VALUES
brought by an apprehension of a
Human Act – an action done with full
knowledge and deliberation
Every human act is the product of the will
Max Ehrmann – author of Desiderata
 Avoid loud and aggressive persons
 World is full of trickery
 You are a child of the universe
THREE ESSENTIAL QUALITIES
 Knowledge of the act
 Freedom
 Voluntariness – a choice made out of
one’s own freewill
 Perfect Voluntariness – the doer
and the action fully knows and
fully intends the act
 Imperfect Voluntariness – defect
in the doer knowledge, intention,
or in both
TYPES OF HUMAN ACT
 Elicited
- wish
- intention
 Commanded
 Internal – done by mental power
under the command will
Ex. Remembering, control anger
 External – effected by bodily and
mental powers under the
command of the will
Ex. Walking, writing, speaking
 Mixed – involving bodily and
mental powers
Ex. Studying, it involves intellect
and use of eyes in reading the
lesson
J.M. Ignacio – author of The River
Lola Trining – could still remember how the
river looked like when she was a kid
Lola Constancia – lola ni Lola Trining
Pasig River – river sa story
Clara – mother ni Noknok
Noknok – bata na nagkasakit, anak ni Clara
Japanese Encephalitis – sakit na nakuha niya
(Noknok) sa lamok
MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS
 Ignorance – person’s lack of knowledge
about a certain thing and the
consequences of not knowing it
TWO TYPES
 Vincible Ignorance – can be
prevented/dispelled
 Invincible Ignorance – can’t be
dispelled by mere intelligence
 Fear – mental disturbance in a person
real/imaginary danger
 Slight Fear – fleeting/temporary
 Grave Fear – serious and lasting
 Passion – similar to
concupiscence/strong desire
 Antecedent Passion – arises
spontaneously even before the
will can control it, such as joy for
topping an exam
 Consequent Passion – deliberate
product of a continuous flow of
events such as parent’s anger for
his son’s unending wicked acts
 Violence – external force to harm/abuse
another person/entity
 Habit – person’s disposition to do an
action in a consistent manner
Robert Frost – author of The Road Not Taken
 Two roads diverged in a yellow wood
 It leaves no steps had trodden black
J.M. Ignacio – author of A Mother’s Story
 Dina – mother of Maymay and five other
children
 Maymay – youngest daughter, yung
nagkasakit sa mismong birthday niya
 Mikoy – eldest
 Leukemia – sakit ni Maymay
- ito yung nanay na nag-iisip ng way para sa
magiging celeb ng bday ng anak niya kaso
sinugod sa ospital si Maymay & then kulang
yung pera niya para sa gastusin sa ospital
tapos inofferan siya ng boss niya ng “extra
service”
St. Thomas Aquinas – stated that human act
has 13 stages
THREE MAIN PHRASES
 Intention
- begins from a person’s thought of an
act
- person then feels complacence or lack
of complacence for the act
One’s will transforms his/her standpoint
towards the act to an objective
- because of the objective, person then
gains an intention to do the act
Reason
 apprehension of an act
 judgment regarding attainability
Will
 Wishing of end
 An intention to do an act
 Decision
- person thinks of various means to
carry out the objective
 - decides whether these means are  FM – Frequency
worth doing or not Modulation
- person wills himself/herself with a  Jupiter and Sun – also sources of
choice radio waves
Reason  Microwaves
 Counsel: considering in practical W: 10-1 to 10-3 m
judgments the means to do an F: 300 MHz to 300 GHz
act and achieve the objective - James Clerk Maxwell, 1864
 Deliberation: judging among the - also known as high-frequency radio
practical choices in a concrete wave
way APPLICATIONS
Will  Communication – long distance
 Consent to the means telephone
 Choice  Weather Forecasting – Doppler
 Execution Radar
- command to do a certain action and  Kitchen – microwave oven
actualize the choice  Medical Field – microwave ablation
- using reason as the commander of and microwave imaging (microwave
action and the will as the motor of tomography)
action, the person then does the act  Infrared Waves
- person revels in the physical - below red
realization of the act - usually felt as heat
- person feels satisfied/dissatisfied W: 10-3 to 7.50x10-7 m
- person will judge himself/herself F: 3x1011 Hz to 4x1014 Hz
whether the human act that had done - Sir William Herschel, 1800
led to goodness or evil - living and non-living things radiates
Reason infrared waves
 Command: Ordering of the act - higher temperature produces shorter
 Judgment infrared rays
Will APPLICATIONS
 Active Execution  Remote control
 Passive Execution  Fast Food heat lamps
 Fruition  Burglar Alarm System
 Night Vision Cameras
SCIENCE  Thermometers
 Heat Lamps
Electromagnetic Waves – travel by the speed  Medical Field – medical infrared
of light imaging
 Radio Waves  Visible Light
- longest wavelength and lowest - white light – mixture of the entire
frequency visible light spectrum
- produced by alternating current circuit - you can separate the light components
attached to an antenna of white light thru the process called
