Whitbourne, Susan Krauss.
“When Love Is the Driving
Self-efficacy
QUESTIONS TO ASK
YOUR DOCTOR
• How can I be more motivated to change my risky
behaviors?
• How can teachers and therapists guide my
naturally stubborn child toward wanting to learn?
It is possible to set a person up for failure if self-
determination activities are not designed and led properly.
Professionals and loved ones should resist the urge to step
in and offer solutions if the person going through self-
determination activities has a setback.
Research and general acceptance
The SDT theory was developed by Edward L. Deci
and Richard M. Ryan in the 1970s and has been added to
or refined by researchers over the years. Numerous
studies have shown how SDT can improve physical
activity in seniors or people who need to move more for
prevention or management of chronic diseases. Many
studies have combined SDT with motivational inter-
viewing to help guide individuals toward making choices
that are intrinsic and positive. Motivational interviewing
emphasizes listening to clients with empathy instead of
informing them with standard information. The combi-
nation of motivational interviewing and SDT helps
practitioners explore an individual’s intrinsic views and
motivations.
Resources
BOOKS
PERIODICALS
Piltch, Cynthia Ann. “The Role of Self-determination in Mental
Health Recovery.” Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 39,
no. 1 (March 2018): 77–80.
Ryan, Richard M., and Edward L. Deci. Self-Determination
Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation,
Development, and Wellness. New York: Guilford Press,
2017.
WEBSITES
Mental Health America. “Position Statement 36: Self-Determi-
nation Initiatives.” http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net
/positions/self-determination (accessed April 23, 2018).
Missouri Department of Health. “Self-Determination.” https://
dmh.mo.gov/dd/selfdetermination.html (accessed April 22,
2018).
Self-Determination Theory. http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/
(accessed April 22, 2018).
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Force in Work.” Psychology Today. https://www.psycho
logytoday.com/us/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201709
/when-love-is-the-driving-force-in-work (accessed April
22, 2018).
ORGANIZATIONS
America Psychological Association, 750 First St. NE,
Washington, DC 20002, (202) 336-5500, (800) 364-2721,
http://www.apa.org.
Teresa G. Odle,
Self-efficacy
Definition
Self-efficacy is the realistic belief people have about
their ability to perform tasks or manage aspects of their
lives. Efficacy refers to the ability to make things happen,
and self-efficacy is the ability to make something happen
for one’s self.
Purpose
The purpose of the self-efficacy theory is to move
beyond concepts such as self-esteem to understand and
improve individuals’ performance of tasks. Helping
children or adults realistically understand their abilities
as they relate to behaviors or tasks is more helpful than
broad encouraging statements. In fact, telling indivi-
duals they “can do anything” can cause unrealistic
expectations and fear of failure. Having a strong sense
of self-efficacy, however, can help individuals
approach tasks as challenges the individual can master
rather than doubting one’s abilities and approaching
tasks with fear.
In addition to learning, the theory of self-efficacy is
used in helping people with chronic diseases better manage
their health, managing alcohol consumption or eating,
quitting smoking, exercising, preventing HIV infection,
and controlling pain. The theory has many applications in
mental health. Higher levels of self-efficacy are associated
with improved mental health, along with effective coping
strategies. In general, self-efficacy can play a role in nearly
every aspect of people’s lives.
Description
Psychologist Albert Bandura is noted for his research
in self-efficacy theory while working as a professor of
social psychology at Stanford University in California.
The theory is part of social cognitive theory and pertains to
how people learn within the social environment. Self-
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efficacy is similar to confidence, although the theory
involves sources of efficacy or confidence identified by
Bandura as follows:
• Mastery experiences are the most effective way to
develop high self-efficacy. These are successes in
challenging situations or moving toward goals that help
build a strong belief in one’s abilities or efficacy. What
people learn and obstacles they overcome contribute to
self-efficacy, as do accomplishments.
• Vicarious experiences are those that come from observ-
ing other people, especially peers, who succeed in
efforts. This helps build belief in observers that they can
also succeed in similar or other efforts.
• Social persuasion comes from people who are influential
in a person’s life, such as teachers, parents, work
supervisors, or sports coaches. When these influential
people believe in an individual and express those
positive but realistic beliefs, they help the person to
build self-efficacy.
• Physiological and affective states can affect how one
approaches or believes in self-efficacy. A physical
condition, illness, or mental state such as depression
can lower confidence in one’s abilities.
