in Squares Indicate the Number of Cage Types. For example, the Structure I
unit crystal is composed of two 512 cages, six 51262 Cages AND 46 WATER
MOLECULES. (SLOAN JR., 2003)
Hydrate crystal structure I II III

Cavity Small Large Small Large Small Medium Large

Description 512 51262 512 51262 512 435663 51262

Number of cavities per unit 2 6 16 8 3 2 1

cell
Average cavity radius (Å) 3.95 4.33 3.91 4.73 3.91 4.06 5.71

Coordination number 20 24 20 28 20 20 36

Number of waters per unit 46 136 34

cell

2.8.1.6 Conditions Necessary for Hydrates Formation

There are four major conditions necessary for hydrate formation (Zarinabadi and Samimi,
2011). These, as shown in Figure 2.10 include:
1. Water as the liquid phase condensing out of the hydrocarbon.
2. Hydrate formers. These are small gas molecules such as methane, ethane, and
propane (gas composition).
3. The right combination of low temperature and High pressure.
Hydrate formation is favoured by low temperatures and high pressures typically 20
°C and 100 bar.

High
Pressure

Water Hydrate Gas

Low
Tempe
rature

Fig 2.10: Hydrate Formation Conditions Combination (Anonymous)

Solids formation phase diagram in the pressure-temperature plane is as shown in Figure 2.10.
The right-hand region covers pressures and temperatures at which hydrates are
thermodynamically unstable and is, therefore ‘hydrate free' as indicated. On the left hand, the
temperatures and pressures favor hydrate formation. In the ‘hydrate region', the degree of

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subcooling is sufficient enough to promote hydrate formation spontaneously (Estefen et al.
2005).

Fig 2.11: Phase Diagram Showing Typical Pressures and Temperatures for Solid Formation
(Time 2011)
Gas hydrate forms in the water phase from gas molecules dissolved in that phase.
Consequently, H2S and CO2 increase the temperature at which hydrates will form since they
are more soluble in water than most hydrocarbons. Hydrate formation is enhanced during flow
particularly in turbulence producing conditions (for example; flow through orifice meters,
reduced port valves). However, hydrate also forms under static conditions.
Therefore, factors which contribute to the initiation of hydrate particles formation include:
• Degree of subcooling –hydrates may not begin to form immediately upon reaching the
hydrate point. As much as 5 °C to 10 °C of subcooling is needed to form the first seed crystals
of hydrates.
• Presence of artificial nucleation sites –This is a point where a phase transition is favored,
and in this case the formation of a solid from a fluid phase. Good nucleation sites for hydrate
formation include an imperfection in the pipeline, a weld spot, or a pipeline fitting (elbow, tee,
and valve). Scale and sand all make good nucleation sites as well.
• Degree of mixing – system geometry and flow regime. This is to say that hydrate formation
is favored in regions where the fluid velocity is high. This is because, there is high velocity
while natural gas is passing through the narrowing in the valve and mixing in a pipeline, process
vessel, and heat exchanger, enhances hydrate formation. There is also a high-temperature drop
when natural gas is choked through a valve due to the Joule-Thompson effect (CAPP, 2007
and Carroll, 2009).
Furthermore, once crystallization has begun, time is needed for the crystals to agglomerate
(clump) and block the flow (CAPP, 2007). In other words, hydrate formation is a transient
process. Also, the exact hydrate formation point depends on the composition of the fluids
involved; gas composition and water as well as brine composition. In Figure 2.12, the
conceptual representation of hydrate formation is shown schematically as temperature drops
along a pipeline with time in an oil dominated system. It starts with a shell and then grows up
to a hydrate plug (Sloan et al., 2009). Hydrate formation phenomenon in a pipeline will be
further discussed in the next sub-section.

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Fig 2.12: Conceptual Representation of Hydrate Formation in An Oil-dominated System
(Sloan et al., 2009)

HYDRATE FORMATION AND GROWTH IN PIPELINE

Hydrate formation begins when the temperature drops below a certain level and starts to
nucleate close to the hydrocarbon phase on a water droplet in gas, oil or condensate phases.
Along the surface of a droplet, hydrate will grow until it is completely covered with a thin
hydrate layer. Then, from the interior of the water droplet to the surface of the hydrophilic
hydrate, water will penetrate next to the hydrocarbon phase through micro-perforations or small
cracks in the hydrate film as shown in Figure 2.13. Hydrate formation rate will decrease with
the increase in the thickness of the hydrate layer, depending on the shear forces on the droplets
and the hydrate formation driving force, within a relatively short time (Larsen et al., 2003).

Fig 2.13: Agglomeration of Water Droplets After Hydrate Initiation (Larsen et al., 2003)

When the water droplets covered by a hydrate film hit the pipe or a reactor's wall in a turbulent
system, the impact created may create a large crack in the film. The sub-cooled water inside
the droplet will then drain out through these cracks, and spread on the dry hydrophilic hydrate
film, creating a sticky film. This can often result in hydrate deposition on the wall of a pipeline.
The water phase in turbulent liquid systems are often distributed in the hydrocarbon phase as
rough, unstable water-in-oil emulsions. As the surface tension of the droplets increases due to
the hydrate layer, the water droplets agglomerate to larger droplets to minimize surface area,
as shown in Figure 2.14.

