Ece - 513 - Meaning of Curriculum Development, Implementation and Evaluation

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING

IN COLLABORATION WITH
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
EARLY CHILDHOOD STUDIES DEPARTMENT
ECE 513: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
WRITTEN BY: REVIEWED/EDITED BY:

DR. PETER KIBET KOECH DR. NYAKWARA BEGI
Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2011

All Rights Reserved
Published By:
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY PRESS
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this module on curriculum development, implementation and evaluation. In this

module you will be learning on your own. You will do assignments in the course of the study;
you are advised to and spend at least two hours every day to study the module. During the
semester, you shall be given a take-way assignment, which carries 20 marks. You will also have
a sit in Continuous Assessment Test (CAT) carrying 10 marks. Take away assignment and sit-in
CAT will be 30 marks. At the end of the course you will have end of semester exam, which will
carry 70 marks. Please take all forms of assessment seriously. I wish you a nice time as you
study this module.
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COURSE OBJECTIVES
After going through all the lectures, reading selected further readings and lecture activities, you
should be able to:
 Define curriculum development, implementation and evaluation
 Explain different types of formal, non-formal, informal curricula for children, caregivers,
parents and communities
 Give examples of formal, non-formal, informal curricula for children, caregivers, parents and
communities
 Discuss selected theories and models of curriculum development
 Describe the Implementation and factors affecting curriculum implementation
 Give a review of Kenyan national goals of education and NACECE objectives for early
childhood education
 Give an analysis of applicability of Kenyan goals in relationship to children's needs, rights,
and development
 Discuss the curriculum review reports In Kenya
 Discuss the emerging issues that impact on delivery & effective implementation of ECE
curriculum
 Discuss how to evaluate a curriculum
 Discuss curriculum change and innovation
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Chapter One
MEANING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
1.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about the meaning of curriculum, curriculum development,
implementation and evaluation. It will also cover perspectives of curriculum. This lecture covers:
 Lecture Objectives
 Meaning of curriculum, curriculum development, implementation and evaluation
 Perspectives of curriculum
 Learning activities
 Summary
 Further Reading
1.2 Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of
i. curriculum
ii. curriculum development,
iii. implementation
iv. evaluation
 Explain the perspectives of a curriculum
1.3 Meaning of Curriculum Implementation and Evaluation
What is the meaning on the term curriculum? A curriculum is a plan or program of all
experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school” (Tanner and Tanner,
1995). According to Gatawa (1990) it is “the totality of the experiences of children for which
schools are responsible”. All this is in agreement with Sergiovanni and Starrat (1983), who argue
that curriculum is that which a student is supposed to encounter, study, practice and master. For
others such as Beach and Reinhatz (1989), a curriculum outlines a “prescribed series of courses
to take”. From the definitions above, it is possible to state that a curriculum has the following
characteristics:
 It comprises the experiences of children for which the school is responsible.
 It has content.
 It is planned.
 It is a series of courses to be taken by students.
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According to Gatawa (1990), the term curriculum evaluation has three major meanings:
1. The process of describing and judging an educational programme or subject.
2. The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviourally stated objectives.
3. The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for decision-making
purposes.
Thus, a curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences that
learners encounter in an educational institution. Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-
learning process whether it is a school, college, university or training organization. The textbooks
used, how teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students,
preparation of guides for both learners and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on
the curriculum. Thus, without a curriculum no educational institution can function efficiently.
Curriculum Development: Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which

includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and evaluation.
Curriculum implementation: it entails putting into practice the officially prescribed courses of
study, syllabuses and subjects. The process involves helping the learner acquire knowledge or
experience. It is important to note that curriculum implementation cannot take place without the
learner. The learner is therefore the central figure in the curriculum implementation process.
Implementation takes place as the learner acquires the planned or intended experiences,
knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learner to function
effectively in a society. Viewed from this perspective, curriculum implementation also refers to the
stage when the curriculum itself, as an educational programme, is put into effect. Putting the
curriculum into operation requires an implementing agent. Stenhouse (19794) identifies the
teacher as the agent in the curriculum implementation process. She argues that implementation
is the manner in which the teacher selects and mixes the various aspects of knowledge contained
in a curriculum document or syllabus. Implementation takes place when the teacher-constructed
syllabus, the teacher’s personality, the teaching materials and the teaching environment interact
with the learner (University of Zimbabwe, 1995). Curriculum implementation therefore refers to
how the planned or officially designed course of study is translated by the teacher into syllabuses,
schemes of work and lessons to be delivered to students.
Curriculum Evaluation: According to Gatawa (1990), the term curriculum evaluation has three
major meanings:
4. The process of describing and judging an educational programme or subject.
5. The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviourally stated objectives.
6. The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for decision-making
purposes.
What you need to understand about these definitions is that each does not exist in isolation from
the others although each can be an activity on its own. The first activity involves the collection of
descriptive and judgmental information for the purpose of establishing whether an educational
programme or project is doing what it is expected to do. The evaluator pronounces judgment at
the end of the exercise.
The second activity involves comparing the performance of one or more learners with set
standards. Such an evaluation determines the extent to which the objectives of a learning activity
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are being realized. This is the kind of evaluation teachers’ conduct on a daily basis. The third
activity is concerned with the identification of deficiencies in an educational programme or
syllabus for the purpose of effecting revision and improvement.
1.4 Curriculum Perspectives

Curriculum perspectives are theories of knowledge which are an important source of curriculum
decisions. Zewii (1984), cited in Gatawa (1990), states that what goes into the curriculum
depends heavily on these perspectives. There are a number of curriculum perspectives that may
be familiar with. In this section, we will explore the following perspectives:
 Rationalist
 Empiricist
 Pragmatist
 Existentialist.
It is important to consider each perspective as it relates to the following groups:

 The learner
 The teacher
 Methodology
 Curriculum.
The table that follows summarizes the perspectives as they relate to the learner, teacher, method
and curriculum.
Perspectives Learner Teacher Method Curriculum
Rationalist Recipient of Source of Drilling Subject matter of

information ideas, facts Lecturing symbol and idea
and Subject-based
information
Empiricist Recipient of Demonstrator Lecturing

information of process Teacher-centred Subject matter of
the physical world
Pragmatist Experiences Researcher, Inquiry Hypothetical

knowledge project Participatory Subject to
director Problemsolving change
Problem solving Problems
Projects
Existentialist Ultimate chooser, Facilitator of Inquiry Subject matter of

search for choices Discovery choices
personal identity Not rigid
Adapted from Beach, D. M., and Reinhatz, J. (1989: 106). Supervision: Focus on Instruction. New
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York: Harper and Row.
Rationalists ideas
• True knowledge is achieved by the mind.
• Knowledge is a series of revelations.
Empiricists ideas
• True knowledge is derived from evidence.
• Authentic knowledge comes through the senses.
Pragmatists ideas
• Knowledge is hypothetical and changing constantly.
• Knowledge is experienced.
• Knowledge cannot be imposed on the learner.
• Knowledge is a personal activity.
• Knowledge is socially constructed.
Existentialists or phenomenologists ideas

• Knowledge is personal and subjective.
• Knowledge is one’s own unique perception of one’s world.
• Education should be less formal.
• Curricula should be diverse, not common for all.
1.5 Elements of Curriculum

The curriculum has four elements that are in constant interaction to each other. These are:
• Purpose (goals and objectives)
• Content or subject matter
• Methods or learning experiences
• Evaluation.
The diagram that follows shows the interaction among these elements.
Elements of Curriculum
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Purpose
• Goals
• Objectives
Content
Methods Subject to
Learning be studied
experienc
es
Evaluation
Performance
Measurement
Figure 1.1 Elements of a curriculum

Adapted from Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990: 11). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction.
Harare: Jongwe Press.
It is the interaction of these elements in the social, political, economic, technological and
environmental context that constitutes a curriculum. Now let us look at each element in detail.
Purpose
What is the purpose of the curriculum? The purpose of a curriculum is:
1. is based on the social aspirations of society,
2. outlines the goals and aims of the programme, and
3. is expressed as goals and objectives.
There are three categories of goals and objectives:

1. Cognitive, referring to intellectual tasks,
2. Psychomotor, referring to muscular skills, and
3. Affective, referring to feeling and emotions.
1.6 Content or Subject Matter
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1. The content of the curriculum:
2. is divided into bodies of knowledge, for example, mathematics, English and science;
3. outlines the desired attitudes and values;
4. includes cherished skills;
5. is determined by prevailing theories of knowledge; and
6. Caters to ideological, vocational and technical considerations.
You should note that the curriculum content must be applicable to the solution of the problems
affecting the society which uses it.
Methods
1. The methods outlined in a curriculum:
2. Deal with teaching and learning experiences, and
3. Involve organizational strategies.
Flexible teaching methods facilitate learning.
1.7 Evaluation
Evaluation is used to:
1. select appropriate content based on the aims and objectives of the curriculum;
2. select appropriate methods to address the content and purpose;
3. check the effectiveness of methods and learning experiences used;
4. Check on the suitability and the appropriateness of the curriculum in answering social
needs;
5. give feedback to the planners, learners, teachers, industry and society; and
6. Provide a rationale for making changes.
You should note that in conducting evaluations, judgments must be made regarding:
1. Inputs,
2. Means,
3. Content,
4. Outputs, and
5. Outcomes of the whole learning process.
Note
Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better

and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next generation.
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1.8 Learning activities
 How is the curriculum developed?

 How curriculum it organized?
 Who develops a curriculum?
 What are the principles in developing a curriculum?
 How do we know whether the curriculum is successful?
 Which curriculum perspective holds that:
a) Knowledge is personal and subjective?
b) Knowledge is based on evidence?
c) Teachers are sources of ideas and information?
d) Learners must experience knowledge?
 Consider the subjects offered by your school. Which ones would appeal
to those who have a pragmatic or existential view of the world?
 Who decides on the content, methods, purpose and evaluation of a
country’s curriculum?
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1.9 Summary
Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences

that learners encounter in an educational institution. A curriculum is a plan or
program of all experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a
school. It is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a school,
college, university or training organization.
Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes

planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and
evaluation. Curriculum implementation entails putting into practice the officially
prescribed courses of study, syllabuses and subjects.
Curriculum implementation is putting into practice the officially prescribed courses

of study, syllabuses and subjects. Implementation takes place when the teacher-
constructed syllabus, the teacher’s personality, the teaching materials and the
teaching environment interact with the learner.
In this lecture, you studied what a curriculum is and reviewed some of the
educational views on which a curriculum is based. The curriculum has four
elements that are in constant interaction: purpose (goals and objectives), content
or subject matter, methods or learning experiences and evaluation.
As a teacher, you need to understand the different perspectives that drive the
design of the curriculum. These are: Rationalist, empiricist, pragmatist and
existentialist.
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1.10 Further reading
Beach, D. M., and Reinhatz, J. (1989). Supervision: Focus on Instruction. New

York: Harper and Row.
Debin, F., and Olshtain, E. (1986). Course Design: Developing Programs and
Materials for Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Farrant, J. S. (1980). Principles and Practice of Education. Harare: Longman

Zimbabwe.
Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction.

Harare: Jongwe Press.
Scriven, M. (1973). The Methodology of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen and J. R.

