Key terms

Term Meaning
Circulatory The body system responsible for carrying blood, nutrients,
system and waste throughout the body

Cardiac Related to the heart

Pulmonary Related to the lungs

Artery Blood vessel that moves blood away from the heart

Vein Blood vessel that moves blood toward the heart

Major artery that carries blood to the systemic circulatory

Aorta system

Capillary Small blood vessel that allows nutrient exchange

Atrium Upper chamber of the heart

Ventricle Lower chamber of the heart

The circulatory system

The circulatory system is a network consisting of blood, blood vessels, and the
heart. This network supplies tissues in the body with oxygen and other nutrients,
transports hormones, and removes unnecessary waste products.

The heart
The heart is made of specialized cardiac muscle tissue that allows it to act as a
pump within the circulatory system.
 The human heart is divided into four chambers. There are one atrium and one
ventricle on each side of the heart. The atria receive blood and the ventricles pump
blood.

The human circulatory system consists of several circuits:

 The pulmonary circuit provides blood flow between the heart and lungs.
 The systemic circuit allows blood to flow to and from the rest of the body.
 The coronary circuit strictly provides blood to the heart (not pictured in the figure
below).

Diagram showing the flow of blood from the heart to the rest of the human
body.
Image credit: Blood flow from the heart by OpenStax, CC BY 4.0
Blood and blood vessels
Blood from the heart is pumped throughout the body using blood vessels.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and into capillaries, providing
oxygen (and other nutrients) to tissue and cells. Once oxygen is removed, the
blood travels back to the lungs, where it is reoxygenated and returned by
veins to the heart.
 The main artery of the systemic circuit is the aorta which branches out into
other arteries, carrying blood to different parts of the body.

Common mistakes and misconceptions

 Arteries usually carry oxygenated blood and veins usually carry
deoxygenated blood. This is true most of the time. However, the pulmonary
arteries and veins are an exception to this rule. Pulmonary veins carry
oxygenated blood towards the heart and the pulmonary arteries carry
deoxygenated blood away from the heart.

 Blood is always red. Veins can appear blue as we see them through our skin,
leading some people to believe that deoxygenated blood is blue. However,
this is not the case! Blood only appears blue because of the way tissues
absorb light and our eyes see color. Although oxygen does have an effect on
the brightness of the blood (more oxygen makes a brighter red, less makes it
darker), blood is never actually blue.
Diseases of the respiratory system
Diseases and conditions of the respiratory system fall into two categories: viruses, such
as influenza, bacterial pneumonia, enterovirus respiratory virus; and chronic diseases,
such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). According to Dr.
Neal Chaisson, who practices pulmonary medicine at the Cleveland Clinic, there is not
much that can be done for viral infections but to let them run their course. "Antibiotics
are not effective in treating viruses and the best thing to do is just rest," he said.
COPD

COPD is the intersection of three related conditions — chronic bronchitis, chronic

asthma and emphysema, Chaisson told Live Science. It is a progressive disease that
makes it increasingly difficult for sufferers to breath.

Asthma

Asthma is a chronic inflammation of the lung airways that causes

coughing, wheezing, Your Digestive System & How it Works

What is the digestive system?

The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or digestive
tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a
long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive system.

The small intestine has three parts. The first part is called the duodenum. The jejunum is in the
middle and the ileum is at the end. The large intestine includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and
rectum. The appendix is a finger-shaped pouch attached to the cecum. The cecum is the first part of
the large intestine. The colon is next. The rectum is the end of the large intestine.
View full-sized image The digestive system

Bacteria in your GI tract, also called gut flora or microbiome, help with digestion. Parts of
your nervous and circulatory systems also help. Working together, nerves, hormones, bacteria,
blood, and the organs of your digestive system digest the foods and liquids you eat or drink each day.

Why is digestion important?

Digestion is important because your body needs nutrients from food and drink to work properly and
stay healthy. Proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins , minerals , and water are nutrients. Your
digestive system breaks nutrients into parts small enough for your body to absorb and use for energy,
growth, and cell repair.

 Proteins break into amino acids

 Fats break into fatty acids and glycerol
 Carbohydrates break into simple sugars

MyPlate offers ideas and tips to help you meet your individual health needs .
 Your digestive system breaks nutrients into
parts that are small enough for your body to absorb.

How does my digestive system work?

Each part of your digestive system helps to move food and liquid through your GI tract, break food
and liquid into smaller parts, or both. Once foods are broken into small enough parts, your body can
absorb and move the nutrients to where they are needed. Your large intestine absorbs water, and the
waste products of digestion become stool. Nerves and hormones help control the digestive process.

The digestive process

Organ Movement

Mouth Chewing

Esophagus Peristalsis

Upper muscle in stomach relaxes to let food enter, and lower muscle mixes food with digestive
Stomach
juice

Small
Peristalsis
intestine

Pancreas None

Liver None

Large
Peristalsis
intestine

How does food move through my GI tract?