Fig 2.14: Hydrate Covered with Water Droplet Inside Larger Water Lumps. The start of slush
like flow behaviour (Larsen et al., 2003)

The surface area and the volume of water lump will continuously change its form in a turbulent
liquid system. This will result in breaking down of the thin hydrate layer on the water lump,
giving new water-hydrocarbon interfaces where more hydrates form quickly. Also, the

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turbulent forces would as well create small hydrate covered with water droplets as shown in
Figure 2.15. These droplets will be absorbed in the water lumps giving a slush-like appearance
due to the hydrophilic nature of the hydrate surface.

Fig 2.15: Conversion of Water to Hydrate by Water Transport to Surface of Large Lumps
(Larsen, 2003)
Further growth and particle accumulation will cause the outer area of the lumps to stiffen.
When these lumps collide with one another and the walls of the pipe, free water from the lump
interior will spread out to the surface of the hydrate and will act as glue to enhance
agglomeration in further collisions. The hydrate layer covering lumps or plugs increases in
thickness until internal pressure gradients due to capillary forces and volume changes break it
down to smaller hydrate particles as shown in Figure 2.16 and Figure 2.17. This process
continues until the lumps have been broken down to a powder-like appearance, assuming that
the flow conditions can be maintained throughout the process. In reality, the pipeline will likely
be plugged before this stage is reached (Larsen et al. 2003).

Fig 2.16: Break-Up of Large Hydrate Lumps (Larsen et al., 2003)

Fig 2.17: A Water Droplet & A Dry Hydrate Particle. After wetting, the water layer is
converted to hydrates from the existing hydrate surface and outwards (Larsen et al., 2003)

FACTORS THAT FAVOUR HYDRATE FORMATION

• High fluid velocities
• Low temperature

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 • High Pressure
• Coexistence of water
• Natural gas components
• Agitations
• Pulsations (or any source of fluid turbulence)
• Presence of Carbon (IV) oxide and Hydrogen (II) oxide

NATURAL GAS HYDRATES STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Natural gas hydrates form in raw multiphase flow as a result of crystallization occurring around
the guest molecules at certain operating temperatures and pressure conditions. The most widely
observed guest molecules in natural gas mixture are methane, ethane, propane, i-butane, n-
butane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. However, among those, methane-based
natural gas hydrates occur the most naturally. The natural gas hydrates are composed of
approximately 85 mol% guest molecules; therefore, they have physical properties close to ice
and also crystalline in nature. The density of natural gas hydrates varies according to former
molecule(s) and the formation conditions, the natural gas hydrates are part of a larger family
of compounds called CLATHRATES, which are inorganic container compounds. Hydrates
are classified by the arrangement of the water molecules in the crystal structure. All common
natural gas hydrates belong to three crystal structures: cubic structure I (sI), cubic structure II
(sII), and hexagonal structure (sH) as shown in figure 5 above. Structure I is formed with guest
molecules having diameters between 4.2 and 6A, such as methane, ethane, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide. Nitrogen and small molecules including hydrogen (d < 4.2 Å) form structure
II as single guests. Larger (6 Å < d < 7 Å) single guest molecules such as propane or iso-butane
will form structure II. Still larger molecules (typically 7Å<d<9Å) such as iso-pentane or no
hexane (2, 2-dimethylbutane) can form structure H when accompanied by smaller molecules
such as methane, hydrogen sulfide, or nitrogen. The crystal structures of NGH consisting of
water molecules are hydrogen-bonded in a solid lattice. The interaction or degree of bonding
between individual water molecules and the guests is very weak, but the overall interaction of
the guests with the host structure can be quite strong.

2.8.2 Wax Formation

Waxes are a class of chemical compounds that are plastic (Malleable) near ambient
temperatures. They are also a type of lipid characteristically; they melt above 45 °C (113 °F)
to give a low viscosity liquid. Waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic, nonpolar
solvents. All waxes are organic compound, both synthetic and naturally occurring.

Fig 2.18: Wax Deposit in Pipeline

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Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons like paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics, and others. The
solubility of high molecular weight paraffins drops with decreasing temperature. If there are
more of these paraffins than can be dissolved, they are deposited as wax. The reservoir
temperature drops after production, once the crude oil leaves the reservoir and travels through
transportation pipelines, over time, the wax forms deposits that can build up within the pipeline.
Wax can completely plug the flow, causing significant production and economic loss.

