Kanumuru 1

Kanumuru Aiswarya

Deepa Subramoney

Chemistry HL

11TH December 2015

COVALENT BONDING

Question no 1:- Predict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent from the
position of the elements on the periodic table or from their electronegativity values

Answer: - (i) Prediction of bonding types-

Compounds in which the bonded atoms have a large electronegativity difference for ionic
compounds. Where the difference is slight, they are covalent. There is no hard and fast value at
which the change occurs. Rather there is a greater and greater degree of covalence as the values
become closer together.

Perhaps the closest to a 'cut off' is the compound formed between aluminum and chlorine. In the
solid state at 0ºC there is considerable evidence that it is ionic, but at room temperature it seems
to be covalent. At higher temperatures it sublimes as a dimer with the formula Al2Cl6.
Aluminum has an electronegativity of 1.5 and chlorine 3.0. That makes the difference in
electronegativity = 1.5 units on the Pauling scale. This is a good value to use as a 'rule of thumb'.

Greater than 1.5 units = ionic

Less than 1.5 units = covalent.

(ii) Ionic or Covalent Bond Formation:-

It was stated above that metals reacting with non-metals form ionic bonds. This is the
GENERAL rule. It is really the ease with which a metal can lose electrons coupled with the
attraction that a non-metal has for more electrons. When an element loses electrons easily and
another element has a high attraction for electrons then this encourages ionic bond formation. As
metals lose electrons easily they are said to be electropositive, or to put it another way, to have
low electronegativity values. Non-metals tend to attract electrons and the non-metals closest to
group 7 have higher electronegativity values. Electronegativity increases from bottom left to top
right in the periodic table. When the DIFFERENCE between the electronegativity values is
large, ionic bonds are formed. It is usually the case that the difference in electronegativity values
between metals and non-metals is large enough to cause ionic bond formation (transfer of
electrons etc). however this is not the case for all metal: non-metal combinations.

Question no 2:- Predict the relative polarity of bonds from electronegativity values

Answer: - From the previous section you can see that a direct comparison of bonds may be done
using the electronegativity difference between the atoms in the bonds. It is safe to say that the C-
F bond (electronegativity difference = 1.5) has a greater dipole than the C-Br bond
(electronegativity difference = 0.3).
Question no 3:- Predict the shape and bond angle for species with four, three and two negative
charge centers on the central atom using the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory
(VSEPR)

Answers: - VSEPR – valence shell electron pair repulsion theory states: Since a pair of electrons
around a central atom repels each other they are placed as far away from each other as possible.

 In the four negative charge center species the shape will be the one of a tetrahedral, with
the angle of 109.5
 The three negative charge center species will have a planar triangular shape, and an angle
of 120.
 The two negative charge center species will have a linear shape and an angle of 180.

Question no 4:- Predict whether or not a molecule is polar from its molecular shape and bond
polarities

Answer: - This is caused by a difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms. Most
bonds are polar, but in reality only those with an electronegativity difference of at least 1 unit on
the Pauling scale shows the effect. For example carbon has an electronegativity of 2.5 and
hydrogen 2.1. In principle they are polarized and the bond has a dipole, but the two values are
close enough together as to be insignificant. Carbon - hydrogen bonds are not said to be polar.

Polar molecules attract one another increasing the degree of intermolecular force experienced.
This means that they have higher boiling point than expected from purely van der Waal’s forces.
Question no 5:- Describe and compare the structure and bonding in the three allotropes of carbon
(diamond, graphite, and fullerene)

Answer:-

DIAMOND-

Properties of diamond:-

 hardest substance known to man

 brittle (not malleable)
 insulator (non-conductor)
 insoluble in water
 very high melting point

Physical properties of diamond explained by considering the structure and bonding

Property Explanation
Many strong covalent bonds holding
Hard
the structure together
All of the bonds are directional and
stress will tend to break the structure
(In a malleable substance, such as for
Brittle example a metal, the bonding is non-
directional and can still act if the
particles are displaced with respect to
one another).
All of the valence (outer shell)
electrons are used in bonding. The
bonds are sigma and the electrons are
Insulator
located between the two carbon nuclei
being bonded together. None of the
electrons are free to move
 There are only very weak Van der
Waal's attractions between the carbon
Insoluble atoms and the water molecules
whereas the carbon atoms are bonded
very tightly to one another.
Many strong covalent bonds holding
the structure together - it requires
Very high melting point
massive amounts of energy to pull it
apart

GRAPHITE-

Physical properties of graphite explained by considering the structure and bonding

Property Explanation
Many strong covalent bonds holding
the structure together but only in 2
Soft and slippery dimensions. The layers are free to
slide easily over one another. Graphite
powder is used as a lubricant.
All of the bonds are directional within
a layer and stress across a layer will
Brittle tend to break them. Graphite rods
used for electrolysis easily break when
dropped.
Only three of the valence (outer shell)
electrons are used in sigma bonding.
The other electron is in a 'p' orbital
which can overlap laterally with
Electrical conductor neighboring 'p' orbitals making giant
molecular pi orbitals that extend over
the whole of each layer. Electrons are
free to move within these delocalized
pi orbitals.
There are only very weak Van der
Waal's attractions between the carbon
Insoluble in water. atoms and the water molecules
whereas the carbon atoms are bonded
very tightly to one another.
Many strong covalent bonds holding
the layers together - it requires
V. high melting point
massive amounts of energy to pull it
apart
FULLERENES:-

Buckminster fullerene Structure

As the molecule is totally

symmetrical with all bond lengths
and angles being equal, it is
likely/inevitable that the
hybridization of the carbon atoms
is somewhere between that of sp2
and sp3. Another example of a
theory (hybridization in this case)
having to be modified to
accommodate the observed
experimental data.

Physical properties of fullerenes explained by considering the structure and bonding

Property Explanation
Few covalent bonds holding the molecules
Soft and slippery together but only weak Vander Waals
forces between molecules.
Soft weak crystals typical of covalent
Brittle
substances
No movement of electrons available from
one molecule to the next. The exception
could be the formation of Nano-tubes that
Electrical insulator
are capable of conducting electricity along
their length. These are the subject of some
experiments in micro electronics
There are only very weak Van der Waal's
attractions between the carbon atoms and
Insoluble in water. the water molecules whereas the carbon
atoms are bonded very tightly to one
another in the molecules.
Typical of covalent crystals where only Van
Low m.p. solids der Waal's interactions have to be broken
for melting.
Question no 6:- Describe the structure of and the bonding in silicon and silicon dioxide

Answer: - These are giant covalent structures, with the bonding covalent from atom to
atom in a never ending array. The bond angles at each silicon atom are 109º 28'.

The oxygen atoms act as bridges between silicon atoms in silicon dioxide.