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Self-efficacy
James Maddux, former professor of psychology at
George Mason University in Virginia, suggested a fifth
source of self-efficacy. He said imaginal experiences, that
is, visualizing one’s self being effective or successful in a
task or situation, can lead to higher self-efficacy.
When applying self-efficacy theory, teachers and
other professionals helping individuals change or improve
confidence and behavior might establish short-term goals.
The goals should be attainable but with just enough
challenge to help learners feel a sense of accomplishment.
Other techniques include having students talk about plans,
strategies, and progress toward goals. Research also has
found that comparing an individual’s performance to that
person’s goals is much better than comparing an individual
to others.
In short, having low self-efficacy means individuals
do not truly believe in their ability to accomplish
something and might abandon pursuing goals or activities.
These persons often note they feel less able to manage
difficult tasks or cope with stressful situations. Those with
low self-efficacy might avoid obstacles or challenging
situations instead of confronting them. With high-self-
efficacy, individuals believe in their ability to achieve
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goals and control their life. These people put forth a high
degree of effort, even for more challenging tasks. When
they fail, people with higher self-efficacy learn from the
failure and attribute it to factors they can control rather
than blaming others or factors beyond their control.
Benefits
Self-efficacy is related to how individuals feel about
their ability to achieve specific goals and manage or thrive
and help others succeed. Self-esteem is the opinion
individuals have of their own self-worth or value.
Individuals can have high self-esteem but low self-
efficacy. Recognizing and improving self-efficacy can
help people have confident and realistic beliefs in their
abilities and potential success. By working on beliefs,
individuals can change thoughts and eventually actions.
The more time people spends learning a skill, the higher
the self-efficacy in that skill.
Psychologists, teachers, and health professionals can
help people manage important behaviors and improve
their confidence and life skills through self-efficacy
theory. Bandura stated that self-efficacy plays a critical
role in regulating one’s emotional states. Even small
achievements can raise a person’s self-efficacy. People
who have a high sense of self-efficacy can manage
themselves and better control their emotions when faced
with stressful situations. This serves as a sort of protection
against mental illnesses.
Precautions
Self-efficacy should not be confused with self-
esteem. Some critics have said self-efficacy is less an
indicator of an individual’s belief in ability than an
indicator of motivation. In other words, one cannot
assume that just because individuals have a high level of
self-efficacy in controlling their diabetes they will be
motivated to act on behaviors and manage the disease.
Knowing individuals have high self-efficacy does not
guarantee they will change their behavior as desired.
Preparation
Gathering information on the sources of self-efficacy
(such as messages from influential people) can help assess
current self-efficacy teaching of individuals and be used in
planning ways to improve self-efficacy. Teaching, mental
health, and health-care professionals can use question-
naires to measure self-efficacy or assess approaches to
improving self-efficacy. Among these are the Generalized
Self-Efficacy Scale and an Autism Self-Efficacy Scale for
Teachers. It is important to make sure that an instructor or
other professional has received some training in self-
efficacy theory and learning methods.
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KEY TERMS
Emotional intelligence—The ability to recognize
emotions in one’s self and others and to manage
one’s own emotions.
IQ (intelligence quotient)—Beginning in 1904, a
system used to measure intelligence and predict
ability to learn. IQ is based on standardized tests.
Physiological—Relating to the way the physical
body functions.
Social cognitive theory—A theory developed by
Albert Bandura that learning occurs in a social
context based on behaviors and interactions with
other people and the environment.
Risks
Low self-efficacy tends to lead to individuals having
trouble coping with stressful situations. The tools used to
measure self-efficacy are not reliable or valid in all cases.
Often measures rely on a person’s self-reporting of
feelings, beliefs, and behavior. Setting unrealistic goals
can lead to lower self-efficacy if a person fails. Goals
should be realistic and attainable but with some challenge
to the individual.
Research and general acceptance
Research has shown that children with higher self-
efficacy work harder and approach tasks with more
positive than negative feelings. It also shows that self-
efficacy is as strong at predicting academic performance
as are IQ tests. Studies have found that helping aging
seniors develop a sense of purpose and self-efficacy can
help prevent depression. A study of men who abuse drugs
found that measuring low self-efficacy among the men
helped predict low mental health, whereas high scores in
self-efficacy helped predict high mental health. The study
concluded that special programs to train people with self-
efficacy skills and how to cope with stress could lower risk
for addiction.
