Theory

Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity is the measure of the amount of electrical current a

material can carry or it's ability to carry a current. Electrical conductivity is also
known as specific conductance. Conductivity is an intrinsic property of a
material.

Units of Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity is denoted by the symbol σ and has SI units of siemens per
meter (S/m). In electrical engineering, the Greek letter κ is used. Sometimes the
Greek letter γ represents conductivity. In water, conductivity is often reported as
specific conductance, which is a measure compared to that of pure water at 25°C.

Relationship Between Conductivity and Resistivity

Electrical conductivity (σ) is the reciprocal of the electrical resistivity (ρ):

σ = 1/ρ

where resistivity for a material with a uniform cross section is:

ρ = RA/l

where R is the electrical resistance, A is the cross-sectional area, and l is the

length of the material

Electrical conductivity gradually increases in a metallic conductor as the

temperature is lowered. Below a critical temperature, resistance in
superconductors drops to zero, such that an electrical current could flow through
a loop of superconducting wire with no applied power.

In many materials, conduction occurs by band electrons or holes. In electrolytes,

entire ions move, carrying their net electrical charge. In electrolyte solutions, the
concentration of the ionic species is a key factor in the conductivity of the
material.

Materials With Good and Poor Electrical Conductivity

Metals and plasma are examples of materials with high electrical conductivity.
The element that is the best electrical conductor is silver -- a metal. Electrical
insulators, such as glass and pure water, have poor electrical conductivity. Most
of the nonmetals on the periodic table are poor electrical and thermal conductors.
The conductivity of semiconductors is intermediate between that of an insulator
and a conductor.

Examples of excellent conductors include:

 Silver
 Copper
 Gold
 Aluminum
 Zinc
 Nickel
 Brass

Examples of poor electrical conductors include:

 Rubber
 Glass
 Plastic
 Dry Wood
 Diamond
 Air

Pure Water (not salt water, which is conductive)

Conductivity meter

A conductivity meter measures the amount of electrical current or conductance in a

solution. Conductivity is useful in determining the overall health of a natural water
body. It is also a way to measure changes in wastewater procedures at water
treatment plants. Conductivity meters are common in any water treatment or
monitoring situation, as well as in environmental laboratories. According the
Environmental Protection Agency, a good conductivity meter costs about $250.

How a Conductivity Meter Works

The meter is equipped with a probe, usually handheld, for field or on-site
measurements. After the probe is placed in the liquid to be measured, the meter
applies voltage between two electrodes inside the probe. Electrical resistance from the
solution causes a drop in voltage, which is read by the meter. The meter converts this
reading to milli- or micromhos or milli- or microSiemens per centimeter. This value
indicates the total dissolved solids. Total dissolved solids is the amount of solids that
can pass through a glass-fiber filter.
Conductivity Basics

Conductivity is the electrical current in a solution, but that value depends on the
liquid's ionic strength. It also relies on which ions are present, in what concentration
and in what form, such as what state of oxidation or mobility the ions are in. Ions carry
a negative or positive electrical charge: anions are negative and cations are positive.
In natural water bodies, the ions that contribute to high conductivity result from
dissolved minerals and salts.

Temperature Dependence

The reading of a conductivity meter is usually without a temperature correlation. Since

ionic strength, and therefore conductance, is temperature-dependent, the reading may
be inaccurate. Thus, many conductivity meters have a specific conductance
measurement as well. When in the specific conductance mode, the meter reads the
conductivity of the solution at 25 degrees Celsius, not at the actual temperature. This
results in a more standardized reading.

Salinity and Total Dissolved Solids

Salinity is the amount of dissolved salts in a solution. Conductivity meters equipped

with a salinity option internally convert the conductivity reading to one of salinity. Fresh
water bodies should have a much lower salinity concentration than ocean water, which
is estimated between 20 and 30 parts per trillion, according to Washington State’s
Department of Ecology. Total dissolved solids can be determined by multiplying the
conductivity measured in microSeimens by a factor of 0.67.

Calibration

Calibration leads to a more accurate reading. To calibrate a meter, follow the

instructions for that meter; in general, the steps are easy and standardized. The meter
usually has a menu item that allows you to enter the calibration mode or a setting on
the side that you can adjust with a small screwdriver or tool. Place the probe in a
solution with a known conductivity value and temperature and set the meter to that
conductivity. Sometimes several standards are required. The Environmental
Protection Agency’s EPA 120.1 outlines a standardized analytical procedure for
calibrating and measuring using a conductivity meter.

The Effect of Solution Concentration on Conductivity

Conductivity is the ability of a solution to conduct electricity. It is dependent on the
presence of ions in the solution. Ions are derived from ionic compounds that dissolve
in water, such as sodium chloride.
Solution Concentration

The more concentrated a solution is, the higher the conductivity is. In most cases it is
a proportional relationship. As the ion concentration increases, the conductivity
increases.

Exception

Some solutions have a limit to how conductive it can be. Once that point is reached,
increasing the solution concentration will actually lower conductivity. This is observed
in sulfuric acid solutions.

Measuring Conductivity

Conductivity is measured by placing two plates into a sample and applying a potential
across the plate. This will read the current, which is then used to calculate conductivity
using Ohm's Law.

Influence of Temperature

Conductivity is temperature dependent. Conductivity meters compensate for

temperature effects by referencing a standard temperature.

Calibration

Conductivity meters should be calibrated to a standard solution to ensure accurate

measurements. Standard solutions should have a conductivity close to that of the
samples to be measured.