WAX PRECIPITATION
As oil is cooled down through the production system, wax starts to precipitate as a solid phase
typically around 30 to 40 °C but maybe as high as 50 to 55 °C (Time 2011). The temperature
at which paraffin wax begins to precipitate is referred to as the Wax Appearance Temperature
(WAT) or cloud point. It is dependent on the wax content, the amount of solvents including
dissolved gases, and to a smaller extent on the pressure (Tordal, 2006). The precipitated wax
from a petroleum fluid consists primarily of normal paraffins, isoparaffins, and naphthenes,
while the aromatics do not precipitate (Ronningsen et al., 1991).
The WAT is a very important design parameter in field development, particularly in a subsea
environment. The solubility of wax is strongly dependent on temperature. Wax is dissolved in
most oil reservoirs and there may be exceptions like some very shallow reservoirs. For
example, in the Pechora Sea (Northern Russia) there are reservoir temperatures as low as 28 –
30 °C. On the other hand, such reservoirs often contain biodegraded oil with low wax content
(Tordal, 2006).
A typical wax precipitation curve shows the amount of paraffin wax precipitated from
condensate, as illustrated in Figure 2.19. It depends on the extent to which the paraffin wax
mixture is cooled down below the WAT. In crude oil and condensates, wax precipitation
depends on its solubility. The heaviest waxes are least soluble and they precipitate first and
upon further cooling, the lighter one’s precipitates.

Fig 2.19: Wax Precipitation Curve (INFOCHEM 2012)

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FACTORS THAT FAVOUR WAX FORMATION

• Composition of oil
• Temperature
• Velocity of fluid
• Pressure
2.8.3 Scales Formation
Scaling is the deposition of mineral salt on processing equipment and this occurs as a result of
the super-saturation of mineral ions in the process fluid. This supersaturation of ions is caused
by several factors. An important contributor is the production of high salt content water like
formation water from the well. This increases the ionic concentrations, possibly leading to the
deposition of scales. Preventive actions against hydrate formation and corrosion increase the
risk for scale deposition, and how scaling is affected by changes in physical variables such as
concentration (also including pH), pressure and temperature. Scale deposition can cause
problems in several places in the production and processing of natural gas. A natural gas well
will, besides producing natural gas, also produce water and carbon dioxide (CO2). The
produced water can come from two sources: water vapor in the gas that condenses into liquid
water and formation water containing salts. This water is the source of hydrate formation and,
in combination with CO2, corrosion. Scaling is caused by salts and can occur when the
produced water contains formation water.

Fig 2.20: Scale Deposition in Pipeline

Scale can occur in all parts of a gas production system and due to several different mechanisms.
Common for them is that the system is within, or brought into, a supersaturated regime. Here,
precipitation can occur. Inside the well, water is naturally present. As the water experiences
changes in temperature or pressure during production, the system will shift the equilibrium to
combat these changes. This shift can bring the system from the stable to the metastable and
labile region and scale can be formed. Species that originally were dissolved precipitate out
and scale is formed in perforations in the near-wellbore matrix. Such scale depositions reduce
the formation porosity and permeability and thus the hydrocarbon flow. As scale is formed,
pressure drops even further, giving more scale formation. This process is known as auto-scaling
and in the worst case, pores can be completely blocked. When the well is drilled and later
completed, fluids (mud) are used to, among others, stabilize the drill hole and provide
hydrostatic pressure to prevent formation fluids from entering the wellbore. Formation water
and drilling fluids are said to be incompatible; meaning, chemical reactions will take place
upon mixing. This can also lead to scale in the near-wellbore environment. Incompatible
mixing can also occur when seawater is injected to enhance production. Seawater is often rich

Page 23 of 54
in different ions than the production water and upon mixing, sparingly soluble salts precipitate
out. As already mentioned, imperfections in surfaces can act as nucleation sites and initiate
precipitation and scale formation. A high degree of turbulence is found to catalyze depositions
of scale. Turbulence increases mixing and mass transfer in the zone close to the surface. When
a fluid passes a hindrance, a pressure drop is often experienced. These factors can explain why
scale often occurs in downhole completion equipment. This can cause severe problems if
devices such as safety valves and gas lifts are put out of action due to scale. In production pipes,
scale may build up as a thick layer inside the tubing. These depositions can be so thick that
flow is severely restricted.
If the gas produced has acidic gases associated with it, such as H2S and CO2, another
mechanism cause problem. As pressure is reduced during production, less acidic gas is
dissolved. This raises the pH, which again lowers the solubility and causes precipitation of
carbonates. Scale of this type can extend from the near-wellbore matrix along tubing and to
surface equipment since the temperature and pressure of the produced water continuously
changes and thus also changes the pH. A similar type of scaling can occur when using CO2 for
secondary recovery. As water turns acidic when CO2 is dissolved, calcium carbonate will
dissolve from the limestone well. When production leads to pressure drop, CO2 is released
from the water and calcium carbonate precipitate out again in the near-wellbore pores. Like the
auto scale, these processes are self-generating and can completely seal wells and boreholes in
a few days.
In wet gas production, evaporation-induced scaling can also occur. During production, lowered
pressure expands the hydrocarbon gas. This leads to evaporation of the formation water and
thus increased the concentration of dissolved species. As enough solvent is evaporated, the
system crosses the solubility curve as seen in figure 2.19 and scale is formed.