A study in the United Kingdom on services for
adolescents with cerebral palsy and autism spectrum
disorder noted that promoting self-efficacy in the teens
was one of the most beneficial features of programs
transitioning adolescents to adult-oriented health-care
services. Research on the role of self-efficacy in helping
patients manage chronic diseases has reported that helping
patients manage their health and illnesses such as diabetes
should be approached from the view of their personal
values and emotional skills, in addition to increasing their
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QUESTIONS TO ASK
Y O U R D OC T O R
• How can higher self-efficacy help me quit
smoking?
• How can I improve my confidence?
• Is there a way to better manage my chronic
disease?
• How can I increase confidence in my ability to
manage my mental health?
knowledge of steps to manage their health. Further, it has
been suggested that emotional intelligence is based on
motivation and self-efficacy.
Resources
BOOKS
Bandura, Albert. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New
York: Worth, 1997.
Bowles, Freddie A, and Cathy J. Pearman. Self-Efficacy in
Action: Tales from the Classroom for Teaching, Learning,
and Professional Development. Lanham, MD: Rowman
and Littlefield, 2017.
Greene, Barbara A. Self-Efficacy and Future Goals in Education.
New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis, 2017.
PERIODICALS
Chew, Boon-How, Aaron Fernandez, and Sazalina Shariff-
Ghazali. “Psychological Interventions for Behavioral
Adjustments in Diabetes Care, a Value-Based Approach to
Disease Control.” Psychology Research and Behavior
Management 11 (May 2018): 145–55.
Colver, A., et al. “How Well Do Services for Young People with
Long Term Conditions Deliver Features Proposed to
Improve Transition?” BMC Health Services Research 18,
no. 1 (May 2018): 337.
WEBSITES
About KidsHealth. “Self-efficacy in Children.” https://www.
aboutkidshealth.ca/Article?contentid=630&language
=English (accessed May 20, 2018).
Akhtar, Miriam. “What Is Self-Efficacy: Bandura’s Four Sources
of Efficacy Beliefs.” http://positivepsychology.org.uk
/self-efficacy-definition-bandura-meaning/ (accessed May
19, 2018).
American Psychological Association. “Teaching Tip Sheet: Self-
Efficacy.” http://www.apa.org/pi/aids/resources/education
/self-efficacy.aspx (accessed May 19, 2018).
Bandura, Albert. “Self-efficacy.” University of Kentucky.
https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/BanEncy.html
(accessed May 20, 2018).
Steel, Piers. “Self-Efficacy and Success: Is There Any
Relationship?” Psychology Today. https://www.psychology
today.com/us/blog/the-procrastination-equation/201411/self
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Self-help groups
-efficacy-and-success-is-there-any-relationship (accessed
May 20, 2018).
Whitener, Svetlana. “How Self-Efficacy Changes Your Self-
Confidence.” Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbes
coachescouncil/2017/12/06/how-self-efficacy-changes
-your-self-confidence/#781e12715ff7 (accessed May 19,
2018).
ORGANIZATIONS
America Psychological Association, 750 First St. NE,
Washington, DC 20002, (202) 336-5500, (800) 364-2721,
http://www.apa.org.
Teresa G. Odle,
Self-harm see Self-mutilation
Self-help groups
Definition
Self-help groups—also called mutual help or
mutual aid groups—are composed of peers who share
a similar mental, emotional, or physical problem, or
who are interested in a focal issue, such as education or
parenting. Historically, people banded together to
improve their chances for survival by pooling their
social and economic resources; however, contemporary
groups are more likely to organize around a theme or
problem.
Purpose
Most self-help groups are voluntary, nonprofit
associations open to anyone with a similar need or
interest; however, spin-off groups also exist to meet the
needs of particular types of people; for example, the
elderly, women, or specific ethnic groups. Usually, groups
are led by peers, have an informal structure, and are free
(except for small donations to cover meeting expenses).
However, professionals of various kinds lead some self-
help groups.
Description
In the past 30 years or so, the number of self-help
organizations and groups operating in communities
throughout the United States has risen dramatically; some
organizations operate in several countries, primarily in the
developed world. One of the reasons for the rapid
proliferation of groups focusing on health problems may
be the advent of managed health care. For individuals with
insurance plans offering limited mental health coverage,
self-help groups are an economical way to find emotional
and social support.
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