Gravity Separation

Training Services
Gravity Separation
EDS-2004/GS-1
The first half of this session discusses gravity separation of fluids. The second half
discusses mist elimination and coalescing.
Surge Drums
EDS-2004/GS-2
Surge drums are vessels whose only function is to provide residence time. This
capability may also be provided in equipment that has other duties. The concept of
residence time is covered in this presentation because one important function of a
separator is the provision of residence times.
Surge Volume
Absorbs variations in the incoming flow,

providing a uniform feed rate to downstream
equipment
Allows time for problem correction or shut

down in the event of large variations
May be a dedicated vessel or provided as

part of another vessel
EDS-2004/GS-3
A surge volume protects downstream equipment by providing a continuous and

constant flow rate of feed.
Residence Time
Normal time a fluid remains within a vessel,

portion of a vessel, or other equipment
May be defined to give the needed surge

capacity or to allow a desired reaction to
occur while minimizing undesired side effects
Requirement set by process or operational

characteristics
EDS-2004/GS-4
The required residence time in a reactor is related to the desired chemical reactions
and the necessary time for them to come to completion.
The required residence time in a surge drum may be related to variations in flow
rate or to the time required to recognize an incident and take the appropriate action,
for example, stop or start a pump.
Examples of Uses
Smoothes liquid flow variations resulting from

large distance pumped (e.g. from tank farm)
or the type of pump (reciprocating, etc.)
Allows operator reaction time in the event of
loss of liquid feed to the unit
Protects pump suctions from loss of liquid
feed by allowing time for pump shutdown (e.g.
separator liquid pumps)
Absorbs temporary increases or “slugs” of
liquid flow (e.g. short term steam injection
upstream)
EDS-2004/GS-5
Surge capacity also provides temperature stability when the incoming stream
temperature has short term variations. The variations are eliminated by mixing with
the larger volume of uniform temperature material in the drum.
Surge Drum Orientation
Vertical
– Most economical orientation considering
vessel cost
– Level reacts more quickly to changes in flow
than in a horizontal vessel
Horizontal
– Greater liquid surface area results in less
change in liquid level during flow variations
EDS-2004/GS-6
Vertical surge drums take up a smaller amount of plot space than their horizontal
counterparts. The quick reaction to changes in flow allows rapid detection of flow
variations. Horizontal surge drums react much more slowly but provide a much
more constant liquid head and, possibly, flow rate to downstream pumps or other
equipment.
Vertical surge drums require skirts or legs for support; horizontal surge drums
require saddles for their support.
Surge/Storage Sizing Example
Size a feed surge drum for a Tatoray Unit. The

feed rate is 20.4 m3/h (QL).
– Select an L/D of 3
– Size vessel for 30 minutes of liquid residence
time (t) at 75 percent liquid full (F)
– Calculate the liquid holdup volume
VL = QLt = (20.4 m3/h)(0.5 h) = 10.2 m3
– Calculate the required volume of the vessel
VV = VL/F = 10.2 m3/0.75 = 13.6 m3
EDS-2004/GS-7
L/D is the ratio of the vessel’s length to diameter.
L/D is typically 3, but may be as low as 2 or as high as 4. This L/D ratio results in
an economical vessel cost to volume ratio.
For this example, we will use a residence time of 30 minutes. We will cover other
residence times later in the presentation.
Residence times are normally based upon a 50-75% full drum. The value to use is
based upon experience with the process and potential for and consequences of the
liquid level exceeding this point.
Surge/Storage Sizing Example
Set the volume of the vessel equal to the volume of a

cylinder whose L/D is 3 and solve for D (ignore the
head volume).
VCyl = πD2L/4 = 3πD3/4 = 13.6 m3
1 1
 4Vcyl  3  4 × 13.6  3
D =   =  
 3π   3π 
D = 1.79 m
so L = 3D = 5.38 m
Convert to millimeters and round to 1800 millimeters
inside diameter and 5400 millimeters tangent length.
EDS-2004/GS-8
We derive the formula by substituting 3 x D for L, and solving for D.