- discovered by Heinrich Hertz, 1887 dispersion using a prism
Wavelength: 10-1 to 104 m - visible to the naked eye
Frequency: 30 KHz (30, 000 Hz to 3000 W: 4x10-7 m to 8x10-7 m
MHz (3, 000, 000, 000 Hz) F: 4x1014 Hz to 8x1014 Hz
APPLICATIONS APPLICATIONS
 RADAR (Radio detection and  Seeing Objects – gadgets,
ranging) – objects, weather environment, and extraterresial
forecasting, military surveillance, objects
air traffic control, tracking  Optical Fibers – high speed
satellites, and monitoring speed signals for long distances
in highway  LASER (Light Amplification by
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Stimulated Emission of
 Bluetooth Radiation) – optical imaging,
 GPS (Global Positioning System) surgery, endoscopy, and
 MRI (Magnetic Resonance microscopy
Imaging)  Ultraviolet Radiation
 Television and Radio - Johann Wilhelm Ritter
 AM – Amplitude W: 6x10-10 m to 4x10-7 m
Modulation F: 8x1014 Hz to1017 Hz
 KINDS APPLICATIONS
 UVA – 400 nm to 315 nm  Food Irradiation – kills bacteria and
 UVB – 314 nm to 280 nm pests
 UVC – 279 nm to 60 nm  Gamma Radiation Treatment – in new
- UVA – accounts for 95% of the Solar UV seed varieties
reaching the Earth  Medical Field – radiotheraphy and
- UVC – absorbed by the ozone, most harmful brachytherapy
- UVB – filtered by the ozone
- major source is the Sun Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) –
- also known as black light Oversees the safe and peaceful use of high-
- atmosphere’s ozone layer filtered the UV’s energy radiations
that come into our planet
- Ozone layer DECREASING WAVELENGTH
- 20-50 km above Earth  Gamma Rays to Radio Wave
- molecule of O3 atoms
- absorbs sun’s harmful UV rays INCREASING WAVELENGTH
- decreasing due to CFCs in AC,  Radio Wave to Gamma Rays
refrigerators and cleaning fluids
APPLICATIONS Crest – highest
 Detection of forged bank notes Trough – lowest
 Forensic Investigation Inversely Proportional – relationship of
 Sterilization of medical equipment and wavelength and frequency
purification of water
 Glow in the dark effects CHARACTERISTICS
 Stimulates production of Vitamin D in  Wavelength – crest-crest/trough-trough
human’s body  Frequency – no. of wavelength occur for
 Treatment of skin diseases like psoriasis every seconds
and vitiligo
- too much exposure can cause skin cancers HOW DO EM WAVES ARE PRODUCED
 X-rays  Oscillating electric charge produces
- also termed as Roentgen Rays electric field
- Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen without  Created electric field will produce
knowing its nature of origin that led to its oscillating magnetic field
name
W: 10-12 m to 10-8 m NATURE
F: 3x1020 Hz to 3x1016 Hz  Travel at the speed of light
CLASSIFICATIONS  Don’t require any medium to propagate
 Hard and can travel thru a vacuum
 Soft
 Transverse Wave – electric and
- produced by the sun, other stars, and
magnetic fields vibrate at the right
accelerated electrons that hit a metal
angles to the direction of the wave
and other medical equipment
travels
APPLICATIONS
 Detection of abnormalities in skeletal
DISCOVERY OF EM WAVES
system
 James Clerk Maxwell – predicted the
 Dental imaging
existence of electromagnetic waves and
 Security check of baggage
calculated the speed of light
 Gamma Rays
 Heinrich Hertz – German physicist who
SOURCES
discovered other waves other than
 Radioactive materials like cobalt-60 and
visible light
cesium-137
 Sun
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Clouds of interstellar matter
- continuous range of EM Waves arranged in
 Remnants of supernovae
order of frequency/wavelength
- highly penetrating due to their very
- no exact dividing point between one type of
short wavelengths
wave to another
- Paul Villard, 1900
W: 10-14 m to 10-10 m
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND LIFE
- highest energy, can travel through
several centimeters of lead  Ionizing
- both can be used in radiation therapy  Non-ionizing
to kill diseased cells
 EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE TO HIGH-
LEVEL IONIZATION
 Immediate Effects – death, radiation
burns, and damages in biological
cells
 Delayed Effects – cell’s mutation
(cancer)
 Ionization – process of removing
electrons from neutral atoms
 Enhanced Effect (Anthropogenic
greenhouse effect) – greenhouse
effect that came from increased
concentration of greenhouse gases
as a result of human activity
OTHER SIDE EFFECTS
 Radio Waves – interfere with a
pacemaker
 Microwaves – can cause cataracts
 Infrared – burns and pains
 Visible Light – blindness
 Ultraviolet Rays – skin burns, skin
cancer, and retina damages
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND
ENVIRONMENT
 The more greenhouse gases, the more
trapped infrared waves and the greater
rise in temperature
 Thinning of the ozone layer increases
the chances of UV rays can reached the
Earth’s surface
 Planktons sink deeper into the water
when exposed to too much UV that
resulted from decreasing amount of
oxygen
 Interference from electronics and AM
