Hydrocarbon Reservoir

and Well Performance

T. E. W. Nind

London New York

Chapman and Hall
 Contents

Preface ix
1 Oil and gas properties I
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Composition 1
1.3 Single-component behavior 4
1.4 Behavior of hydrocarbon mixtures: the phase envelope $
1.5 Natural gas properties 12
1.6 Crude-oil properties 17
1.7 PVT tests 20
2 Properties of the environment 24
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Requirements for a reservoir: some typical traps 24
2.3 Oilfield waters: capillary pressure and water saturation 28
2.4 Compressibility of porous media 33
2.5 Initial pressures and pressure gradients 36
2.6 Fracturing of rock under stress 39
2.7 Reservoir temperature 43
3 Volumetric-balance equations 45
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 The general form of the MBE 45
3.3 Gas reservoirs 53
3.4 Production from undersaturated oil field 57
3.5 Water encroachment 58
3.6 Volumetric-balance equation applied at pump intake 63
4 Liquid movement through the formation 47
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Potential and pressure in fluid flow 67
4.3 Permeability 71
4.4 The question of units 73
4.5 The radial-diffusivity (continuity) equation 73
vi Contents Contents vii
4.6 Steady-state flow: no net withdrawal 77 8.6 The effect of skin on the IPR: solution-gas-drive
4.7 Semi-steady-state flow: no replacement of withdrawals 78 reservoirs 217
4.8 Transient flow: the non-equilibrium of theis equation 81 8.7 Effect of formation stratification 226
4.9 Summary of Flowing BHP behavior 87 9 Flow to the surface 236
4.10 Permeability variations and permeability averaging 91 9.1 Introduction 236
4.11 The flow of more than one fluid: effective and relative 9.2 Flow through pipes (incompressible fluid) 236
permeabilities 95 9.3 Gas flow through vertical tubing 240
5 Maximizing the recovery 98 9.4 Multiphase flow in tubing 242
9.5 The correlations: vertical two-phase flow 249
5.1 Introduction 98 9.6 Annular-flow gradients 252
5.2 The frontal-advance-rate formula 99 9.7 Inclined pipe: deviated holes 254
5.3 Mobilization efficiency, displacement efficiency, and economic 9.8 Gradient-curve families 255
efficiency 109 9.9 Gas flow as limiting case of two-phase flow 259
5.4 Areal-sweep efficiency 110
5.5 Vertical-sweep efficiency 114 II) Flowing-well performance 261
5.6 Mobility ratio 128 10.1 Introduction 261
5.7 Overall recovery efficiency 130 10.2 Tubing-head pressure curves and tubing-performance
5.8 Thermal recovery methods 131 curves 262
5.9 Miscible drives 135 10.3 The effects of tubing diameter 263
5.10 Postscript 137 10.4 Surface control 266
6 Analysis of oil-well test results: single-fluid flow 139 10.5 Flowing-well performance 272
6.1 Introduction 139 10.6 Production-rate and maximum-rate decline curves 277
6.2 Superposition and the method of images 139 10.7 Identification of changes in a well's productive capacity 286
6.3 Skin factor 142 10.8 Wet gas wells 288
6.4 Drawdown tests 144 11 Artificial lift: gas lift 293
6.5 Pressure-buildup analysis 154 111 Introduction 293
6.6 Productivity index 161 11.2 General considerations 293
6.7 Flow efficiency 162 11.3 Applications of gas lift 296
7 Analysis of gas-well test results 166 11.4 Some rules of thumb: continuous gas lift 297
7.1 Introduction 166 11.5 Locating the bottom valve: continuous gas lift 298
7.2 The radial-diffusivity equation for gas wells 166 11.6 Gas-injection rate for maximum profit 305
7.3 Gas-flow equations, based on the diffusivity equation 170 11.7 Gas-lift valves 307
7.4 Non-Darcy flow 175 11.8 Gas-lift string design 312
7.5 Multiple-rate drawdown tests: non-stabilized flow condi- 11.9 Intermittent gas lift 316
tions 177 12 Artificial lift: electric suhmersihie and hydraulic pumps 322
7.6 Multiple-rate drawdown tests: isochronal and p^-plot 12.1 Introduction 322
methods 186 12.2 The electric submersible pump (ESP) ^3
7.7 The Mishra-Caudle curves 190 12.3 Pumps with hydraulic drive 342
8 Analysis of well-test results: two-phase flow 200 12.4 Overview of artificial-lift systems 351
8.1 Introduction 200
8.2 Modifying the radial-flow formulas 201 Appendix: conversion factors MS
8.3 Influence of free gas in the formation 202 Suggestions for further reading M7
8.4 The IPR: solution-gas-drive reservoirs 204
8.5 Future IPRs: solution-gas-drive reservoirs 212 Index 360