Sanders (Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington,
OH: C. A. Jones.
Tanner, D., and Tanner, L. (1995). Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice
(3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.
University of Zimbabwe. (1995). Curriculum Implementation, Change and

Innovation. (Module EA3AD 303). Harare: Centre for Distance Education,
University of Zimbabwe.
Urevbu, A. O. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Ikeja: Longman.
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Chapter Two
TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF FORMAL, NON-FORMAL, INFORMAL CURRICULA FOR
CHILDREN, CAREGIVERS, PARENTS
2.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about types and examples of formal, non-formal, informal
curricula for children, caregivers, parents and communities. This lecture covers:
 Types and examples of formal, non-formal, informal curricula
 Summary
 Further Reading

 Explain different types of formal, non-formal, informal curricula for children,
caregivers, parents and communities
 Give examples of formal, non-formal, informal curricula for children, caregivers,
parents and communities
2.3 Formal, non-formal and informal education
Learning happens in human life in three basic ways: informal, non-formal and formal.
2.3.1 Informal curricula: The largest part of education is informal, that anyone gets from one's
family and the society one lives in. Every human being is fortunate to have this. There are
differences in the quality of this informal education for different families and societies, which plays
a crucial role in shaping the foundation of a person's mind that launches one on to the more
complicated voyage of life. No formal curriculum and no credits earned. The teacher is simply
someone with more experience such as a parent, grandparent or a friend. A father teaching his
child to play catch or a babysitter teaching a child their ABC’s is an example of informal
education.
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2.3.2 Formal education: Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally recognized
credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree, and is often guided and recognized by
government at some level. Teachers are usually trained as professionals in some way. It is also structured
and hierarchical. Numbers of books, teachers, classrooms, period of daily learning etc. in a school are more
or less fixed in this education. Learners are given examinations and on their success are upgraded and this
continues until s/he completes a cycle of a course. Legally valid and widely acceptable certificates are
provided at the end of a cycle. What is commonly understood by education is this: It gets the largest share
of discussion because socio-political organizations of a state are related with it. State can influence it and
vice versa. This is called formal education. It is the mainstream education; widely recognized schools,
colleges and universities are providers of this.
2.3.3 Non-formal learning – Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or may not be
guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led by a qualified teacher or by a
leader with more experience. Though it doesn’t result in a formal degree or diploma, non-formal
education is highly enriching and builds an individual’s skills and capacities. Continuing education
courses are an example for adults. Girl guides and boy scouts are an example for children. It is
often considered more engaging, as the learner’s interest is a driving force behind their
participation. It is large in its scope and reality but is known by adding a negative prefix to formal
education, that is, non-formal education. Providers of such education are social organizations,
study circles, theatre troupes, film societies, etc. Both inside and outside Dhaka, many people are
running schools for disadvantaged children by investing their own labour and money. Besides
these, there are other types of schools for disadvantaged people, which are run by NGOs. It is
they who use the term non-formal for the education they provide. These NGO schools are funded
by donors. For basic education they usually enrol children who have dropped out from
government or private formal schools. The general model of such non-formal primary schools is 1
usually makeshift classroom with often more than 1 classes running in it, 1 teacher, 2-4 contact
hours everyday, and 20-40 learners. Teachers of non-formal schools are considered as
volunteers from the local community, and so they receive a very low amount of money as
remuneration for their teaching. Education materials used in schools run by big NGOs are more
advanced than in formal schools. Teaching methods in non-formal schools is learner-centred,
whereas in formal schools it is teacher-centred. NGO schools give more emphasis to life-skills
education than on rote learning as in formal schools.
Though NGO leaders are very enthusiastic about their education model, none of their children
read in their schools and readers, I hope, need not be told in which type of schools they study.
Looking from the economic point of view, NGO schools are for children of poor people. There are
discriminations in many aspects such as the number of classroom, environment of classroom,
number of teachers, period of teachers' training, teachers' salary, contact-hour, etc. in these
schools. Yet, it is also true that there are many things for formal schools to learn from non-formal
education. Such lessons as effectiveness of teachers' training, life skills education instead of rote
learning, teaching-learning materials, etc. in non-formal schools are important for education policy
makers.
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Note
Learning happens in human life in three basic ways: informal, non-formal and
formal.
 Describe formal, informal and non-formal curricula

 Discuss how NGO’s provide the non formal curricula
 Give examples of formal, non-formal and informal curricula in Kenya
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2.5 Summary
The largest part of education is informal, that anyone gets from one's family and
the society one lives in. Every human being is fortunate to have this. Formal
education is Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally
recognized credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree,
and is often guided and recognized by government at some level. Non-formal
learning is Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or may not be
guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led by a qualified
teacher or by a leader with more experience
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2.6 Further Reading
Beach, D. M., and Reinhatz, J. (1989). Supervision: Focus on Instruction. New York: Harper
and Row.
Debin, F., and Olshtain, E. (1986). Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for
Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Farrant, J. S. (1980). Principles and Practice of Education. Harare: Longman Zimbabwe.
Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction. Harare:

Jongwe Press.
Scriven, M. (1973). The Methodology of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen and J. R. Sanders

(Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, OH: C. A. Jones.
Tanner, D., and Tanner, L. (1995). Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice (3rd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.
University of Zimbabwe. (1995). Curriculum Implementation, Change and Innovation.

(Module EA3AD 303). Harare: Centre for Distance Education, University of Zimbabwe.
CHAPTER THREE
SELECTED THEORIES AND MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about the types of curriculum designs based on Tyler, Taba’s,
and Saylor and Alexander models. This lecture covers:
 Taba’s model
 Tyler’s model
 Saylor and Alexander
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 Summary
 Further Reading

 Discuss various models of curriculum design.
 Compare curriculum design models.
 Explain steps in curriculum design in relation to models of curriculum.
3.3 Introduction
Curriculum design is a complex but systematic process. This lecture describes a variety of
models of curriculum design in order to make them understandable and manageable. It is
important for you to understand how the curriculum used in schools and colleges were designed.
3.4 The Tyler Model

There are many frameworks for curriculum development. One of the best known curriculum
models is the Tyler Model introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles
of Curriculum and Instruction in which he asked 4 questions. These questions are:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
In essence, Tyler’s questions represent the four-step sequence of

1. Identifying purposes or objectives
2. Selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives i.e. what
educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for students
3. Organizing these educational or teaching-learning experiences, and
4. Evaluating the outcomes or what have learners attained or achieved.
What is the purpose according to Tyler? By purposes, Tyler was referring to “objectives” and
when developing curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the
subject area (eg. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (eg. economically
disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (eg. ethics, patriotism,
environmental awareness, employment, market needs).
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the curriculum
developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen and the psychology
screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives which state the kind of outcomes
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that are observable are measurable. The next step is the selection of educational experiences
which enable the attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take
into account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning experiences will
have to be selected based on what is known about human learning and human development.
The next step, Tyler talked about the organization and sequencing of these learning experiences.
He emphasized that the experiences should be properly organized so as to enhance learning and
suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills be used as organizing elements woven into the
curriculum. These elements would serve as organizers linking content within a particular subject
(eg. history, economics, science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of
content.
Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the curriculum development
process. It is necessary for educators to know whether the selected learning experiences
produced the intended results. For example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among
learners then did the learning experiences selected achieve this objective. Through evaluation it
will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective.
Tyler’s thinking has greatly influenced the field of curriculum, especially curriculum development.
The four questions that he raised had and still have great appeal today because it is very
reasonable and workable. Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause
and effect, there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1998).
Curriculum Planning
Society Philosophy
Philosophy
Instructional
Subjec Objectiv
Objectives
SOURCES Scree
t es
ns
Learner Psycholo
Psycholo
gy
gy
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Selection of Organization Evaluation
Learning of Learning
Experiences Experiences
C urriculum Design Curriculum
Evaluation
Figure 1.2 Tyler’s Curriculum Development Model
[Source: adapted from Allan C. Ornstein & Francis P. Hunkins, Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and
Issues, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p.198.]
3.4 Hilda Taba Model
Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in her book
Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962. She argued that there was
a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that teachers, who teach the curriculum,
should participate in developing it which led to the model being called the “grass-roots approach”.
She came up with 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major
input. She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tyler
model involved too much top-down decision making, the greater portion of curriculum decisions
were made by administrators in the Central Office or the Ministry of Education.
Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme. Teachers should
begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning lectures for their students. She
advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to
curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics
and building toward a general design. This was just the
opposite to the more traditional deductive approach
which starts with the general design and then
working toward the specifics.
Teacher Input
Evaluatio
n
Diagnosis
of needs
Organiza
Needs tion of
Learning
21 Activiti
es
Teacher
Formulation
Input of
Objectives
Selectio
n of
Selection of
content
Content Learning
Activiti
es
Organizatio
n of
Content
Teacher Input
Figure 1.3 Taba’s Curriculum Development Model
Taba proposed 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input
throughout the curriculum development process. These are:
1. Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by
identifying the needs of learners for whom the curriculum is planned. For example, the
majority of learners are unable to think critically.
2. Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that require attention,
he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
3. Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or
content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but also the
validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be determined. i.e. the relevancy
and significance of content.
4. Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must organize it in
some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of learners, their academic
achievement, and their interests.
5. Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to learners and learners

must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods
that will involve the learners with the content.
6. Organization of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and organized,

so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities is determined
by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular learners whom he or
she will be teaching.
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7. Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must determine just what
objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be designed to
evaluate learning outcomes.
Taba’ model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement throughout the process
assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more importantly, the time to engage in such an
extensive and intensive curricular activity. Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum
development may not necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an effective
curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.
However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the involvement of many parties
at various stages of the process. It involves individuals from the Ministry of Education, district
education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and
even students. Usually, curriculum developers at the KIE or MoE are given the task of directing those
actions that bring together various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be
involved in implementing the curriculum while the main part of the curriculum is determined by the
Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists and employers.
3.5 The Saylor and Alexander Model
Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four
steps According to them, curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve
broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a
single school centre”
Bases (external variables)
Goals,
objectives
and domains
Curriculum Curriculum Curriculu

designing implementat m
ion evaluat
Feedback
Figure 1.4 Saylor and Alexander’s Curriculum Development Model

These stages are:
a) Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum planners begin by
specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish.
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Each major goal represents a curriculum domain and they advocate 4 major goals or
domains: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and
specialization. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful consideration
of several external variables such as findings from educational research, accreditation
standards, views of community groups and others.
b) Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been established,
planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here decision is made on the
appropriate learning opportunities for each domain and how and when these opportunities
will be provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or
according to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the
questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process.
c) Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next step is
implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the curriculum plan
teachers would specify instructional objectives and then select relevant teaching methods
and strategies to achieve the desired learning outcomes among learners in the classroom.
d) Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. The model
proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a variety of evaluation
techniques. Evaluation should involve the total educational programme of the school and
the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students.
Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine
whether or nor the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.
In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to another model.
Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with considerable success. But this
does not mean that the Tyler model represents the ultimate in models for curriculum development
or that all educators are satisfied with it.
The seven stages of curriculum design, as outlined by Tyler (1949) and Taba (1962), become
somewhat problematic when viewed in the context of designing Web-based curricula.
3.6 Note
The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All models
outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development. Interestingly, the
Taba model emphasizes the role of teachers in curriculum development while the
Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to pass through. However,
you should keep in mind that models often are incomplete; they do not and cannot
show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum process. To depict every
aspect in detail of the curriculum development process would require an exceedingly
complex and intricate model.
24
 What is the role of objectives in Tyler’s model?

 Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and psychology?
 Give 3 specific examples of ‘learning experiences’ according to the Tyler
Model,
 What are elements? Give specific examples
 What is meant by ‘domains’ in the Saylor and Alexander model?
 Explain why Taba’s model is called the grass-roots model
 Do you think teachers should be the main decision makers in the
development of a curriculum?
 To what extent are teachers involved in developing curriculum in Kenya?
3.8 Summary
25
The curriculum design models discussed show that curriculum designing is conducted
stage by stage. Some of the models discussed consider the process to be more important
than the objectives. Other models take objectives to be the most important feature of
curriculum design. Generally, all models stress the importance of considering a variety of
factors that influence curriculum.
Beer, V. (2000) The Web Learning Fieldbook: Using the World Wide Web to Build
Tyler's (1949) model is the most widely recognized. Tyler suggests four basic principles for
Workplace Learning Environments (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass).
curriculum development, including: purpose(s) of the school, educational experiences
related to purposes, organization of experiences, and evaluation of purposes. Later, Taba
Byun, H. P., Hallett, K., and Essex, C. (2000) Supporting instructors in the creation of
(1962) proposed a more complex model that builds on Tyler's view of effective curriculum
online distance education courses: lessons learned. Educational Technology, 40 (5), 57--
development. Taba's model includes the following stages: Diagnosis of need, formulation
60.
of objectives, selection of content, organization of content, selection of learning
experiences, organization of learning activities, and evaluation and means of evaluation.
Bugbee, A. C. (1996) The equivalence of paper-and-pencil and computer-based testing.
GSaylor and Journal
William of Research
Alexander on viewed
(1974) Computing in Education,
curriculum 28 (3), 282--299.
development as consisting of four
steps According to them, curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to
achieve broadChou, C., and Sun,
educational goalsC. T. (1996)
and relatedConstructing a cooperative
specific objective distance learning
for an identifiable system: the
population
CORAL experience.
served by a single school centre” Educational Technology Research and Development, 44 (4),
71-84.
Chou, C., and Lin, H. (1998) The effect of navigation map types and cognitive styles on
learners' performance in a computer-networked hypertext learning system. Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 7 (2/3), 151--176.
Chou, C. (1998) Developing CLUE: a formative evaluation system for computer network
learning courseware. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 10 (2), 179-193.
Chou, C. (1999) Developing hypertext-based learning courseware for computer networks:

the macro and micro stages. IEEE Transactions on Education, 42 (1), 39--44.
Chou, C. (2000) Constructing a computer-assisted testing and evaluation system on the

world wide web -- the CATES experience. IEEE Transactions on Education, 43 (3), 266-
272.
3.9 Conklin, J. (1987) Hypertext: an introduction and survey. IEEE Computer, 20 (9), 17--41.
Cornell, R. (1999) Web-based courseware tools: where is the pedagogy? Educational

Technology, 39 (3), 60--64.
Draves, W. A. (2000) Teaching Online (River Falls, WI: LERN Books).
Flagg, B. N. (1990) Formative Evaluation of Educational Technologies (Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
26
Fosnot, C. T. (1996) Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives and Practice (New York:
Teachers College Press).
Suggestions for further reading.
French, D., Hale, C., Johnson, C., and Farr, G. (eds) (1999) Internet Based Learning: An
Introduction and Framework for Higher Education and Business (Sterling, VA:
Taylor, P. C., and Fraser, B. J. (1991) CLES: An instrument for assessing constructivist
Stylus).
learning environments. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National
Association for Research in Science Teaching, Lake Geneva, WI.
Harrison, N., and Bergen, C. (2000) Some design strategies for developing an online
course. Educational Technology, 40 (1), 57--60.
Tsai, C.-C. (1998) Science learning and constructivism. Curriculum and Teaching, 13 (1),
31-52.
Jones, S. G. (1997) The Internet and its social landscape. In S. G. Jones (ed.), Virtual
Culture: Identity and Communication in Cybersociety (London: Sage), 7--35.
Tsai, C.-C. (2000) Relationships between student scientific epistemological beliefs and
perceptions of constructivist learning environments. Educational Research, 42 (2), 193--
Kearsley, G. (2000) Online Education: Learning and Teaching in Cyberspace (Toronto, ON:
205.
Wadsworth).
Tsai, C.-C. (2001) The interpretation construction design model for teaching science and its
Landow, G. P. (1997) Hypertext 2.0 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press).
applications to internet-based instruction in Taiwan. International Journal of
Educational Development, 21 (5), 401--415.
Perkins, D. (1999) The many faces of consrtuctivism. Educational Leadership, 57 (3), 6--
11.
Tyler, R. W. (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press).
Phillips, D. C. (1995) The good, the bad, and the ugly: the many faces of constructivism.
Educational Researcher, 24 (7), 5--12.
Von Glasersfeld, E. (1993) Questions and answers about radical constructivism. In K.
Tobin (ed.), The Practice of Constructivism in Science Education (Washington, DC:
Relan, A., and Gillani, B. B. (1997) Web-based instruction and the traditional classroom:
American Association for the Advancement of Science), 23--38.
Similarities and differences. In B. H. Khan (ed.), Web-based Instruction (Englewood
Cliffs,NJ: Educational Technology Publications), 41--46.
Willis, B., and Dickinson, J. (1997) Distance education and the world wide web. In B. H.
Khan (ed.), Web-based Instruction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Schifter, C. C. (1999) Teaching in the 21st century. The Internet and Higher Education, 1
Publication), 81-84.
(4), 281 290.
Woodhead, N. (1991) Hypertext and Hypermedia: Theory and Applications (Wilmslow,
Staver, J. R. (1998) Constructivism: sound theory of explicating the practice of science and
England: Sigma Press).
science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35 (5), 501-520.
Schweber, C., Kelley, B., and Orr. G. J. (1998) Training, and retraining, faculty for online
courses: Challenges and strategies. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on
Distance Teaching and Learning, Madison, WI, August 5--7 1998. ERIC ED 422 874.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (New York: Harcourt
Brace).
Taylor, P. C., Dawson, V., and Fraser, B. J. (1995) Classroom learning environments under
transformation: a constructivist perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting
of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
27
CHAPTER FOUR
IMPLEMENTATION AND FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION
4.0 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about the implementation patterns and factors affecting
curriculum implementation. This lecture covers:
 Meaning of curriculum development, implementation and evaluation
 Summary
 Further Reading

 Explain the meaning of curriculum
 Describe the elements of curriculum
 Explain the curriculum perspectives
4.3 Introduction
As a teacher, it is important that you know what is involved in implementing the prescribed
curriculum. The aim of this lecture is therefore to take you through the processes and stages of
curriculum implementation.
4.4 Definition of Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation entails putting into practice the officially prescribed courses of study,
syllabuses and subjects. The process involves helping the learner acquire knowledge or
experience. It is important to note that curriculum implementation cannot take place without the
learner. The learner is therefore the central figure in the curriculum implementation process.
Implementation takes place as the learner acquires the planned or intended experiences,
knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learner to function
effectively in a society. Viewed from this perspective, curriculum implementation also refers to the
stage when the curriculum itself, as an educational programme, is put into effect. Putting the
curriculum into operation requires an implementing agent. Stenhouse (19794) identifies the
teacher as the agent in the curriculum implementation process. She argues that implementation
is the manner in which the teacher selects and mixes the various aspects of knowledge contained
28
in a curriculum document or syllabus. Implementation takes place when the teacher-constructed
syllabus, the teacher’s personality, the teaching materials and the teaching environment interact with the
learner (University of Zimbabwe,
1995). Curriculum implementation therefore refers to how the planned or officially designed course of
study is translated by the teacher into syllabuses, schemes of work and lessons to be delivered to
students.
4.5 Factors that Impacts the Delivery and Effective Implementation of ECE Curriculum
The following factors may impact on the delivery and effective implementation of ECE curricula
either negative or positively.
The Teacher
As Whitaker (1979) asserts in the University of Zimbabwe (1995) module, the teachers view their
role in curriculum implementation as an autonomous one. They select and decide what to teach
from the prescribed syllabus or curriculum. Since implementation takes place through the
interaction of the learner and the planned learning opportunities, the role and influence of the
teacher in the process is indisputable (University of Zimbabwe, 1995). You could be thinking, “I
understand that teachers are pivotal in the curriculum implementation process, but what is their
role in the curriculum planning process?” If the teacher is to be able to translate curriculum
intentions into reality, it is imperative that the teacher understand the curriculum document or
syllabus well in order to implement it effectively (University of Zimbabwe, 1995). If the curriculum
is what teachers and learnerscreate together, as Wolfson (1997) states in Curriculum
Implementations (University of Zimbabwe, 1995), the teacher must play a more significant role in
designing the curriculum. Teachers must be involved in curriculum planning and development so
that they can implement and modify the curriculum for the benefit of their learners.
The Learners
Learners are also a critical element in curriculum implementation. While teachers are the arbiters
of the classroom practice, the learners hold the key to what is actually transmitted and adopted
from the official curriculum. The official curriculum can be quite different from the curriculum that
is actually implemented. The learner factor influences teachers in their selection of learning
experiences, hence the need to consider the diverse characteristics of learners in curriculum
implementation (University of Zimbabwe, 1995). For example, home background and learner
ability can determine what is actually achieved in the classroom.
Resource Materials and Facilities

Another major concern is the availability of instructional materials most of the time there are none
or, if available, they are inadequate. The instructional materials deficit includes not only the
students’ textbooks and teachers’ manuals, but also science and vocational subject facilities,
equipment/apparatus and supplementary teaching/learning materials.Meaningful teaching and
learning take place without adequate resource materials. This applies to curriculum
implementation as well. For the officially designed curriculum to be fully implemented as per plan,
the government or Ministry of Education should supply schools with adequate resource materials
such as textbooks, teaching aids and stationery in order to enable teachers and learners to play
their role satisfactorily in the curriculum implementation process. In Curriculum Implementation
(University of Zimbabwe, 1995), it is suggested that the central government must also provide
29
physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops, libraries and sports fields in order
to create an environment in which implementation can take place. The availability and quality of
resource material and the availability of appropriate facilities have a great influence on curriculum
implementation.
Interest Groups
Can you identify interest groups in your country that could influence the implementation of
curricula? A number of these groups exist in almost all East African countries. These include
parents, parents’ and teachers’ associations, religious organizations, local authorities, companies
and private school proprietors. These groups can influence implementation in the following ways:
• Provide schools with financial resources to purchase required materials.
• Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum.
• Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the interests of the group.
It is therefore important to involve these groups at the curriculum planning stage.
The School Environment

One other factor that influences curriculum implementation concerns the particular circumstances
of each school (University of Zimbabwe, 1995). Schools located in rich socio-economic
environments and those that have adequate human and material resources can implement the
curriculum to an extent that would be difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic
environments. Teachers need supporting environment for a successful curriculum implementation
because collaborative relationship and networking are crucial factors that motivate teachers for
better implementation.
Moreover, Teberg (1999) also emphasized the necessity of administrative support for a
successful curriculum implementation. For him, teachers without the encouragement and
assistance from the colleagues and administration, it is unrealistic to expect them not to have
problems in curriculum implementation.
Culture and Ideology