Food moves through your GI tract by a process called peristalsis. The large, hollow organs of your GI
tract contain a layer of muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement pushes food and
liquid through your GI tract and mixes the contents within each organ. The muscle behind the food
contracts and squeezes the food forward, while the muscle in front of the food relaxes to allow the
food to move.

The digestive process starts when you put food

in your mouth.

Mouth. Food starts to move through your GI tract when you eat. When you swallow, your tongue
pushes the food into your throat. A small flap of tissue, called the epiglottis, folds over your windpipe
to prevent choking and the food passes into your esophagus.

Esophagus. Once you begin swallowing, the process becomes automatic. Your brain signals the
muscles of the esophagus and peristalsis begins.

Lower esophageal sphincter. When food reaches the end of your esophagus, a ringlike muscle—
called the lower esophageal sphincter —relaxes and lets food pass into your stomach. This sphincter
usually stays closed to keep what’s in your stomach from flowing back into your esophagus.

Stomach. After food enters your stomach, the stomach muscles mix the food and liquid
with digestive juices. The stomach slowly empties its contents, called chyme, into your small
intestine.

Small intestine. The muscles of the small intestine mix food with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver, and intestine, and push the mixture forward for further digestion. The walls of the
small intestine absorb water and the digested nutrients into your bloodstream. As peristalsis
continues, the waste products of the digestive process move into the large intestine.

Large intestine. Waste products from the digestive process include undigested parts of food, fluid,
and older cells from the lining of your GI tract. The large intestine absorbs water and changes the
waste from liquid into stool. Peristalsis helps move the stool into your rectum.

Rectum. The lower end of your large intestine, the rectum, stores stool until it pushes stool out of
your anus during a bowel movement.

Watch this video to see how food moves through your GI tract .

How does my digestive system break food into small

parts my body can use?
As food moves through your GI tract, your digestive organs break the food into smaller parts using:

 motion, such as chewing, squeezing, and mixing

 digestive juices, such as stomach acid, bile, and enzymes

Mouth. The digestive process starts in your mouth when you chew. Your salivary glands
make saliva, a digestive juice, which moistens food so it moves more easily through your esophagus
into your stomach. Saliva also has an enzyme that begins to break down starches in your food.

Esophagus. After you swallow, peristalsis pushes the food down your esophagus into your stomach.

Stomach. Glands in your stomach lining make stomach acid and enzymes that break down food.
Muscles of your stomach mix the food with these digestive juices.

Pancreas. Your pancreas makes a digestive juice that has enzymes that break down carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins. The pancreas delivers the digestive juice to the small intestine through small tubes
called ducts.

Liver. Your liver makes a digestive juice called bile that helps digest fats and some vitamins. Bile
ducts carry bile from your liver to your gallbladder for storage, or to the small intestine for use.

Gallbladder. Your gallbladder stores bile between meals. When you eat, your gallbladder squeezes
bile through the bile ducts into your small intestine.

Small intestine. Your small intestine makes digestive juice, which mixes with bile and pancreatic
juice to complete the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Bacteria in your small intestine
make some of the enzymes you need to digest carbohydrates. Your small intestine moves water from
your bloodstream into your GI tract to help break down food. Your small intestine also absorbs water
with other nutrients.

Large intestine. In your large intestine, more water moves from your GI tract into your
bloodstream. Bacteria in your large intestine help break down remaining nutrients and make vitamin
K . Waste products of digestion, including parts of food that are still too large, become stool.

What happens to the digested food?

The small intestine absorbs most of the nutrients in your food, and your circulatory system passes
them on to other parts of your body to store or use. Special cells help absorbed nutrients cross the
intestinal lining into your bloodstream. Your blood carries simple sugars, amino acids, glycerol, and
some vitamins and salts to the liver. Your liver stores, processes, and delivers nutrients to the rest of
your body when needed.

The lymph system , a network of vessels that carry white blood cells and a fluid
called lymph throughout your body to fight infection, absorbs fatty acids and vitamins.

Your body uses sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol to build substances you need for energy,
growth, and cell repair.

How does my body control the digestive process?

 Your hormones and nerves work together to help control the digestive process. Signals flow within
your GI tract and back and forth from your GI tract to your brain.

Hormones
Cells lining your stomach and small intestine make and release hormones that control how your
digestive system works. These hormones tell your body when to make digestive juices and send
signals to your brain that you are hungry or full. Your pancreas also makes hormones that are
important to digestion.

Nerves
You have nerves that connect your central nervous system—your brain and spinal cord—to your
digestive system and control some digestive functions. For example, when you see or smell food,
your brain sends a signal that causes your salivary glands to "make your mouth water" to prepare you
to eat.