CHEMICAL BACKGROUND OF SCALES

A salt is a neutral substance formed by combining positive and negative ions. When a salt is
dissolved in a solvent, for most cases water, the salt will separate into its constituent ions, so-
called solute molecules. These ions will interact in various degrees with the solvent; we say
they have different ionic activity. The product of the salt's ion activities gives the solubility
product, Ksp. If the solution (of solvent and solute) is close to an ideal solution, one can
substitute ionic activity with the concentration of each ion. The solubility product is a measure
of how many moles of ions per unit volume of solvent there can be in a system before a salt
precipitates out. Ksp can vary with solvent, but water is often used as a reference. A low Ksp
value means that little salt will be dissolved in water and this salt will be referred to sparingly
soluble salts. When a salt is dissolved in water, the resulting solution can be acidic, neutral or
basic.
The negative ion can work as a base or the positive ion as an acid. If either of them has such
properties, the result is a neutral solution. This also implies that a solvent's pH impacts the
solubility product. In the case of calcium carbonate, the carbonate ion can attract a proton from
water, resulting in a basic solution. When reducing the pH by adding additional acid, the
equilibrium will be shifted favoring the dissolution of calcium carbonate into carbon dioxide
(CO2) and calcium ions.

SCALES PREVENTION
One of the easiest ways of scales prevention is to dilute ion rich waters with freshwater,
reducing the concentration of ions and thus the saturation of the system. Another way is to use
a scale inhibitor; Scale inhibitors can hinder scale growth in several ways, where some of them

Page 24 of 54
are: Absorption onto the surface of the scale nuclei to make combination with other crystals
difficult, absorption on a surface defect of a crystal preventing further growth or use a chelating
agent. One problem with chelating inhibitors is that a stoichiometric ratio often is required.
This both creates large amounts of waste and is costly. These kinds of inhibitors are also
sensitive to equilibrium changes. Absorption inhibitors attack the crystalline structures and not
ions themselves. Therefore, an amount of 1000 times lower than the stoichiometric ratio is
needed, resulting in reduced treatment costs. Another problem with chemical inhibitors is the
calcium carbonate itself. Calcium carbonate has three different crystal structures; the variation
in crystal structures demands different inhibition mechanisms for different crystal structures.
This can explain why certain inhibitors after some time stop working. Scale formation occurs
and sometimes even more aggressive than before inhibition.

2.8.4 Asphaltene Deposition

Asphaltenes are molecular substances that are found in crude oil along with resins, aromatic
hydrocarbons and saturate (i.e. saturated hydrocarbons such as alkanes). The word "asphaltene"
was coined by Boussingault in 1837 when he noticed that the distillation residue of some
bitumen had asphalt like properties. Asphaltenes in the form of asphalt or bitumen products
from oil refineries are used as paving materials on roads, shingles for roofs and waterproof
coatings on building foundations. Asphaltenes exist in crude oil predominantly as a dispersion
of very small (35 Angstrom) platelets that will easily pass through pore passages as they flow
suspended in the oil. The asphaltene particles are held as distinct platelets by chemicals that
form a "micelle", principally maltenes and resins, so long as these micelles are stable, the
asphaltenes particles are not a significant problem in the oil.

When chemical or physical interactions cause the micelles to break, the particles will
agglomerate or stick together and can plate out on steel or in the reservoir, changing wettability
in the rock, forming deposits in piping and creating extremely viscous sludge in the oil. The
molecular structure of asphaltenes is difficult to determine because the molecules tend to stick
together in solution. These materials are extremely complex mixtures containing hundreds or
even thousands of individual chemical species. Asphaltenes do not have a specific chemical
formula: individual molecules can vary in the number of atoms contained in the structure, and
the average chemical formula can depend on the source. Many asphaltenes from crude oils
around the world contain similar ring units, which are linked together to make highly diverse
large molecules. Asphaltenes had been thought to be held in solution in oil by resins but recent
discovery shows otherwise, also, it has been suggested that asphaltenes are nano-colloidally
suspended in crude oil and toluene solutions of sufficient concentrations. The nickel to
vanadium contents of asphaltenes reflects the pH. and Eh conditions of the paleo-depositional
environment of the source rock for oil (Lewan, 1980; 1984) and this ratio is, therefore, in use
in the petroleum industry for oil-oil correlation and identification of potential source rocks for
oil.

Fig 2.21: Asphaltenes Deposition in Pipe

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ASPHALTENE COMPOSITION
Asphaltenes consist primarily of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, as well as
trace amounts of vanadium and nickel. The C: H ratio is approximately 1:1.2, depending on
the asphaltene source. Asphaltenes are defined operationally as the n-heptane-insoluble,
toluene- soluble component of a carbonaceous material such as crude oil, bitumen or coal.
Asphaltenes have been shown to have a distribution of molecular masses in the range of 400 u
to 1500 u, but the average and maximum values are difficult to determine due to aggregation
of the molecules in solution.

EFFECTS OF ASPHALTENES
Asphaltenes impart high viscosity to crude oils, negatively impacting production; also, the
variable asphaltene concentration in crude oils within individual reservoirs creates a myriad of
production problems

Page 26 of 54
 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS AND MATERIAL

3.1 Introduction
Methods are procedures used or ways of doing things. In this chapter, the method that will be
adopted in this research work will be presented.