Cultural and ideological differences within a society or country can also influence curriculum
implementation. Some communities may resist a domineering culture or government ideology
and hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned curriculum.
Instructional Supervision
Curriculum implementation cannot be achieved unless it has been made possible through the
supervisory function of the school head. The head does this through:
• Deploying staff,
• Allocating time to subjects taught at the school,
• Providing teaching and learning materials, and
• Creating an atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and learning.
As stated in Curriculum Implementation (University of Zimbabwe, 1995), the head “monitors and
guides curriculum implementation through ensuring that schemes of work, lesson plans and
records of marks are prepared regularly”. The headteacher maintains a school tone and culture
that create the climate of social responsibility. Effective curriculum implementation does not take
place in a school where the head is incapable of executing supervisory functions.
30
Educational Level
Berry, Tout and Zaslow, (2006), it is elaborated that higher levels of teacher education were
generally linked with higher classroom quality in elementary and higher levels, but in terms of
early childhood education, there is no great distinctions. In other words, it can not be concluded
that the higher level of education early childhood teachers have, the higher quality classrooms
with fewer problems. In addition, Alva, Benden, Bryant, Burchical and Maxwell (2007) detected no
association with higher teacher education level and higher classroom quality in early childhood
education. Preschool teachers with less or more education levels are exposed to problems during
curriculum implementation as the effective pedagogy is complex and do not depend on one single
criteria (Field, Clifford and Maxwell, 2006).
Other barriers to effective curriculum implementation are:

 Large classes
 Teacher availability (for the specialized secondary subject areas)
 Quality of instructional supervision.
 Under-funding
 Population explosion
 The quality of new entrants (students) into the university system
 Time usage.
4.6 Note
That in designing a suitable and relevant curriculum, curriculum planners should always
consider political, social, economic, technological and environmental factors, theories in the
field of child psychology and other factors.
 In what way is the teacher an important factor in the

implementation of a prescribed curriculum?
 You have been asked to prepare a speech for the headteachers on
what can be done to facilitate curriculum implementation. List
the major points you would include in your speech.
31
4.8 Summary
This lecture has outlined some of the factors impacts on delivery and
effective implementation of an ECE curriculum and how each factor
influences the implementation process. Do remember that in
educational practice, these factors interact with each other and generate
influences that cannot be attributed to one factor or another. These
factors include: teachers, learners, school environment, materials and
facilities, level of education and culture and ideology.
32
4.9 Suggestions for further reading
Beer, V. (2000) The Web Learning Fieldbook: Using the World Wide Web to Build Workplace
Learning Environments (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass).
Byun, H. P., Hallett, K., and Essex, C. (2000) Supporting instructors in the creation of online
distance education courses: lessons learned. Educational Technology, 40 (5), 57--60.
Bugbee, A. C. (1996) The equivalence of paper-and-pencil and computer-based testing. Journal

of Research on Computing in Education, 28 (3), 282--299.
Chou, C., and Sun, C. T. (1996) Constructing a cooperative distance learning system: the
CORAL experience. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44 (4), 71- 84.
Chou, C. (1998) Developing CLUE: a formative evaluation system for computer network
learning courseware. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 10 (2), 179-193.
Chou, C. (1999) Developing hypertext-based learning courseware for computer networks: the
macro and micro stages. IEEE Transactions on Education, 42 (1), 39--44.
Chou, C. (2000) Constructing a computer-assisted testing and evaluation system on the world
wide web -- the CATES experience. IEEE Transactions on Education, 43 (3), 266-272.
Chou, C., Tsai, C. C., and Tsai, H, F. (2001) Developing a networked VRML learning system
for health science education in Taiwan. International Journal of Educational
Development, 21 (4), 293--303.
Conklin, J. (1987) Hypertext: an introduction and survey. IEEE Computer, 20 (9), 17--41.
Cornell, R. (1999) Web-based courseware tools: where is the pedagogy? Educational

Technology, 39 (3), 60--64.
Flagg, B. N. (1990) Formative Evaluation of Educational Technologies (Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
Fosnot, C. T. (1996) Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives and Practice (New York: Teachers
College Press).
33
French, D., Hale, C., Johnson, C., and Farr, G. (eds) (1999) Internet Based Learning: An
Introduction and Framework for Higher Education and Business (Sterling, VA: Stylus).
Harrison, N., and Bergen, C. (2000) Some design strategies for developing an online course.
Educational Technology, 40 (1), 57--60.
Jones, S. G. (1997) The Internet and its social landscape. In S. G. Jones (ed.), Virtual Culture:
Identity and Communication in Cybersociety (London: Sage), 7--35.
Kearsley, G. (2000) Online Education: Learning and Teaching in Cyberspace (Toronto, ON:
Wadsworth).
Landow, G. P. (1997) Hypertext 2.0 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press).
Perkins, D. (1999) The many faces of consrtuctivism. Educational Leadership, 57 (3), 6--11.
Phillips, D. C. (1995) The good, the bad, and the ugly: the many faces of constructivism.
Educational Researcher, 24 (7), 5--12.
Relan, A., and Gillani, B. B. (1997) Web-based instruction and the traditional classroom:
Similarities and differences. In B. H. Khan (ed.), Web-based Instruction (Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications), 41--46.
Schifter, C. C. (1999) Teaching in the 21st century. The Internet and Higher Education, 1 (4),
281--290.
Staver, J. R. (1998) Constructivism: sound theory of explicating the practice of science and
science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35 (5), 501-520.
Schweber, C., Kelley, B., and Orr. G. J. (1998) Training, and retraining, faculty for online
courses: Challenges and strategies. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Distance
Teaching and Learning, Madison, WI, August 5--7 1998. ERIC ED 422 874.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (New York: Harcourt Brace).
Taylor, P. C., Dawson, V., and Fraser, B. J. (1995) Classroom learning environments under
transformation: a constructivist perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Taylor, P. C., and Fraser, B. J. (1991) CLES: An instrument for assessing constructivist learning
environments. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for
Research in Science Teaching, Lake Geneva, WI.
Tsai, C.-C. (1998) Science learning and constructivism. Curriculum and Teaching, 13 (1), 31-
52.
34
Tsai, C.-C. (2000) Relationships between student scientific
epistemological beliefs and perceptions of constructivist learning
environments. Educational Research, 42 (2), 193--205.
Tsai, C.-C. (2001) The interpretation construction design model for teaching science and its
applications to internet-based instruction in Taiwan. International Journal of Educational
Development, 21 (5), 401--415.
Tyler, R. W. (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press).von Glasersfeld, E. (1993) Questions and answers about radical
constructivism. In K. Tobin (ed.), The Practice of Constructivism in Science Education
(Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science), 23--38.
Willis, B., and Dickinson, J. (1997) Distance education and the world wide web. In B. H. Khan
(ed.), Web-based Instruction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publication), 81--84.
Woodhead, N. (1991) Hypertext and Hypermedia: Theory and Applications (Wilmslow,

England: Sigma Press
35
CHAPTER FIVE
KENYAN NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION AND

OBJECTIVES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
5.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about Kenyan goals of education and
objectives of early childhood education. This lecture covers:
 Explain the Kenyan goals of education and objectives of ECD
 Summary
 Further Reading

 Explain the meaning of curriculum
 Describe the elements of curriculum
 Explain the curriculum perspectives
5.3 The Goal of Education in Kenya
The provision of educational opportunities has been a standing objective of the

Government of Kenya (GoK) since independence in 1963 for it is considered by different
stakeholders in the country as an important vehicle for self-advancement socio-economic
and political development. It has also now become clear that when educational
opportunities are opened to girls and women, such benefits are even greater. To achieve
this, Kenya’s guiding philosophy for education is the concern that every Kenyan has the
inalienable right, no matter his or her socio-economic status to basic Education (GoK,
1997). Education has, therefore, been seen as a fundamental strategy for human capital
development and a crucial vehicle for enhancing the quality of life. Over the last 37
years, the Government, households, communities and the private investors have striven to
enhance the development of education in the country. Such investment has been in line
with the philosophy spelt out in the Sessional Paper No. 10 on African Socialism and Its
Application to Planning in Kenya (GoK, 1965). The efforts of various players in
investing in this sector have been guided by the various policy documents.
36
In this regard Education should always seek to realize the eight goals of Education which
are:
1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity
2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development
o Social needs: Prepare children for the changes in attitudes and

relationships which are necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly
developing modern economy
o Economic needs: Produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and
personal qualities that are required to support a growing economy
o Technological and industrial needs: Provide the learners with the
necessary skills and attitudes for industrial development
1. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment

2. Promote sound moral and religious values
3. Promote social equality and Responsibility
4. Promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures
5. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitude towards other
nations
6. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection
5.4 General objectives of ECD in Kenya.
Based on the national goals discussed above, the objectives of early childhood education
were then derived. The goals of education reflect the philosophy and the values of the
Kenyan people. The objectives of ECD in Kenya are:
1. To provide education geared towards development of a child’s mental; capabilities

and physical growth
2. To enable the child to enjoy living and learning through play
3. To develop the child’s self awareness, self esteem and self confidence.
4. to enable the child develop understanding and appreciation of his/her culture and
environment
5. To foster the child’s exploration skills, creativity, self-expression and discovery
6. To identify the child with special needs and align him/her with existing services
7. To enable the child to build good habits and acquire acceptable values and
behaviors for effective living and as an individual and a member of a group.
8. To foster the spiritual and moral growth of the child.
9. To improve the status of the child’s health, care and nutritional needs and link
him/her with health services such as immunizations, health check-ups and growth
monitoring
37
10. To enrich the child’s experiences to enable him/ her to cope better with primary
school life.
11. To develop the child’s aesthetic and artistic skills.
5.5 Note
Kenya has one fundamental goal for her education. That is to

prepare and equip the youth to be happy and useful members of
the society.
 List five goals of education in Kenya.