You also have an enteric nervous system (ENS)—nerves within the walls of your GI tract. When food
stretches the walls of your GI tract, the nerves of your ENS release many different substances that
speed up or delay the movement of food and the production of digestive juices. The nerves send
signals to control the actions of your gut muscles to contract and relax to push food through your
intestines.

Clinical Trials
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) and other
components of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) conduct and support research into many
diseases and conditions.

Circulatory System Diseases: What You Should

Know

 High blood pressure

 CAD

 Heart attacks

 Heart failure
 Strokes
 Aneurism

 PAD

 Risk factors

 See a doctor

 Outlook

 Prevention
Overview
The circulatory system is your heart and blood vessels, and it’s essential to
keeping your body functioning. This finely tuned system carries oxygen,
nutrients, electrolytes, and hormones throughout your body. Interruptions,
blockage, or diseases that affect how your heart or blood vessels pump blood
can cause complications such as heart disease or stroke.

These complications can arise due to a variety of factors, from genetics to

lifestyle. Read on to learn more about the types circulatory system diseases
and disorders and what their symptoms are.

High blood pressure

Blood pressure is the measurement of how much force is used to pump blood
through your arteries. If you have high blood pressure, also called
hypertension, it means the force is higher than it should be. High blood
pressure can damage your heart and lead to heart disease, stroke, or kidney
disease.

There are no symptoms with high blood pressure, which is why it’s often
called “the silent killer.” For more information, read about hypertension.
Atherosclerosis and coronary
artery disease
Atherosclerosis, also known as hardening of the arteries, occurs when plaque
builds up on the walls of your arteries and eventually blocks blood flow.
Plaque is made of cholesterol, fat, and calcium.

Coronary artery disease indicates that the plaque buildup in your arteries has
caused the arteries to narrow and harden. Blood clots can further block the
arteries.

Coronary artery disease develops over time. You can have it but not be aware
of any symptoms. Other times, it may cause chest pain or the sensation of
heaviness in the chest.

Heart attacks
A heart attack occurs when not enough blood reaches your heart. This can
happen due to artery blockage. Heart attacks damage the heart muscle and
are medical emergencies.

Call 911 or have someone else call if you have symptoms such as:

 pain in the center or left side of the chest that feels like mild or severe
discomfort, pressure, fullness, or squeezing
 pain that radiates from the jaw, shoulder, arm, or across the back
 shortness of breath
 sweating
 nausea
  irregular heartbeat
 unconsciousness

Women often experience heart attacks a little differently, with pressure or

aching in their back and chest.

Learn more: Heart attack symptoms in men and women »

Heart failure
Sometimes called congestive heart failure, heart failure occurs when the heart
muscle is weakened or damaged. It can no longer pump the volume of blood
needed through the body. Heart failure normally occurs when you’ve had
other heart problems, such as a heart attack or coronary artery disease.

Early symptoms of heart failure include fatigue, swelling in your ankles, and
increased need to urinate at night. More severe symptoms include rapid
breathing, chest pain, and fainting. For more on heart failure and how to
recognize it, read about congestive heart failure.

Strokes
Strokes often occur when a blood clot blocks an artery in the brain and
reduces the blood supply. They also can happen when a blood vessel in the
brain breaks open. Both events keep blood and oxygen from reaching the
brain. As a result, parts of the brain are likely to be damaged.

A stroke requires immediate medical attention. You can identify a stroke with
a FAST test:
Share on Pinter est
Read more: Everything you need to know about stroke symptoms »

Abdominal aortic aneurisms

An abdominal aortic aneurism is a bulge in a weakened part of the aorta. The
aorta is the largest blood vessel in your body. It carries blood from your heart
to your abdomen, legs, and pelvis. If the aorta ruptures, it can cause heavy
bleeding that’s life-threatening.

An abdominal aortic aneurism can stay small and never cause problems, in
which case your doctor may take a “wait and watch” approach. When it
becomes larger, you may experience pain in the abdomen or back. Large and
rapidly growing abdominal aortic aneurisms are at greatest risk of rupturing.
These require immediate attention.

Peripheral artery disease

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is atherosclerosis that occurs in the extremities,
usually in your legs. It reduces blood flow to your legs, as well as to your heart
and brain. If you have PAD, you’re at greater risk of developing other
circulatory system diseases.

Many people have no symptoms with PAD. But if you do, symptoms may
include:

 pain or cramping in the legs, especially when walking

 coolness in legs or feet
 sores that don’t heal on the feet or legs
 redness or other changes in skin color
What increases your risk of
circulatory system diseases?
Certain factors can increase your risk for circulatory system diseases.