3.2 Method Selection and Description

In this work, a qualitative and descriptive research methodology has been selected to
investigate the problem solutions expected. The reason for this choice is simply due to its
uniqueness and to utilize both inductive and deductive procedures (Ringdal 2001). The
inductive procedure was used in exploring the new technology of cold flow concepts since
there is little research on it and the existing technologies. The deductive procedure was used in
analyzing the results of the research, where comparisons have been made based on the findings.
However, access to relevant quantitative data concerning the technologies considered in this
work is very scarce.
Qualitative research method was found suitable because it concerns the understanding of a
phenomenon that is unique in this case. This offers an exploring technique. This method
provides an overall perspective of a complex and detailed picture of a case of study, thus
making the data collection method flexible and sensitive (Ringdal 2001).

Page 27 of 54
Fig 3.1: Flowchart for Flow Assurance Methodology

There are five main research strategies which include: experiments, surveys, archival analysis,
histories and case studies, and these can be used for three main purposes: exploratory,
descriptive or explanatory. Each strategy has a distinctive characteristic, but there are no clear
boundaries between them, thus, they may well overlap (Yin 1989).
In this paper, a case study with most of the requirements proposed in Yin (1989) are chosen
since they are of high relevance. The intrinsic and collective studies have been selected to
analyze six cases based on the posed research problems. The later provides the understanding
of the case itself being the primary objective of the study and the former, enhances the
comparison and analysis done in this work.

Page 28 of 54
3.3 Cold Flow Technology
Flow assurance is a major challenge in offshore and deep-water operations, Conventional
approaches for preventing gas hydrates formation involve using thermodynamic inhibitors (e.g.
methanol, glycol) or kinetic hydrate inhibitors or operating outside the hydrate- stability zone
by insulating the pipeline and active heating. These techniques are not always economical and
in some cases are not practical for deepwater operations, long tiebacks or aging reservoirs with
high water cuts. The Oil and gas industry these days needs new and novel flow assurance
techniques to address these challenging conditions and the Wet Cold Flow technology concept
was presented.
Cold flow technology is a new concept to solve hydrate blockage problems in steady-state
operation conditions, which was recently developed and owned by Sintef. It is different from
the chemical-based technology and insulation/ heating technology for hydrate protection, and
concerns cost-effective flow of oil, gas and water mixtures in deepwater pipelines, from
wellhead to processing facility without using chemicals to prevent hydrate and/or wax
deposition. In cold flow technology, the hydrate formation occurs under controlled conditions
in specialized equipment. The formed hydrate particles flow easily with the buck fluid mixture
as slurry and not form wall deposits or pipeline blockage. Cold flow technology is
environmentally friendly because of envisaged reduction in the used of bulk and specialty
chemicals. This technology provides the most exciting challenge and could result in significant
economic savings.
Cold flow technology is a new developing technology that can serve as an alternative
technology for hydrate and wax blockage control on the subsea pipeline in steady conditions.
It is based on hydrate and wax particles slurry transport in thermodynamic equilibrium with
the surroundings over long distances. Cold flow technology (CFT) is different from the
chemical-based, insulation and heating technology for hydrate prevention in that, a non-heated,
uninsulated pipeline is intended to be used to transport oil-water mixture in cold, subsea
environment. It concerns the cost-effective flow of produced fluid (oil, gas, and water) mixtures
from the wellhead to the processing facility through subsea production pipelines, without the
constant use of chemicals to prevent hydrate formation as well as wax deposition
(Gudmundsson, 2002; Bai and Bai, 2005).
The Cold Flow technology (CFT) promises low costs in terms of maintenance, and low system
complexity in long transport distances to the existing facilities onshore (Gudmundsson, 2002;
Turner and Talley 2008). The basic principle in this technology is that hydrate formation is
permitted through the cooling down of the produced fluid, yet hydrate is carried by the fluid
stream in the slurry form, thus avoiding further agglomeration of hydrate particles that can plug
the pipeline.
Essentially, the CFT is described as a system in which the hydrocarbon fluid produced is
flowing in bare steel pipelines at thermodynamic equilibrium with the surrounding seawater
without chemical modifiers and heat (passive or active heating or heat retention schemes)
(Larsen et al. 2007). Cold flow is based on the fact that while solids formation may be present
in the liquid that is transported, their depositions' driving forces are eliminated or well
minimized through the cooling process. The slurry created is easily transported, and has the
potentials of going through long-lasting shut-ins, and re-dispersing at restart without plugging
the pipeline (Wolden, 2008).
CFT also has potentials for longer distance transfer (greater than 200 km) from the wellhead to
the processing facilities on the seabed, topside, or beach (onshore) as earlier said. An