Separators
EDS-2004/GS-9
Other forms of separation using thermal or chemical means or molecular sieves (for
example, adsorption, fractionation) are not part of this presentation.
Separation
The Act or Process of Separating
The State of Being Separate
To Isolate From a Mixture
To Divide Into Constituent Parts
EDS-2004/GS-10
The above statements are part of the dictionary definition of separation. In the
refining environment, we are mostly concerned with separating vapors from liquids
and separating immiscible (see slide 13) liquids with different densities.
Reasons for Separation
Remove unwanted fluids, such as water.

Divide a desired product (vapor or fluid) from
other components.
Divide phases for further processing (e.g. vapor
product and liquid reflux on a fractionator
overhead).
Protect liquid handling equipment (e.g. pumps)
from vapor entry and damage.
Protect vapor handling equipment (e.g.
compressors) from liquid entry and damage.
EDS-2004/GS-11
In Crude Unit Desalters, salt laden water is removed from the crude oil.
Vapor/liquid separation is used to keep liquids out of compressors and to keep

vapors out of pumps, for example, in fractionator overhead streams.
Separation Limitations
For gravity separation to occur, fluids must

be immiscible and of different densities.
The closer the fluid densities, the more

difficult the separation.
No separation method is complete. The

degree of desired separation must be defined,
normally by defining the minimum particle
size to be separated.
EDS-2004/GS-12
Miscible fluids, such as alcohol and water, cannot be separated by gravity, nor can
fluids having similar or equal densities. Miscible fluids may separate under the
influence of heat, chemical reactions, filtering, etc.
Separation is not perfect. There will be some of the heavy fluid in the light fluid
and some light fluid in the heavy fluid. The degree of separation and cost of
separation are directly proportional.
Immiscible
Incapable of being mixed without the

phases or components separating under the
influence of gravity. Cannot attain
homogeneity (uniformity).
EDS-2004/GS-13
Immiscible fluids can be mixed together, but they will not stay mixed unless some
form of emulsion is created during mixing. The fluids will separate on their own
under the influence of gravity.
• Emulsion - (e.g., fat in milk) - liquid remaining dispersed within an immiscible

fluid
• Solution - A liquid containing a dissolved substance (e.g., salt water). A

substance is homogeneously mixed with a liquid. The resulting substance is
homogeneous ( uniform, constant, structure throughout).
• Mixture - Two or more components blended together, each of which remains

separate and retains its own properties (e.g., salt and pepper will stay blended,
but retain their own properties)
• Suspension - Solid particles are mixed with, but undissolved, in a fluid (or
solid)
• Compound - Formed by a union or joining of two separate ingredients, each of

which remains recognizable, i.e., they’re “stuck” together
Separation Methods
Momentum
Gravity Settling
Coalescing
Separation using a combination of these methods is

common.
EDS-2004/GS-14
Momentum separation involves changes in the direction of flow (a cyclone is an

example).
Gravity settling uses velocity and time functions.
Wire mesh coalescing blankets are used to help separate light and heavy liquids by
combining very small heavy liquid droplets into large droplets, which can then be
separated from the light liquid by gravity.
Momentum Separation
Denser fluid changes direction more slowly

than less dense fluid
Often used for initial or “bulk” separation
EDS-2004/GS-15
In two-phase flow through an elbow, the heavier phase will flow toward the outside
of the elbow, and the lighter phase will flow toward the inside of the elbow.
Gravity Separation
Denser fluids sink and lighter fluids “rise”

due to the influence of gravity
Most common means of separation used in

refineries and petrochemical plants
EDS-2004/GS-16
The dense phase sinks through the light phase, and the light phase floats up through
the dense phase. “Rise” means the lighter fluid is displaced by the falling heavier
fluid.
Gravity separation is “free” of energy needs such as required by fractionation.