 Discuss how teachers can use the general objectives
of ECD to enhance children’s holistic development.
 Identify objectives that may be hard to accomplish
in your community
38
5.7 Summary
The development, management, organization and delivery of

education and training services should be guided by the
philosophy f education and training for social cohesion as
well as human and economic development. Emphasis should be on
the provision of holistic quality education and training that
promotes education that involves both cognitive and effective
domains.
5.8 Suggestions for further reading.
GoK (1999) guidelines for early childhood development in Kenya. Nairobi: KIE
Ayot and Patel (1992) Instructional Methods.Nairobi:ERAP
39
CHAPTER SIX
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOALS OF EDUCATION AND

CHILDREN'S NEEDS, RIGHTS, AND DEVELOPMENT
6.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about the relationship between children’s
goals of education and children’s needs, rights and development. This lecture
covers:
 the relationship between children’s goals of education and children’s
needs, rights and development.
 Summary
 Further Reading
6.3 Relationship between children’s rights, needs, goals and development
All children have a right to be recognised .The society and adults need to
recognise children’s needs and rights. This is only achievable if we take time to
‘understand’ the child’s framework. The journey is not through until and unless
we allow the child to participate in decisions that will affect his/her life. The child’s
citizenship rights’ features inform us that the child (1) is a person, (2) has
strengths and competences, (3) needs recognition, respect and participation, and
40
(4) the child is, no matter what age, a citizen, and is entitled to the rights of
recognition, respect and be able to part take in matters that will affect its life as a
citizen.
The right to recognition is one of the fundamental human needs. If adults and
society do not acknowledge the recognition of the child, the child becomes
‘invisible’ and ‘ignored’. It is only when children are recognised as people in their
own right that adults can acknowledge that they have their own ways of
understanding the world and are capable of defining their own needs, rights,
interests and responsibilities.
Human rights are not contingent on the exercise of responsibility. They are innate
and universal. There is no requirement on the part of a child, for example, that
she or he demonstrate a responsible attitude in order to ‘earn’ an entitlement to
education. Nevertheless, there is a direct and complex relationship between
rights and responsibilities, rooted in the reciprocal and mutual nature of human
rights. All children have a right to learn. This means they are entitled to an
effective learning environment in multiple spaces, not just the school setting and
at the primary level. It also implies that they have responsibilities to ensure their
behavior does not deny that right to other children. All children are entitled to
express their views and have them given due weight. This involves listening as
well as talking. It requires that children play a part in the creation of constructive
spaces that promote mutual respect. And as teachers have responsibilities for
children’s rights, so children, too, have responsibilities towards teachers. The
same principles of mutual respect apply between children and adults. The right to
protection from violence extends to both children and adults, and places a
responsibility on children to avoid the use of aggression or physical violence.
While teachers bear responsibility for preparing lessons, teaching, grading work,
maintaining positive classroom discipline and creating opportunities for children
to express views, so children carry responsibilities for undertaking their work,
collaborating with other children, keeping the classroom in order and, so far as it
is within their means, arriving regularly and on time. One of the most effective
means of promoting children’s understanding of the reciprocal basis of rights is to
create an environment where their own rights are respected. Through this
experience, they develop the capacities to exercise responsibility.
Access and quality

Where resources are scarce, the requirement to make education universally
available can mean a reduction in the per capita funding for each child leading to
higher teacher-student ratios, overcrowded classes, fewer materials and
resources per class, and lower building standards – thereby sacrificing quality for
access. In these circumstances, access to education is an overriding concern,
and it is not acceptable to discriminate between groups of children and offer
preferential treatment to some on the basis of resources. Yet, whenever possible,
efforts need to be made to increase the budgetary allocation to ensure there is
access to quality education for all children. A tendency to discriminate must be
41
guarded against, and donors may need to ensure that funding is dedicated to the
provision of education without discrimination on any grounds.
Equity and efficiency

The approaches necessary to make schooling available for all children may be
less efficient and cost-effective. Although it may be more expensive to develop
small satellite schools in villages, for example, this may be the only way of
encouraging parents to allow young girls to attend. It may be more economically
efficient to place all children who do not speak the national language in a
separate school, but doing so may deny them the right to an education on an
equal basis with other children. It is important to consult with children, parents
and communities to explore what will work most effectively in their environment.
This will help build a sense of ownership and collaboration in finding solutions
that will best strengthen access to education. There is little point in designing a
cost-effective system that is rejected by the local community.
Universality and diversity

The respect for difference and the right to be different in regard to cultural,
linguistic and religious identity needs to be reconciled with the universal right to
education as part of a broader set of human rights. Approaches to education
provision that ensure universal education for all need to be undertaken with due
regard for local and regional differences, particularly in regard to language and
culture. Failure to do so implies a failure to reach out to all communities.
Priorities
Scarce resources can lead to trade-offs, such as the decision to invest in primary
education at the cost of limiting access to secondary education, or to postpone
the development of educational opportunities for children with disabilities.
Realistically, it is not possible for all governments to fulfill their obligations to
ensure the right to education for all children immediately. However, where
financial and human resources are limited, the principle of progressive realization
requires governments to have a clear strategy and time frame for achieving the
objective of universal access to primary and secondary education, and each
action should be conducive to the full realization of the right to education for all.
Outcomes and process

Pressure to achieve such targets as the Millennium Development Goals may
lead to strategies that are designed to produce immediate results but fail to invest
in long-term social change to sustain a genuine commitment to and capacity for
meaningful education. For example, an increased number of school places and
teachers may lead to higher levels of enrolment, only to result in increased drop-
out rates because no accommodation has been made to children’s particular
circumstances. Ensuring attendance, completion and reasonable attainment in
42
school involves consultations with children and parents; policies to address
poverty; the development of more relevant curricula; and respect for children’s
rights in school, including the abolition of physical and humiliating punishments.
Emergency responses in the short and longer term

In emergencies, the immediate focus is inevitably on survival and the provision of
food, water, shelter and medical treatment. For children, however, the immediate
re-introduction of education is not only a right but can also be a vital resource in
restoring normality, overcoming psychosocial trauma, building capacities for
survival and providing structure out of chaos. There are a growing number of
positive examples of programmes designed to provide immediate schooling in
the aftermath of crises (Ensuring that a maximum number of children attend
school under these difficult circumstances has to be balanced, however, with the
parallel need to guarantee quality education in the short and longer term.
CHAPTER 1 Human rights and education 25
Teachers’ and children’s rights
It is sometimes argued by teachers that affording respect for the rights of children
diminishes respect for their own rights. They may erroneously believe that
prohibiting physical punishment or involving students in decisions diminishes
their position or makes it more difficult to maintain discipline. This view derives
from an assumption that rights represent a fixed quantity of entitlement and that
giving more to one constituency necessarily deprives the other. It also derives
from an authoritarian understanding of the teacher-child relationship. While
respecting the rights of children does involve some transfer of power, this does
not necessitate the loss of rights on the part of the teacher. In practice, without
mutual respect, the pedagogic relationship is fragile. Creating a school
environment in which children’s rights are respected is more likely to enhance
respect for the role of the teacher, although this outcome can only be achieved if
teachers are appropriately supported and resourced.
Work and school

Controversy about the role of work in children’s lives continues. There are
tensions associated with the extent to which it, on the one hand, provides
preparation for life, and on the other, impedes educational outcomes. There is no
consensus as to whether there are forms of work that are acceptable and can be
accommodated alongside the right to education – or whether all child work
should be prohibited during the years of compulsory schooling. The Convention
on the Rights of the Child makes clear that children must be protected from all
forms of work that are harmful to their development or that interfere with their
education.
International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention 182 elaborates the worst

forms of child labour and makes clear governments’ obligations to protect all
children from these areas of work. Governments need to introduce legislation
and policies that guarantee these protections. It is also incumbent on
governments to provide education that offers a viable alternative to employment
43
in terms of its quality and relevance; to introduce policies that address the
poverty and livelihood insecurity that force many children into work; and to make
education sufficiently flexible and inclusive to allow those children to attend who
have no choice but to work.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first legally binding international
instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights: civil, cultural, economic,
political and social. In 1989, world leaders decided that children needed a special
convention just for them because people under 18 years old often need special
care and protection that adults do not. The leaders also wanted to make sure that
the world recognized that children have human rights too. The Convention sets
out these rights in 54 articles and two Optional Protocols. It spells out the basic
human rights that children everywhere have: the right to survival; to develop to
the fullest; to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and to
participate fully in family, cultural and social life.The four core principles of the
Convention are: non-discrimination; the best interests of the child; the right to life,
survival and development; and respect for the views of the child. Every right
spelled out in the Convention is inherent to the human dignity and harmonious
development of every child. The Convention protects children’s rights by setting
standards in health care; education; and legal, civil and social services. By
agreeing to undertake the obligations of the Convention (by ratifying or acceding
to it), national governments have committed themselves to protecting and
ensuring children’s rights and they have agreed to hold themselves accountable
for this commitment before the international community. State parties to the
Convention are obliged to develop and undertake all actions and policies in the
light of the best interests of the child.
6.4 A right to development

The principle that children have ‘a right to development' goes back at least as far
as the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, adopted by The League of
Nations in 1924 and including the statement: "The child must be given the means
needed for its normal development, both materially and spiritually". Thirty-five
years later, in the context of a very different world order, the UN Declaration of
the Rights of the Child (1959) also included development amongst its ten
principles: "The child shall enjoy special protection and shall be given
opportunities to develop in a healthy and normal manner, and in conditions of
freedom and dignity". A further thirty years international human rights work
resulted in the UN Convention of the Rights of the Child, 1989, with its much
more comprehensive coverage of protection, provision and participation rights.
The UNCRC draws heavily on the principle that children have a right to
development, notably in Article 6:
'States Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and
development of the child', (UNCRC, 1989, Article 6).
44
The responsibility of governments to promote children’s optimal development is
one of the cornerstones of the UNCRC. Several articles refer specifically to “the
child's physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development, for example
Article 27 (on provision of an adequate standard of living) and Article 32 (on
protecting children from harmful work). Many other articles can also be seen as
about promoting development, for example, Article 24 (on rights to health),
Articles 28 and 29 (on rights to education) Article 31 (on rights to play and
recreation), as well as Articles 5 and 18 (on responsibilities of parents). For
detailed commentary on UNCRC Articles see Hodgkin and Newell (1998).
The UN Committee emphasizes that rights to development are to be understood
in a holistic way and that all rights are interrelated, interdependent and indivisible.
To this end, the UN Committee has identified four articles which - when taken
together – can be seen as offering general principles. These, briefly, are:
Article 6 on survival and development (as quoted above);
Article 2 ensures rights to every child without discrimination;
Article 3 sets out that the bests interests of the child are a primary
consideration:
Article12 states that children have a right to express views in all matters
that affect them.
The reason for highlighting these general principles is that – when taken together
- they begin to point to some of the challenges in interpreting children’s right to
development. For example: can development be defined in a way that is
universally relevant, or should we be thinking more in terms of pathways to
development? How can a balance be achieved between respecting diversities in
children’s development, (in terms of expectations, treatment, styles of care and
approaches to education) and realizing rights without discrimination? How should
‘best interests’ be interpreted in the face of competing views – how far does
protecting and promoting development provide a yardstick? How far can or
should children be active in shaping the course of their development, expressing
their views on their best interests, and what are the roles and responsibilities of
adults with responsibilities for guiding children’s effective participation?
45
6.5 Note
Young children are often discriminated against and oppressed in society. The
unfortunate belief that informs this is that a child has to go through a ‘normalization’
process before he/she is seen and respected as a ‘complete’ citizen in our society,
i.e. it is believed that the child must almost have reached adulthood – or a certain
age – before he/she is treated with equal respect and value as an adult citizen.
 Children have a right to development’. Discuss

 Children’s have a right to learn. Discuss this statement basing it on MDG
on education
 Discuss the relationship between children’s rights, needs, goals and
development
46
6.7 Summary
The society and adults need to recognise children’s needs and rights. This is only
achievable if we take time to ‘understand’ the child’s framework. All children have a
right to learn. This means they are entitled to an effective learning environment in
multiple spaces, not just the school setting and at the primary level. It also implies
that they have responsibilities to ensure their behavior does not deny that right to
other children. The principle that children have ‘a right to development' goes back at
least as far as the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, adopted by The
League of Nations in 1924 and including the statement:
Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child