Page 29 of 54
illustration of long-distance to existing infrastructure in the West Africa cold harsh
environment includes Usan which lies in licence block OPL 222, about 100 km south of Port
Harcourt, offshore of Southern Nigeria, Western Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon.
500 km offshore of Newfoundland, Canada. The development of fields with small reservoirs,
subsea tie-back to hubs where platforms are not economically feasible will also be possible
with cold flow technology (Hoffman, 2012).
CFT was initially developed for hydrate plugging control, but wax deposition during slurry
creation, recirculation, and production of waxy crude oil has deemed it necessary for wax
control in the loop. However, Regular pigging and heating have been suggested to be the
possible solution for wax control in the loop through this may be risky and costly (Hoffman,
2012).
PRINCIPLE OF COLD FLOW TECHNOLOGY
As earlier described, cold flow technology is based on allowing hydrate particles to form in the
produced stream, but preventing their agglomeration and pipeline blockage. This is done by
cooling down the bulk flow to be in equilibrium with the seawater temperature. However, the
brief principle of cold flow technology (how it intends to work) presented here is based on
Gudmundsson’s cold flow concept.
The hot production stream (gas-liquid mixture) with temperature ranging from 40 to 80 oC,
leaves the wellhead and enters a mechanical device (separator) that separates the liquid phase
from the gas phase. The liquid phase is then transported to the heat exchanger system and the
gas phase is passed directly to the reactor system. A bare steel pipeline is utilized in this
technology and a multi-phase pump may be necessary for this system to pump the cooled fluid.
In the heat exchanger system, the hot liquid phase of the production stream is cooled down to
the surrounding seawater temperature (4 oC). The cold liquid phase is then moved to the reactor
system, where they are mixed up with gas at conditions that favor solids (slurries) formation.
The slurries formed and the remaining reservoir fluid (liquid or gas) would be sent into the cold
flow pipeline (CFP) for transportation. Once the ambient temperature is reached, the
precipitated solids flow in thermodynamic equilibrium without being deposited on the pipeline
and the dangers of plugging eliminated. (Gudmundsson, 2002). This can be attributed to the
fact that the thermal flux, which is believed to be the main driving force for deposition has been
eliminated or minimized.

Nomenclature: A= Separator, B= Heat Exchanger, C= Pump, D= Reactor, CFP= Cold Flow

Pipeline
Fig 3.2: Principle of Cold Flow Technology

Page 30 of 54
MAIN COMPONENTS OF COLD FLOW SYSTEM
The following are the main components of the cold flow system for hydrates and wax control:
• A reactor,
• A separator,
• A heat exchanger system,
• A bare steel pipeline,
• And, a centrifugal pump among other components (Gudmundsson 2002).

It also may be comprised of the wax monitoring system as well as a controlled heating system
for removal of wax deposit into the cooled stream in the cooling down section of the system
and long-distance power transmission (Hoffman 2012). Some of these components are as
shown in Figure 3.3.
At the subsea separator as said earlier, the production stream would be separated into the liquid-
phase and the gas-phase. The established design of subsea separator methods can be used to
design the separator unit for cold flow technology (Gudmundsson, 2002). However, subsea
separator has been successfully designed and implemented. For example, Statoil Tordis Subsea
Separation, Boosting and Injection (SSBI) project on the Norwegian continental field at 650
feet water depth (Kliewer, 2008). Separation equipment is very important in the oil and gas
production process for the splitting of the well streams into oil, gas, and water.
In the cool-down section (heat exchanger unit), the liquid phase is cooled down close to the
seabed temperature. Wax deposition may occur in this section (Hoffman, 2012).
At the reactor, the liquid-phase and the gas-phase are mixed up again. The prevailing conditions
in the reactor are suitable for hydrate particles formation in the cold flow process. The created
slurries are then transported in a cold flow pipeline to the receiving terminal or processing
platform.

Fig 3.3: Some Cold Flow Components (Hoffman, 2012)

Page 31 of 54
BENEFITS OF COLD FLOW TECHNOLOGY
It is worthy to note and outline the main benefits of cold flow technology. These benefits cut
across the capital and operational costs, value and health, safety and environmental issues
according to SINTEF (2010). These include:

• No high cost of pipeline insulation or heating (passive and active) solutions.

• Direct production from subsea to shore.
• The cost of long tie-backs are greatly reduced.
• Eliminates deep-water surface piercing structures (Example: TLP, fixed bottom
platform, and production risers).
• No Chemical injection and harmful discharge (methanol, glycols, and LDHIs) to the
sea.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reduced.
• Reduction of required energy for heating of pipelines
• Tail-end production and recovery rates extension.
• Reduced number of offshore personnel
• No need for MEG usage, injection line, and regeneration plants
• No hydrate or wax blockage and potential personnel risks.
• Improved production
• Increased asset value as well as several viable projects.
• Simple system operation, steady and lower maintenance cost.

COLD FLOW TECHNOLOGY CONCEPTS

Hydrates risk management in the subsea transportation pipeline is the main idea of developing
a cold flow concept. Cold flow technology (CFT) has received several attentions from various
research organizations and companies.
In the succeeding sections, the concepts developed by different organizations were presented.
These include the SINTEF-BP concept (initially developed internally at SINTEF Petroleum
Research, Tvedt 2005), NTNU concept (Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
developed by Gudmundsson) and HYDRAFLOW concepts (developed at the Centre for Gas
Hydrate Research, Heriot-Watt University). The technical description of the different concepts,
environmental, and economic evaluation of each of these concepts will also be presented.