Therefore, it is generally the least expensive method of separation, considering
installation, maintenance, and operation. Separation of small droplets will,
however, require a large vessel and a long time.
Coalesce
To unite into a whole

To grow together
Fuse
1.26 D
EDS-2004/GS-17
Large drops or particles settle better than smaller ones.
Smaller drops combine into larger drops due to random collisions. In the example
shown, the combined drop is 25% bigger and has twice the mass of the two
individual drops and, therefore, settles better.
Coalescing Separation
Droplets follow a torturous path through a

coalescing device
– Droplets collide with each other and with the
device, forming larger droplets
Generally used for fine droplet removal,

fusing them into larger drops removed by
gravity settling
EDS-2004/GS-18
Coalescing blankets provide lots of twists and turns to increase drop-to-drop

contact. In other words, they promote collisions. Coalescing will be discussed in
more detail later.
Gravity separation alone can be used if we have unlimited time and vessel size;
coalescing reduces both.
Other factors that affect combination or fusion of droplets include surface tension
and electrical attraction.
Separator Zones
Usually four zones in a separator

– Primary separation -- “bulk” separation using
momentum and a change of direction at the inlet
– Secondary separation -- uses gravity separation
with low velocity, no turbulence fluids
– Coalescing separation -- uses coalescing to
remove fine droplets with a mist extractor near
the outlet
– Sump/liquid collection -- “gravity” degassing
separation and surge volume
EDS-2004/GS-19
Primary separation comes from the inlet distributor.
The major part of the vessel provides the secondary (gravity) separation.
Coalescing blankets and mesh blankets coalesce small drops into larger ones. They
are generally located at the vapor outlet to remove liquid droplets from the exiting
vapor. They may also be immersed in the liquid to aid in liquid/liquid separation.
A drop leg or “boot” may be used to separate the light liquid phase from the dense
liquid phase (frequently water).
Horizontal and Vertical Separators
EDS-2004/GS-20
In both vessels:
A = change in direction, promoting momentum separation
B = gravity separation zone
C = mist eliminators combine or coalesce small drops into large drops
D = residence time and settling zone

Gravity Settling Laws
Particle Moving in a Fluid
For Vessel Design

– Calculate droplet terminal velocity
– To allow separation in vertical vessels, size the
vessel to keep the velocity of the continuous
phase less than the particle terminal velocity
– Size horizontal vessels to permit the particle
to escape from the continuous phase before
the continuous phase (or the particle phase) is
withdrawn from the vessel
EDS-2004/GS-21
In vertical vessels, keeping the velocity of the continuous phase less than the
terminal velocity of the dispersed phase means that the dispersed phase moves in the
opposite direction from the continuous phase, allowing separation. If the continuous
phase velocity exceeds the terminal velocity, both phases will go the same direction,
though at different speeds, and exit through the same nozzle unseparated.
Terminal Velocity
Steady state velocity at which a dispersed

phase particle falls (or rises) relative to the
continuous fluid phase
Reached when the forces acting on the

dispersed phase particle balance and the
particle no longer accelerates
EDS-2004/GS-22
Note that the terminal velocity is relative to the continuous phase, not as would be
seen by an outside observer. This is a very important concept to understand.
Terminal velocity applies to a bubble rising in a liquid (for example, a bubble rising
in a carbonated beverage).
Terminal velocity also applies to a drop falling through a lighter phase fluid (rain is
an example).
At terminal velocity, gravity, buoyancy, and friction effects balance and there is no
further acceleration of the particle.
Continuous Phase
The predominant, or carrying fluid in the

region under consideration
EDS-2004/GS-23
In fog, the air is the continuous phase.