Modifiable risk factors

Modifiable risk factors are factors that can be controlled, changed, or treated
with lifestyle changes. These risk factors include:

 lack of exercise
 being overweight
 smoking
 overuse of alcohol
 high levels of stress
 poor diet

Managing certain conditions such as high blood pressure and diabetes can
also affect your risk.

Nonmodifiable risk factors

Risk factors that can’t be controlled, treated, or modified include:

 advanced age
 maleness
 family history of heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, or high
cholesterol
  certain ethnicities

Men have a greater risk than premenopausal women for stroke. Also, some
ethnicities have a higher risk for certain diseases than others.

When to see your doctor

Talk to a doctor if you think you’re at risk of a circulatory system disease. They
can help develop a treatment or management plan for your condition.

Heart attacks, strokes, and ruptured abdominal aortic aneurisms are life-
threatening. When someone has the symptoms of these conditions, call 911
or take them to the emergency room immediately.

Outlook
Not all risk factors for coronary artery disease are avoidable. But at least one
quarterTrusted Source of all deaths due to heart disease and stroke are
preventable, according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
Many conditions can be reversed or controlled with a combination of lifestyle
changes and, in some cases, medication.

Tips for circulatory system health

If you’re at risk for a circulatory system disease, work with your doctor to
control conditions such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and
diabetes. You can also take steps and make lifestyle changes to prevent
these conditions.
Tips for circulatory health
 Maintain a healthy weight.
 Don’t smoke.
 Exercise a minimum of 30 minutes a day, most days of the week.
 Maintain a healthy, low-fat, low-cholesterol diet with more fruits,
vegetables, and whole grains.
 Avoid trans fats and saturated fats, which are often found in processed
foods and fast food.
 Limit salt and alcohol intake.
 Use relaxation and self-care to reduce stress.
chest tightness or shortness of breath, according to Tonya Winders, president of the
Allergy & Asthma Network. These signs and symptoms may be worse when a person is
exposed to their triggers, which can include air pollution, tobacco smoke, factory fumes,
cleaning solvents, infections, pollens, foods, cold air, exercise, chemicals and
medications.

Lung cancer
Lung cancer is often associated with smoking, but the disease can affect non-smokers
as well. Every year, about 16,000 to 24,000 Americans die of lung cancer, even though
they have never smoked. In 2018, the American Cancer Society estimates there will be
about 234,030 new cases of lung cancer (121,680 in men and 112,350 in women) and
around 154,050 deaths from lung cancer (83,550 in men and 70,500 in women).

Diagnosing and treating respiratory ailments

Pulmonologists treat the respiratory system, including the lungs, according to the
American College of Physicians. Because of the critical nature of the respiratory
system, pulmonologists work in hospitals as well as in private practice. A pulmonologist
must first be certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine and then obtain
additional training in the subspecialty.

Common diagnostic tools for diagnosing respiratory disease include chest X-rays and a
pulmonary function test (PFT), according to Merck Manuals. A PFT measures how well
the lungs take in and release air and how well they circulate oxygen.
A doctor may also perform a bronchoscopy by inserting a tube with a light and camera
into the airways — the trachea and the bronchial tubes — to examine for bleeding,
tumors, inflammation or other abnormalities. A similar procedure is a thoracoscopy, in
which a doctor uses an optical device to examine the surfaces of the lungs.

A physician may order a PFT as part of a routine exam — especially for smokers,
according to the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. A PFT may also be ordered to
test lung function before surgery or to help diagnose lung conditions or diseases.

A new nasal swab test measures RNA or protein molecules in human cells and can
identify a viral infection, according to a study published Dec. 21, 2017, in the Journal of
Infectious Diseases. "It's a simpler test and more cost-effective for looking at viral
infection," the author, Dr. Ellen Foxman, assistant professor of laboratory medicine at
Yale School of Medicine, told YaleNews. During the test, RNAs predicted viral infection
with 97 percent accuracy.

For most healthy individuals, the most common respiratory ailment they may face is an
infection, according to Dr. Matthew Exline, a pulmonologist and critical care expert at
The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center. A cough is the first symptom,
possibly accompanied by a fever.

"However, cough can be a sign of chronic respiratory conditions such as asthma,

chronic bronchitis or emphysema," he said. "In chronic lung disease, most respiratory
diseases present with shortness of breath, initially with exertion, such as walking a
significant distance or climbing several flights of stairs."

The most certain way to diagnose asthma is with a lung function test, a medical history
and a physical exam, according to Winders. "However, it's hard to do lung function tests
in children younger than 5 years. Thus, doctors must rely on children's medical
histories, signs and symptoms, and physical exams to make a diagnosis."

For COPD, many patients benefit from respiratory rehabilitation, according to Dr. Brian
Carlin, assistant professor of medicine at Drexel University College of Medicine. "It is
much like cardiac rehabilitation for heart patients, and can provide education, exercise
and training to reduce the number of respiratory incidents."