signals can distrupt the internal
magnetic compasses of migratory birds
 Ionizing radiation from a nuclear
material may result in the weakening of
plant seeds and mutations
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection – bouncing back of light into the
same medium it has been travelling after
striking a surface
Incident Ray – strikes the surface
Reflected Ray – rebounds from the surface
Normal – line perpendicular to the surface at
the point of incidence
Angle of Incidence – angle between the
incident ray and the normal
Angle of Reflection – angle between the
reflected ray and the normal
TYPES OF REFLECTION
 Regular/Specular Reflection
- reflection from smooth surfaces
- mirrors
 Diffuse Reflection
- reflection from rough surfaces
- walls, ceiling, floors
LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection
2. The incident ray, the normal, the
reflected ray lie on the plane
MIRRORS AND REFLECTION OF LIGHT
TWO TYPES OF MIRROR
 Plane Mirror
- flat surface
- using at home where we see the exact
image of ourselves
- used by architects to make a room
seem bigger
 Spherical Mirror
- reflecting surface taken from the
surface of a sphere
TWO KINDS
 Concave (Converging Mirror) –
curves inwards the direction of
the incident rays
 Convex (Diverging Mirror) –
bulges outside the incident rays
Images
- picture produced by a camera, artist, mirror,
etc
- reproduction of an object via light
IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR
 Real Image
- actual intersection of reflected rays
- in front of the mirror
- can projected on the screen
- upside down/inverted relative to the
object
 Virtual Image
- no actual intersection of the reflected
rays
- cannot be displayed on screens
- upright relative to the object
IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS
 Always virtual
 Upright
 Same size as the object/smaller than
the object
 Same distance behind the mirror as the
object is in front of the mirror
 Laterally reversed
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
 Center of Curvature (C) – center of the
sphere from where the mirror was taken
 Vertex (V) – center of the mirror and
sometimes called as pole of the mirror
 Radius of the Curvature (R) – radius of
the sphere and distance between C and
V b. when a ray of light passes obliquely
 Principal Axis/Optical Axis – straight line
joining C and V
 Aperture (AB) – width of the mirror
 Principal Focus (F) – point where the
reflected rays meet as in the case of
concave mirror and the reflected rays
seem to come from behind a convex
mirror
 Focal Length (f) – distance from the pole
of the principal focus, one-half of the
radius of curvature
RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED
BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS
1. A ray of light which run parallel to the
principal axis, after reflection, passes
through the principal focus of a concave
mirror, or appears to pass through the
principal focus of a convex mirror
2. A ray of light passing through the center
of curvature in a concave mirror/ray of
light going towards the center of
curvature of a convex mirror is reflected
back along the same path
3. A ray of light passing through the
principal focus of a concave
mirror/appearing to pass through the
principal focus of a convex mirror
becomes parallel to the principal axis
after reflection
LAWS OF REFRACTION
1. The incident ray, refracted ray, and
normal lie on the plane
2. a. when ray of light passes obliquely
from an optically denser medium to a
less dense medium, it is refracted away
from the normal
from an optically dense medium to a
denser medium, it is refracted towards
the normal
c. When the incident ray is
perpendicular to the interface, no
bending of light occurs
Shallowing Effect
- effect you see in liquid surface that appear to
be shallower
- angle of light from the objects changes at the
surface of the liquid, bending towards the liquid
- the index of refraction is the ratio of real depth
to the apparent depth
Critical Angle – angle of incidence
corresponding to an angle of refraction of 90
degrees
“if the angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle, no refraction occurs”
Total Internal Reflection – phenomenon where
the light will be totally reflected back to the first
medium because the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle
“the smaller the critical angle, the more likely
that total internal reflection occurs”

L – Location
O – Orientation (inverted/upright)
S – Size (diminished, enlarged, same size)
T – Type (real/virtual)

Refraction – change in the direction of light

when it passes from one medium to another of
different optical density
Optical Density
- transparency
- light travels slowly in an optically dense
substance
- refraction of light is responsible for the image
formation in our eyes and lenses
Inversely Proportional – relationship of Optical
Density and speed of light
Index of Refraction – ratio of the speed of light
in a vacuum to that in a substance