International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention
Millennium Development Goals
the UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959)
UN Convention of the Rights of the Child, (1989)
47
CHAPTER SEVEN
CURRICULUM REVIEW REPORTS IN KENYA
7.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about curriculum review reports in Kenya
since independence. This lecture covers:
 Curriculum reviews reports
 Summary
 Further Reading

 Discuss curriculum review reports in Kenya since independence
7.3 Curriculum Reports
Education has, therefore, been seen as a fundamental strategy for human capital
development and a crucial vehicle for enhancing the quality of life. Over the last
37 years, the Government, households, communities and the private investors
have striven to enhance the development of education in the country. Such
investment has been in line with the philosophy spelt out in the Sessional Paper
No. 10 on African Socialism and Its Application to Planning in Kenya (GoK,
1965). The efforts of various players in investing in this sector have been guided
by the various policy documents.
The development of education in Kenya has been marked by various changes

and challenges, and so is the impact the sector has had on national
development. Over the last 30 years, the education sector has undergone major
48
transformations with more than ten reviews by special commissions and working
parties established by the Government. These include:
7.4.1 The Ominde Commission (1964)
The Kenya Education Commission, 1964 popularly known as The

Ominde Report was the first post-independence Education Commission to
comprehensively address the objectives of education in the country. The
Commission named after its chairman, Prof Simeon Ominde among other
responsibilities sought to reform the education system to make it more
responsive to the needs of independent Kenya, such as developing indigenous
manpower to replace the Whites who were leaving the country.
The first Education Commission recommended among others, the provision of

Universal Primary Education (UPE) and formulated the national goals for
education in Kenya. One of the goals states “education should meet the
economic and social needs of national development, equipping the youth of the
country to play effective and productive role in national building.”
This report, coming immediately after independence, focused on non-

discrimination in education for all children. The report recommended the
establishment of special schools for children with disabilities. However, no
special measures were proposed to enhance education for children with
disabilities, given their vulnerability, nor was the Government’s role stated clearly.
The report discouraged the continuation of admission to schools along racial

lines and recommended a curriculum to foster national unity; national and cultural
integration and address social and regional inequalities besides stressing the
need to train human capital for national development. The Report emphasized
the need to expand secondary education; recommended the management of
public primary schools by local authorities and laid emphasis on secondary and
higher education for the production of middle and higher level manpower
required for development.
7.4.2 Sessional Paper N0. 10
Soon thereafter came Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 on African Socialism and
its Application to Planning in Kenya. Here, education was seen as a means of
producing manpower for economic growth and development, and by extension,
as a means for narrowing disparities within the Kenyan society. Indeed, it was a
lull for the locals until The National Committee on Education Objectives and
Policies of 1976 was constituted (The Gachathi Report).
7.4.3 The National Commission on Education objectives and policies or

Gachathi Report (1975)
49
The Committee which was chaired by the then Permanent Secretary in the
Ministry of Education, Peter Gachathi advocated the establishment of Teachers
Service Commission (TSC, field lectures; expressed concern over the tendency
of education to prepare learners for white collar jobs; extension of free primary
education to upper levels (5-8) by 1980 and the teaching of science and practical
oriented subjects in technical and vocational fields.
Gachathi proposed restructuring of education system to nine years primary and

junior secondary; four years middle secondary; two years higher secondary and
three years minimum university education. It was the very Committee that laid
emphasis on early childhood education which led to the establishment of the
National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) at the Kenya Institute
of Education (KIE), and more importantly proposed the training of teachers in
guidance and counselling. Over 90 per cent of the report was not implemented
by the Government.
7.4.5 The Presidential Working Party on the Establishment of the Second

University, 1988 or The Mackay Report
The commission made various proposals including restructuring of the education

system to eight years of primary, four years of secondary and the same number
of years minimum for university education. The Committee which was chaired by
Prof Collins Mackay, a Canadian, proposed diversified school curriculum with
emphasis on technical skills. The aim was to prepare pupils for self-employment,
post-school training and further education.
Prof Mackay also proposed the establishment of the second public university in
Kenya (Moi University, Eldoret); establishment of the Commission for Higher
Education (CHE) and the expansion of post-secondary training institutions.
7.4.6 The Presidential Working Party on Education and Man Power Training
or the Kamunge Report (1988)
Shortly thereafter, Kenya had in place, The Presidential Working Party on

Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond, 1988 (The
Kamunge Report) which among other recommendations called for strengthening
and improving Teachers Advisory Centres (TACs); reducing wastage (drop-out
rates and reputation) and increased cost-sharing between the Government,
parents and communities in the provision of education services. The policy led to
high cost of education and decline in the popular participation in education due to
declines in access, retention, completion and transition.
The Working Party’s recommendations, indeed, led to the abolition of student

allowances in tertiary institutions including universities. In the cost sharing
strategy (Sessional Paper No. 6) the Government committed itself to reducing
the share of its budget to education by shifting recurrent costs such as the
purchase of books, fees, uniforms and other private costs such as transport and
50
meals to the pupils/learners and the community . The schools depended almost
entirely on parental contributions for Non-Teaching Staff costs.
It recommended the strengthening of vocational and technical education to boost

the country’s manpower and focusing on improving education financing, quality
and relevance. The subsequent initiatives to turn round the country’s education
included adoption of Education For All (EFA). The National Task Force on Gender
and Education (1995); Commission of Inquiry into Education System in Kenya
(The Koech Report) and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005: Setting An Agenda.
7.4.7 The Commission of Inquiry into the System of Education in Kenya or

the Koech Report (1999)
Following the initiation of the 8.4.4 system of education, the Government formed
the Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya, also known as
the Koech Commission. This is the most comprehensive Report which
recommended the expansion of basic education to cover 12 years of primary and
secondary education. It outlined ways and means of enabling education to
facilitate lifelong learning, national unity, and mutual social responsibility,
accelerated industrial and technical development, while responding to changing
circumstances (MOEST, 2005). While the government did not adopt the TIQET
program, some of its core recommendations have been adopted and
implemented (such as curriculum rationalization).
The Report observed that the goal of education is to provide equal opportunities
for all children including those with special needs; hence the formulation of Total
Quality Integrated Education (TIQET), which, according to the report, is a
comprehensive framework that addresses previously omitted aspects of
education including special education. It observed that the rapid growth in the
education sector had not been reflected in the special education category; hence
children with disabilities had not received equal chances of access to education.
This, according to the report, had been further compounded by the lack of
specialized personnel, shortage of specialized equipment, inappropriate curricula
and the absence of clear policy guidelines as well as clear legal status of special
education. Moreover, the Koech Commission found the Education Act to be
outdated since it neglected crucial areas of education including for those with
special needs, and hence it (Education Act) could not be used as the basis for
education policy development, coordination and implementation.
7.4.8 Task Force to Review and Realign the Education, Training and
Research Sector to the new constitution of Kenya - 2011
With the promulgation of the New Constitution, Prof Ongeri felt for the purposes
of reviewing and realigning the education, training and research sector in light of
51
the new constitution, a Task Force should be established with a view to giving a
new face to the sector with a well crafted Education Act.
The Task Force chaired by an eminent scholar, Prof Douglas Odhiambo has
been tasked to analyze the implementation of the New Constitution on education,
training and research for national development; review the education system in
Kenya in relation to: (i) relevance and responsiveness of the curriculum to Vision
2030; (ii) access, equity, quality and transitional issues; (iii) to look into
structures of education system from kindergarten to university, including tertiary
educational institutions, institutions of research, special needs education, adult
education, village polytechnics, home-craft centres and childcare facilities.
The task force will be expected to undertake a situational analysis of the

Education sector by reviewing all relevant documents including reports of
Commissions’, policy papers, legal documents and reviewing best practices from
countries which have National and County governments.
The Task Force will have the power to hold consultative clustered County
meetings or workshops with stakeholders; hold national level education
consultative conferences; co-opt local and international experts in particular
areas of need as may be necessary; commission studies or researches to
institutions or individuals with requisite expertise as required to undertake its task
and more importantly, co-ordinate and consult with relevant ministries,
departments and agencies in order to access all the relevant information,
document and studies as relevant to enable the Task Force executes its
mandate.
The Task Force shall submit to the Minister periodic drafts of the proposed legal
and policy frameworks for review, discussion and feedback on priority areas like
financing of Education sector at all levels of Government and modalities of
resource mobilisation to ensure provision for free and compulsory basic
education, and by extension the framework on the relationship between the
National and County governments, and structures in the management and
implementation of education programmes.
The Final Report which the team is expected to present to the Minister within six
months effect from February 2nd, 2011 will contain a comprehensive Task Force
Report; Proposed Sessional Paper, Draft Education Bill and more importantly
Cabinet Memorandum and Policy brief.
52
7.6 Note
That the reviews have been necessitated by the quest to address the pertinent
issues of access, relevance, quality and efficiency of the education system in the
country.
 Explain the recommendations of Ominde, Mackay, Kamunge, Koech

and Gachati commissions
 Discuss the mandate of the Kenyan task force on education of 2011
53
7.6 Summary
Over the last 37 years, the Government, households, communities and the private
investors have striven to enhance the development of education in the country. Over
the last 30 years, the education sector has undergone major transformations with
more than ten reviews by special commissions and working parties established by
the Government.
The Kenya Education Commission, 1964 (The Ominde Report) was the first post-
independence Education Commission to comprehensively address the objectives of
education in the country. The report discouraged the continuation of admission to
schools along racial lines and recommended a curriculum to foster national unity ,
national and cultural integration and address social and regional inequalities besides
stressing the need to train human capital for national development. The Report
emphasized the need to expand secondary education; recommended the management
of public primary schools by local authorities and laid emphasis on secondary and
higher education for the production of middle and higher level manpower required
for development.
Gachathi proposed restructuring of education system to nine years primary and

junior secondary; four years middle secondary; two years higher secondary and
three years minimum university education. It laid emphasis on early childhood
education which led to the establishment of the National Centre for Early Childhood
Education (NACECE) at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE), and more
importantly proposed the training of teachers in guidance and counselling. It also
proposed the establishment of the second public university in Kenya (Moi
University, Eldoret); establishment of the Commission for Higher Education (CHE)
and the expansion of post-secondary training institutions.
Kamunge recommendations, led to the abolition of student allowances in tertiary

institutions including universities. In the cost sharing strategy (Sessional Paper No.
6) the Government committed itself to reducing the share of its budget to education
by shifting recurrent costs such as the purchase of books, fees, uniforms and other
private costs such as transport and meals to the pupils/learners and the
community.
54
Achola, P. W. W., Nyaga, G., Maundu, J. & Shiundu, J. (1995), "Evaluation of the Primary
school Curriculum" in K.I.E. Research Report Series No. 52.
Kenya Institute of Education (1979), Development of Kenya Basic Education Curriculum,Nairobi:
K.I.E.
Lodiaga J. et al. (1988), "Summative Evaluation of the Primary Education Project" in K.I.E.
Research Report Series No. 7
Kenya Institute of Education (1984), Secondary Education Project: Guidelines on the Development
of the Secondary Education Curriculum, Nairobi: K.I.E.
Ogula, P. A. et al. (1995), "Analysis of factors that affect the achievement of the objectives of
primary education in schools in Siaya District", in K.I.E. Research Report Series No.
51
Ogula, P. A., Odhiambo. A., & Wambiya, P. (1995), "Analysis of factors that affect the achievement
of the objectives of primary education in Busia District" in K.I.E. Research Report Series
No. 51
Ogula, P. A. et al. (1990), "Formative Evaluation of Primary School Curriculum Phase II" inK.I.E.
Research Report Series No. 28
Ogula, P. A. and Buyela, W. et al (1990), "Formative Evaluation of Secondary School Curriculum
Phase II" in K.I.E. Research Report Series No. 27
Republic of Kenya (1964), The Kenya Education Commission Report, Nairobi: Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya (1976), Report of the National Committee on National Objectives and
Policies, Nairobi: Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya (1981), Report of the Presidential Working Party on the Establishment of the
Secondary University, Nairobi: Government Printer.
Wainaina P., Nyambala, P., Kathuri N. & Iroha, S. (1995), "Evaluation of the Secondary school
Curriculum" in K.I.E. Research Report Series No. 53
Marvin C. A. (1970), Product for Improving Educational Evaluation, Evaluation Comment, Sept.
Vol. 2, No. 3
55
CHAPTER NINE
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
8.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about curriculum evaluation. This lecture
covers:
 Meaning of curriculum evaluation
 Curriculum approaches
 Forms of evaluation
 Summary
 Further Reading