Page 32 of 54
 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS/DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the results obtained from the Aspen Hysys simulation tool described in the
previous chapter will be discussed and analyzed. Firstly, the results arising from the
simulation tool were taken on the ASPEN HYSYS simulation tool. This simulating tool was
used to determine hydrate formation in a subsea pipeline.

1. The Main Flow sheets

Fig 4.1: The Main Flowsheet

The main reference stream is the Wellhead platform. At this point, crude comes out from the
reservoir at a very high temperature and pressure which goes through a subsea pipeline (Mild
steel). The internal diameter of the Mild steel is given as 157.2 mm, External diameter is given
as 171.4 mm, and the Nominal diameter is given as 152.4 mm.

Elevation profile:
Section: 1
Length of Subsea Pipe: 3990 km
Elevation Change: 2 m (6.562 ft)
Cells: 100

Page 33 of 54
TABLE 4.1: MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF A PRODUCED WELL

HYDROCARBONS MOLES
Methane 91.40
Ethane 3.68
Propane 1.79
N-butane 0.58
Iso-butane 0.52
N- pentane 0.29
Iso- Pentane 0.18
Hexanes 0.22
Heptane 1.01
Initial Reservoir conditions:
Pressure: 4585 psig
Temperature: 168 degrees F

TABLE 4.2: A HYDRATE CURVE TABLE OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

PRESSURE(PSIA) TEMPERATURE(DEGREE F)

62.22263 -4.22566

131.7253 26.42137

278.8625 41.22017

590.3519 52.13028

872.9818 57.32267

1249.775 61.56874

1818.412 65.34623

2158.090 67.28026

2234.786 67.71563

2225.245 67.65956

Page 34 of 54
 2500

2000

1500
Pressure (Psia)

1000

500

0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tempt. 80 F)
(deg

Fig 4.2: A Graph of Pressure (Psia) Against Temperature (Degree F)

From the graph above, a non-linear direct relationship exists between the fluid pressure and
its temperature in the system; it can be deduced that the increase in pressure corresponds with
a substantial increase in temperature. Therefore, the hydrate formation range lies in the region
lower than 10 degrees Fahrenheit and at a high temperature.

4.2 HYSYS SIMULATION PROCESS

4.2.1 Setting up the Compressible fluid pipeline composition

The composition and conditions of the crude oil produced at the wellhead platform was set-up
in ASPEN Hysys environment in accordance with data in table 4.1 and then the product at the
FPSO end was calculated by Hysys as depicted in the tables below. The crude was favourably
transported with increased vapour content and a slight decrease in fluid temperature, heat loss
at a pressure drop of 100kPa.

Page 35 of 54
Table 4.3: Compressible fluid pipeline conditions

The molar entropy of the crude was raised from 154.3 kJ/ kgmole.C to 154.6 kJ/ kgmole.C;
showing that the fluid maintained its fluid state not forming any kind of hydrate or slug in the
process.

Table 4.4: Compressible fluid pipeline composition

Page 36 of 54
Table 4.5: Compressible Feedstock Conditions

Table 4.6: FPSO Fluid Conditions

Page 37 of 54
Fig 4.3: Dynamic Specifications of the Wellhead Platform

4.2.2 Setting up the Rating and Overall Dimensions of the pipeline

Valves will have twofold block and bleed feature to enable complete flow, flush, drain and
venting of the valve body cavity. For valves to be used in such fluid service, the body cavity
over-pressure shall be prevented by self-relieving seat rings/assemblies. A pressure relief slum
in the ball is intolerable. Self-relieving seat rings shall relieve at a body cavity differential
pressure not exceeding 50% of the valve class rating pressure
The rating and overall dimensions of the pipeline was set-up as shown in the figure below.

Fig 4.4: Rating and Overall Dimensions of the pipeline

Page 38 of 54
4.2.3 Simulated Worksheet for the Compressible Fluid Pipeline (CFP)
The properties of the fluid which are very essential in design of a positive flow assurance
process are obtained by the simulated worksheet for the compressible fluid pipeline.

Table 4.7: A Simulated Worksheet for the CFP

4.2.4 The pipeline network and performance

The major flow assurance issues that need to be considered for the production of multiphase
flow through pipelines and risers in offshore or onshore oil and gas field developments are
hydrates, waxing, asphaltenes, slugging, naphthenates, scales, corrosion, erosion and
emulsions. The performance profile of the system was set-up as indicated in the figures 4.8 and
4.9 below:

Fig 4.5: Performance Profile

Page 39 of 54
The performance profile was computed as thus: cell length – 39.9 m with 100 cells, 2.0 m
elevation and axial length of 3990 m

Fig 4.6: Stratified Vapour-Liquid Flow

4.2.5 Simulated Pipe Inside Diameter

The inner pipe diameter (ID) was computed as 52.50 mm having a pressure drop of 2.000
kPa/m.