1. Give a definition of curriculum evaluation.
2. Give three approaches of a curriculum.
3. Distinguish between various forms of evaluation.
4. Describe functions of curriculum evaluation.
5. Explain how to evaluate your class syllabus or school curriculum.
8.3 Introduction
Now that you studied curriculum implementation, you are ready to review another
important topic related to the curriculum. In this lecture, you will be exposed to
the concept of curriculum evaluation.
8.4 Definitions of Curriculum Evaluation

According to Gatawa (1990), the term curriculum evaluation has three major
meanings:
• The process of describing and judging an educational programme or
subject.
• The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviourally stated
objectives.
• The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for
decision-making purposes.
56
What you need to understand about these definitions is that each does not exist
in isolation from the others although each can be an activity on its own. The first
activity involves the collection of descriptive and judgmental information for the
purpose of establishing whether an educational programme or project is doing
what it is expected to do. The evaluator pronounces judgment at the end of the
exercise.
The second activity involves comparing the performance of one or more learners
with set standards. Such an evaluation determines the extent to which the
objectives of a learning
activity are being realized. This is the kind of evaluation teachers’ conduct on a
daily basis. The third activity is concerned with the identification of deficiencies in
an educational programme or syllabus for the purpose of effecting revision and
improvement.
Curriculum Evaluation Approaches

Gatawa (1990) has identified five curriculum evaluation approaches:
• Bureaucratic evaluation
• Autocratic evaluation
• Democratic evaluation
• Norm-referenced evaluation
• Criterion-referenced evaluation.
1. Bureaucratic Evaluation
This evaluation is usually initiated by the government or the Ministry of
Education. Ministry of Education could evaluate a course of study or subjects
taught in schools to find out whether they need improvement or modifications.
The results of the evaluation are used by the Ministry of Education or the
government.
2. Autocratic Evaluation
This evaluation focuses on what is considered to be the educational needs of a
curriculum. Governments or ministries usually ask independent evaluators such
as consultants to conduct this evaluation. The government or ministry is not
obliged to accept the results of the evaluation.
3. Democratic Evaluation
This focuses on the experiences and reactions the curriculum initiators have had
with the programmes or project being evaluated. In this approach, the evaluation
does not lead to firm recommendations to be considered by the initiators or
programme implementers.
4. Norm-Referenced Evaluation
This evaluates students’ performance relative to other students’ performance.
The performance of current learners or of previous learners can be compared.
57
5. Criterion-Referenced Evaluation
Criterion referencing measures students’ actual performance and compares it
with the objectives of instruction identified in the syllabus.
Functions of Curriculum Evaluation
Urevbu (1985) has also identified some functions of curriculum evaluation:

1. • informing decision-makers on the state of affairs of certain curriculum
programmes or syllabuses, and
2. • enabling teachers to evaluate themselves.
Decision Making
With respect to the first function, Partlett and Hamilton, in Urevbu (1985), argue
that the principal purpose of evaluation is to contribute to decision making.
Curriculum evaluations are conducted in order to correct deficiencies make
improvements and establish new priorities. For meaningful decisions to be made,
they must be supported by evidence from evaluation exercises.
Curriculum Content and Methodology

The content must be evaluated in order to establish whether it is relevant to the
needs and aspirations of the society. When evaluating curriculum content, the
focus should be on the effect it has on learners. It is important to determine
whether the methodology is consistent with the curriculum objectives (Gatawa,
1990) and appropriate for the content.
Curriculum Outcomes
The evaluation of objectives, content and methodology are conducted
simultaneously as the evaluation of outcomes. The purpose of this evaluation is
to supply curriculum designers with information that can be used in improving the
curriculum as a whole.
Forms of Evaluation
In the context of curriculum evaluation, there are formative and summative
evaluations. Both can be conducted to provide information necessary for
effective decision making.
1. Formative Evaluation
The term ‘formative evaluation’ was originally coined by Scriven (1973) to classify
evaluation that gathered information for the purpose of improving instruction as
the instruction was being given. The performance of the learner was the primary
focus in Scriven’s version of formative evaluation. Information about the learner’s
immediate retention of skills and knowledge, retention over time and attitudes
were used to shape instruction as it proceeded. Formative evaluation was
considered to be an integral part of instructional design and delivery. In our
curriculum context, formative evaluation can be considered to be the process that
58
looks for evidence of success or failure of a curriculum programme, a syllabus or
a subject taught during implementation.
Formative evaluation answers two questions:

1. Is the instruction successful?
2. If it is not successful, what can be done to avoid failure?
It ensures that all aspects of the programme or project are likely to produce
success. It provides information that can be used to stop doubtful projects from
being implemented. It is therefore a conceptual and physical exercise that is
carried out before a programme comes to an end.
2. Summative Evaluation
This type of evaluation assesses whether or not the project or programme can
perform as the originators and designers intended. It considers cost effectiveness
in terms of money, time and personnel. It also assesses the training that teachers
might need in order to implement a program successfully. It determines whether
a new curriculum programme, syllabus or subject is better than the one it is
intended to replace or other alternatives. It is usually conducted at the end of the
programme cycle.
Formative and summative evaluations can take place wherever an evaluation

exercise is conducted. They can be conducted on educational projects and
programmes existing in the curriculum or on the teaching of individual subjects in
the school systems.
Evaluation Methods and Tools

A variety of methods and tools can be used to conduct evaluations, including the
following:
1. Observations
2. Interviews
3. Tests
4. Questionnaires.
The observation, interview and questionnaire techniques can be used when

evaluating the entire curriculum as well as specific curriculum programmes or
projects. One technique that is usually used to evaluate the outcomes of
curriculum programmes is subjecting learners to structured tests. Students’
academic performance is usually evaluated by using this technique. Also, the
content of a subject matter can be evaluated by testing learners in its various
content areas. Results from this type of evaluation are given to curriculum
designers to enable them to review the subject areas affected and make
necessary changes and improvements.
59
8.5 Note
That evaluation generally focuses on the whole curriculum or aspects of it such as objectives,
content, methodology and outcomes.
 You have been nominated by your school head to evaluate the

content of the mathematics syllabus used at your school. List the
major steps you will take to achieve this. The possible points to be
included in your answer are provided at the end of this lecture.
60
8.7 Summary
This lecture helped us to understand what is meant by curriculum evaluation. The lecture
defined curriculum evaluation and described some approaches to this activity.
Bureaucratic, autocratic, democratic, norm-referenced and criterion referenced evaluation
have been
Beach, D. M.,cited
and as some ofJ.the
Reinhatz, approaches.
(1989). The concepts
Supervision: Focus onofInstruction.
formative and
Newsummative
York: Harper
evaluations
and Row. were also explained. Lastly, the methods or techniques that can be used to
evaluate the curriculum or syllabus were explained.

Jongwe Press.
Scriven, M. (1973). The Methodology of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen and J. R. Sanders (Eds.),

Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, OH: C. A. Jones.
University of Zimbabwe. (1995). Curriculum Implementation, Change and Innovation. (Module

EA3AD 303). Harare: Centre for Distance Education, University of Zimbabwe.
CHAPTER NINE
CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION
9.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we are going to learn about curriculum change and innovation.
This lecture covers:
 Definitions of curriculum change and innovation
 Political and ideological influences on innovation
61
 Models used in innovation
 Factors influencing the diffusion and dissemination of change.
 Summary
 Further Reading

1. Define ‘curriculum change’ and ‘curriculum innovation’.
2. Identify the political and ideological influences on curriculum innovation.
3. Identify and discuss models that explain how changes take place.
4. Explain factors that influence the diffusion and dissemination of change and
innovation in the curriculum.
9.3 Introduction
Lecture 6 discussed evaluation and how it is applied to the curriculum in order to
determine the extent to which the curriculum objectives are achieved or realized.
This lecture will examine how the curriculum can be changed and how it can be
improved. These processes are referred to as ‘curriculum change’ and
‘curriculum innovation’.
9.4 Defining Curriculum Change and Innovation
9.4.1 Curriculum Change

Hoyle (University of Zimbabwe, 1995) defines change as embracing the concepts
of innovation, development, renewal and improvement of a curriculum.
Curriculum change is dictated by the changes in the economic, social and
technological aspects of a society. Change has magnitude and direction and
occurs within a definite time frame (University of Zimbabwe, 1995).
9.4.2 Curriculum Innovation

Harris et al. (University of Zimbabwe, 1995) describes innovation as “an
intentional and deliberate process to bring out desired effects and change”.
Curriculum innovation refers to ideas or practices that are new and different from
those that exist in the formal prescribed curriculum. Westerly (1969) and Richard
(1965) (cited in University of Zimbabwe, 1995), state that curriculum innovation
is any improvement that is deliberate, measurable, durable and unlikely to occur
frequently. It is the creation, selection, organization and utilization of human and
62
material resources in ways that result in higher achievement of curriculum goals
and objectives.
9.5 The Context of Curriculum Change and Innovation

Change and innovation in the curriculum are necessitated by factors in a
country’s political, social, economic, cultural and technological environments
(University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 62).
The education system changes in order to address these emerging needs and
demands. Educational changes and innovations in most countries, including your
own, are products of these factors.
Sources of Curriculum Change and Innovation

At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate
policy decisions. In most East African countries, nothing happens within the
education system until the central authority decides to adopt a new idea. This
change is usually initiated through a circular or statutory instrument. Another
impetus for change and innovation is the desire of authorities at various levels to
deliberately change established practices in order to address existing problems
or identify new problems and ways of dealing with these problems.
The introduction of new technology can also lead to curriculum change and
innovation. For example, computers are being used in almost every endeavour of
our society. The education system and its curriculum must adapt to this new
reality. It must not only use computers for administrative purposes, but also make
the computer and related technological advancements part of the curriculum.
9.6 Types of Change

Change can be categorized into two types.
1. Hardware Types. These changes are introduced by additions to facilities such

as new classrooms, equipment, books and play grounds.
2. Software Types. These affect the content and range of the curriculum itself.
They may be related to the methods of delivery recommended by curriculum
initiators, designers and developers.
Forms of Change
Change can occur in the following forms (University of Zimbabwe, 1985)
1. Substitution. In this change, one element replaces another previously in use.
Examples are new textbooks, new equipment or the replacement of teachers and
administrators.
2. Alteration. This involves change in existing structures rather than a complete

replacement of the whole curriculum, syllabus or course of study.
63
3. Addition. This is the introduction of a new component without changing old
elements or patterns. New elements are added to the existing programme
without seriously disturbing the main structure and content of the prescribed
curriculum. These could be support inputs such as audio-visual aids, workshops
and equipment.
4. Restructuring. This involves the rearrangement of the curriculum in order to

implement desired changes. It may also involve the sharing of resources among
a group of schools or institutions.
7.7 Strategies and Models for Curriculum Change and Innovation

In order for change and innovation to succeed, the strategies for implementing
the curriculum must be considered carefully. A strategy of innovation refers to the
planned procedures and techniques employed in the quest for change. Harris et
al. (1978), as cited in Curriculum Implementation (University of Zimbabwe, 1995),
developed some models to explain how this takes place.
Strategies
1. Participative Problem-Solving. This strategy focuses on the users, their
needs and how they satisfy these needs. The system identifies and diagnoses its
own needs, finds its own solution, tries out and evaluates the solution and
implements the solution if it is satisfactory. The emphasis is on local initiative.
2. Planned Linkage. In this model, the intermediate agencies, such as schools,

bring together the users of the innovation.
3. Coercive Strategies. These strategies operate on the basis of power and

coercion by those in authority, using laws, directories, circulars and so forth.
Ministries of Education usually use these strategies.
4. Open Input Strategies. These are open, flexible, pragmatic approaches that
make use of external ideas and resources.
7.7.2 Models
Tanner and Tanner (1980), as cited in Curriculum Implementation (University of
Zimbabwe, 1995), emphasize three principal models which illustrate how change
takes place. These are outlined below.
1. The Research, Development and Diffusion Model.

In this model, an innovation is conceived at the head or centre and then fed into
the system. This views the processes of change as a rational sequence of
phases in which an innovation is:
1. Invented or discovered,
2. Developed,
3. Produced, and
4. Disseminated to the user.
64
1. Problem-Solving Model. This model is built around the user of the innovation,
who follows the steps below.
1. Determine the problem.
2. Search for an innovation.
3. Evaluate the trials.
4. Implement the innovation.
2. Social Interaction Model. In this model, change proceeds or diffuses through

formal or informal contacts between interacting social groups. It is based on the
following:
1. • awareness of innovation
2. • interest in the innovation
3. • trial
4. • Adoption for permanent use.
The model stresses the importance of interpersonal networks of information,

opinion, leadership and personal contact
7.8 Planning and Executing Change

You must note that for change to be implemented in the curriculum, a process
has to take place. This process involves four major factors. According to Bishop
(1986), cited in
Curriculum Implementation (University of Zimbabwe, 1995), these factors
include:
1. • The change agent. In your situation, change agents include teachers,

school heads, local authorities or the Ministry of Education. The agent
initiates the innovation or curriculum change in general.
2. • The innovation. This involves executing the change itself; that is, putting
it into use or operation.
3. • The user system. This relates to the person or group of people at which
the innovation is directed.
4. • Time. Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of
time.
Always remember that these factors interact with change and are changed by
each other during the process of innovation. It is also important to note that the
curriculum change agent is involved with the process, the planning and the
strategies, and is frequently the user of the innovation.
The Innovation Process

Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:
1. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention.
2. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need.
65
3. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified as the
most appropriate.
4. Conduct a trial.
5. Evaluate the proposed solution.
6. Review the evaluation.
7. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a wide
scale.
8. Adopt and institutionalize the innovation or search for another solution.
Innovation Planning
Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following elements
are considered in the process
1. • The personnel to be employed
2. • The specification of the actual task
3. • The strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task
4. • The equipment needed
5. • The buildings and conducive environment
6. • The costs involved
7. • Social contexts
8. • Time involved
9. • Sequencing of activities
10. • Rationale for undertaking the innovation
11. • Evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation.
Conditions for Successful Implementation of Innovations

What conditions are necessary for users to implement the curriculum change or
innovation successfully? Potential users of an innovation are more likely to
accept it if the conditions below are met (University of Zimbabwe, 1995).
1. • The innovation must be relevant to them.
2. • It must be feasible in their particular organizational context.
3. • It must be compatible with the practices, values and characteristics of
their system.
4. • It must be seen as posing little or no threat to the user group’s identity,
integrity and territory. The innovation must be shown to be tolerable and
non-threatening.
5. • The innovation must yield material or non-material benefits. Gains in
social status or recognition could be some of the non-material benefits.
6. • It must be flexible and adaptable.
9. 5 Note
That the difference between innovation and change lies in the fact that innovation is
always planned while change may occur in response to external events. For any
curriculum innovation to be meaningful and effective, it must be planned and
organized. It is possible that other types
66 of changes may occur when they are not
planned.
 Assume that your school will shortly introduce computer assisted

instruction. What would you identify as the agents of this innovation?
Suggested answers to this activity are provided at the end of this lecture.
 What is the purpose of evaluation?
 What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?
9.7 Summary
Curriculum change and innovation were the two inter-related concepts that were
reviewed in this lecture. In addition, we covered:
• Sources of curriculum change and innovation,
• How to plan and execute change,
• The innovation process, and
• The conditions necessary for implementing change and innovations
successfully.
67
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and Row.

Jongwe Press.
Scriven, M. (1973). The Methodology of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen and J. R. Sanders

(Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, OH: C. A. Jones.
University of Zimbabwe. (1995). Curriculum Implementation, Change and Innovation.

(Module EA3AD 303). Harare: Centre for Distance Education, University of Zimbabwe.

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based testing. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 28
(3), 282--299.
Chou, C., and Sun, C. T. (1996) Constructing a cooperative distance

learning system: the CORAL experience. Educational Technology
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Chou, C., and Lin, H. (1998) The effect of navigation map types and
cognitive styles on learners' performance in a computer-networked
73
hypertext learning system. Journal of Educational Multimedia and
Hypermedia, 7 (2/3), 151-- 176.
Chou, C. (1998) Developing CLUE: a formative evaluation system for

computer network learning courseware. Journal of Interactive Learning
Research, 10 (2), 179-193.
Chou, C. (1999) Developing hypertext-based learning courseware for

computer networks: the macro and micro stages. IEEE Transactions on
Education, 42 (1), 39--44.
Chou, C. (2000) Constructing a computer-assisted testing and evaluation

system on the world wide web -- the CATES experience. IEEE
Transactions on Education, 43 (3), 266-272.
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20 (9), 17--41.
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(Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
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(New York: Teachers College Press).
Learning: An Introduction and Framework for Higher
Education and Business (Sterling, VA: Stylus).
Harrison, N., and Bergen, C. (2000) Some design strategies for developing
an online course. Educational Technology, 40 (1), 57--60.
Jones, S. G. (1997) The Internet and its social landscape. In S. G. Jones

(ed.), Virtual Culture: Identity and Communication in Cybersociety (London:
Sage), 7--35.
Kearsley, G. (2000) Online Education: Learning and Teaching in

Cyberspace (Toronto, ON: Wadsworth).
74
Landow, G. P. (1997) Hypertext 2.0 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
University Press).
Perkins, D. (1999) The many faces of consrtuctivism. Educational

Leadership, 57 (3), 6--11.
Phillips, D. C. (1995) The good, the bad, and the ugly: the many faces of
constructivism. Educational Researcher, 24 (7), 5--12.
Relan, A., and Gillani, B. B. (1997) Web-based instruction and the

traditional classroom: Similarities and differences. In B. H. Khan (ed.),
Web-based Instruction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications), 41--46.
Schifter, C. C. (1999) Teaching in the 21st century. The Internet and Higher
Education, 1 (4), 281--290.
Staver, J. R. (1998) Constructivism: sound theory of explicating the practice

of science and science teaching. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 35 (5), 501-520.
Schweber, C., Kelley, B., and Orr. G. J. (1998) Training, and retraining,
faculty for online courses: Challenges and strategies. Proceedings of the
Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, Madison, WI,
August 5--7 1998. ERIC ED 422 874.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (New York:

Harcourt Brace).
Taylor, P. C., Dawson, V., and Fraser, B. J. (1995) Classroom learning

environments under transformation: a constructivist perspective.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Taylor, P. C., and Fraser, B. J. (1991) CLES: An instrument for assessing

constructivist learning environments. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching,
Lake Geneva, WI.
75

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING

ECE 513: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION

WRITTEN BY: REVIEWED/EDITED BY:

Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2011

Welcome to this module on curriculum development, implementation and evaluation. In this

1.2 Lesson Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

1.3 Meaning of Curriculum Implementation and Evaluation

Curriculum Development: Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which

1.4 Curriculum Perspectives

It is important to consider each perspective as it relates to the following groups:

Perspectives Learner Teacher Method Curriculum

Rationalist Recipient of Source of Drilling Subject matter of

Empiricist Recipient of Demonstrator Lecturing

Pragmatist Experiences Researcher, Inquiry Hypothetical

Existentialist Ultimate chooser, Facilitator of Inquiry Subject matter of

Existentialists or phenomenologists ideas

1.5 Elements of Curriculum

Figure 1.1 Elements of a curriculum

There are three categories of goals and objectives:

1.6 Content or Subject Matter

Flexible teaching methods facilitate learning.

Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better

 How is the curriculum developed?

Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences

Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes

Curriculum implementation is putting into practice the officially prescribed courses

Beach, D. M., and Reinhatz, J. (1989). Supervision: Focus on Instruction. New

Farrant, J. S. (1980). Principles and Practice of Education. Harare: Longman

Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction.

Scriven, M. (1973). The Methodology of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen and J. R.

University of Zimbabwe. (1995). Curriculum Implementation, Change and

Urevbu, A. O. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Ikeja: Longman.

2.2 Lesson Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

2.3 Formal, non-formal and informal education

2.4 Learning activities

 Describe formal, informal and non-formal curricula

Farrant, J. S. (1980). Principles and Practice of Education. Harare: Longman Zimbabwe.

Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction. Harare:

Scriven, M. (1973). The Methodology of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen and J. R. Sanders

University of Zimbabwe. (1995). Curriculum Implementation, Change and Innovation.

Urevbu, A. O. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Ikeja: Longman.

SELECTED THEORIES AND MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

3.2 Lesson Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

3.4 The Tyler Model

In essence, Tyler’s questions represent the four-step sequence of

Figure 1.2 Tyler’s Curriculum Development Model

3.4 Hilda Taba Model

Figure 1.3 Taba’s Curriculum Development Model

5. Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to learners and learners

6. Organization of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and organized,

3.5 The Saylor and Alexander Model

Bases (external variables)

Curriculum Curriculum Curriculu

Figure 1.4 Saylor and Alexander’s Curriculum Development Model

 What is the role of objectives in Tyler’s model?

Chou, C. (1999) Developing hypertext-based learning courseware for computer networks:

Chou, C. (2000) Constructing a computer-assisted testing and evaluation system on the

Cornell, R. (1999) Web-based courseware tools: where is the pedagogy? Educational

Draves, W. A. (2000) Teaching Online (River Falls, WI: LERN Books).