Fig 4.7: Pipe Sizing

Page 40 of 54
4.2.6 Simulated Performance Envelope
The performance envelope was simulated on a P-T basis using Nq and Robinson model as
depicted by Fig. 4.9 below:

Fig 4.8: Performance Envelope; A Graph of Pressure (kPa) Against Temperature (Degree C)

4.2.7 K-Values of the Fluid

The obtainable K-values by Hysys is computed in the table below:

Table 4.8: K-Values of the Fluid

Page 41 of 54
 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
Nowadays, the petroleum industry is stirring in the direction of emerging new fields in deep
and ultra-deepwater environments due to the reduction of the conventional onshore and shallow
water sources of hydrocarbon. For the economic development of deep-water fields and
profitable production, subsea fields are tied back to existing infrastructure. This environment
provides ideal conditions necessary for flow assurance problems (hydrates and wax formation)
in subsea pipelines used for transportation of the produced fluids especially over long distances.
The fluid transport was modelled and simulated using ASPEN Hysys software and flow
conditions were set such as to maintain fluidity and its kinetic state; with negligible loss in its
entropy with an appropriate pipeline network and performance envelope.
Two approaches to undertaking flow assurance hitches include chemical inhibition and direct
electrical heating combine with pipeline insulation. Chemical inhibition is effective but over
short distances and it is always associated with high attendance costs with environmental
concern as drawbacks. Di-Ethyl-Hexyl-Sebacat (DEHS) which is a non-soluble, odourless,
colourless liquid suitable for creating a stable aerosol, is effective and efficient over short
distances and it is environmentally friendly. DEHS performance is even better than chemical
inhibition. Over longer distances, both chemical inhibition and DEHS may not be economically
viable to be utilized. Cold flow technology is a novel technology proposed to tackle these flow
assurance problems over longer distances.
Cold flow technology is very promising for preventing hydrate and wax blockage of pipelines.
It allows solids formation but will transport them in a slurry (multiphase) form over long
distances. It is said to be cost-effective, environmentally friendly and reliable in ensuring flow
assurance over long-distance transfer. With the elimination of pipeline insulation, heating and
the use of chemicals, cold flow will outsmart DEHS especially over distances greater than 200
km and chemical inhibition. One of the main concerns of CFT is wax deposition in the cool-
down section during the cooling process. There has been continuous effort on improving this
technology which points out that in the next few decades, it may successfully be implemented
once the main challenges are solved.
Although, the SINTEF-BP cold flow concept and the Gudmundsson cold flow concepts are
very similar and but do have a higher value than the HYDRAFLOW concept being that
HYDRAFLOW proposed to utilize chemicals in the hydrate slurry creation process. The three
concepts propose to use a bare steel pipeline. However, with a successful implementation of
this potential emerging technology, it would be of immense benefit to Nigeria being one of the
possible markets.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Flow assurance is a major challenge in offshore and deepwater operations, Conventional
approaches for preventing gas hydrates formation involve using thermodynamic inhibitors (e.g.
methanol, glycol) or kinetic hydrate inhibitors or operating outside the hydrate- stability zone
by insulating the pipeline and active heating. These techniques are not always economical and
in some cases are not practical for deepwater operations, long tiebacks or aging reservoirs with
high water cuts. The oil and gas industry these days needs new and novel flow assurance
techniques to address these challenging conditions and the Wet Cold Flow technology concept
was presented.

Page 42 of 54
Cold flow technology is a new concept to solve hydrate blockage problems in steady-state
operation conditions, which was recently developed and owned by SINTEF. It is different from
the chemical-based technology and insulation/ heating technology for hydrate protection, and
concerns cost-effective flow of oil, gas and water mixtures in deepwater pipelines, from
wellhead to processing facility without using chemicals to prevent hydrate and/or wax
deposition. In cold flow technology, the hydrate formation occurs under controlled conditions
in specialized equipment. The formed hydrate particles flow easily with the buck fluid mixture
as slurry and not form wall deposits or pipeline blockage. Cold flow technology is
environmentally friendly because of envisaged reduction in the used of bulk and specialty
chemicals. This technology provides the most exciting challenge and could result in significant
economic savings.
Cold flow technology is a new developing technology that can serve as an alternative
technology for hydrate and wax blockage control on the subsea pipeline in steady conditions.
It is based on hydrate and wax particles slurry transport in thermodynamic equilibrium with
the surroundings over long distances. Cold flow technology (CFT) is different from the
chemical-based, insulation and heating technology for hydrate prevention in that, a non-heated,
uninsulated pipeline is intended to be used to transport oil-water mixture in cold, subsea
environment. It concerns the cost-effective flow of produced fluid (oil, gas, and water) mixtures
from the wellhead to the processing facility through subsea production pipelines, without the
constant use of chemicals to prevent hydrate formation as well as wax deposition
(Gudmundsson, 2002; Bai and Bai, 2005).
The Cold Flow technology (CFT) promises low costs in terms of maintenance, and low system
complexity in long transport distances to the existing facilities onshore (Gudmundsson, 2002;
Turner and Talley, 2008). The basic principle in this technology is that hydrate formation is
permitted through the cooling down of the produced fluid, yet hydrate is carried by the fluid
stream in the slurry form, thus avoiding further agglomeration of hydrate particles that can plug
the pipeline.

Page 43 of 54
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