Dispersed Phase
Fluid scattered within and being carried by

the continuous phase in the region under
consideration
EDS-2004/GS-24
In fog, the suspended water droplets are the dispersed phase.
A fluid may be a dispersed phase in one section of a separation vessel and the same
fluid may be the continuous phase in another section of the same vessel.
Particle Settling in a Fluid
Fd + Fb Fd = Drag
Fb = Buoyant Force
Fg = Gravitational Force
F = Resultant Force
a = Particle Acceleration
Fg u = Particle Velocity
du
F = Fg − Fd − Fb = ma = m
dt
EDS-2004/GS-25
At terminal velocity, all of the forces are balanced. Gravity pulls down and
buoyancy pushes up. Drag tries to keep the particle or drop where it is.
F (force) = m (mass) x a (acceleration)
The equation is equally valid for rising bubble (though Fd is down in that case) as
for falling droplets.
For a particle to fall (rise), ut must exceed the upward (downward) continuous phase
velocity. Normally, especially in horizontal vessels, the continuous phase is
virtually motionless in the direction of settling (droplets) or rising (bubbles). This is
why horizontal gravity separators are preferred. Drop legs are different, acting as
mini-vertical separators.
At Steady State:
du
=0
dt
and u = ut = terminal velocity
So Fg = Fd + Fb
EDS-2004/GS-26
At steady state, neither velocity or acceleration is changing.

mg
Where: Fg =
gc
mρ g
Fb =
ρp g c
CDu t2ρA p
Fd =
2g c
πDp2
Ap =
4
1
m = πρp Dp3
6
EDS-2004/GS-27
Variables are defined on the next slide.
As the size of a spherical particle increases, the gravity and buoyancy forces
increase in proportion to the mass, a function of Dp3. The drag force, however,
increases more slowly, as a function of Dp2. As a result, large particles pass through
a different density fluid more quickly than small particles, enhancing separation.
m = Mass of particle
g = Gravitational acceleration
gc = Gravitation constant
ρ = Density of continuous fluid
ρp = Density of particle
Ap = Projected area of particle
Dp = Diameter of particle
CD = Drag coefficient (based upon velocity
relative to continuous phase)
µ = Viscosity of continuous fluid
ut = Terminal velocity
EDS-2004/GS-28
Substitute and solve for ut:
 4 D p g( ρ p − ρ ) 
0 .5
For Heavy Droplet -
ut =   Light Continuous Phase
 3CD ρ  For Light Droplet -
Heavy Continuous Phase,
use ρ − ρp
EDS-2004/GS-29
Just as in universities and textbooks, proof of the formula derivation is left to the
student.
Clearly, larger particle diameter and larger density difference increase the terminal
velocity and higher drag (viscosity) decreases the terminal velocity.
Limitations
– Spherical particle
– Stagnant fluid
– No interaction with other particles
– No wall effects
Terminal velocity for a particle can now be

calculated if CD can be quantified
EDS-2004/GS-30
To simplify the calculations, some limitations are assumed:
• Stagnant, laminar or, at least, not highly turbulent flows

• Random collisions between particles are neglected
• Drag and rebound effects of the containment walls are neglected
Drag Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
Spheres
10
Disks
Cylinders
1.0
0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Particle Reynolds Number, NRe = Dpρut

µ
EDS-R02-3446
EDS-2004/GS-31
We are only concerned with spheres in the laminar flow regime.
Note that drag decreases in turbulent flow (high Reynolds numbers). The
turbulence breaks up the boundary layer, reducing drag.
Newton’s Equation
For: 500 < N Re < 200 ,000
Where: Particle Reynolds Number D p ρu t

N Re =
µ
Then: CD = 0 .44
 gDp (ρp − ρ )
0.5
And: u t = 1.75  
 ρ 
EDS-2004/GS-32
We are concerned with the flat part of the curve where the drag coefficient is 0.44.
The droplet size (>1000 microns) is so large that it can cause excessive turbulence.
This equation is occasionally applied to liquid from vapor separation, but not often,
because the particle size is larger than designed for in practice.
Newton’s Equation
(continued)
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
SPHERES
10
DISKS
CYLINDERS
1.0
0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Particle Reynolds Number, NRe = µ Newton CD = 0.44

500<NRe<200,000
SD-R03-01a
EDS-2004/GS-33
The flat section is the Newtonian Region (ignore magnetic attraction, electrical
attraction, etc.).
Next, turn to the constant slope (low Reynolds number) regime.

Newton’s Equation
(continued)
In range of Newton’s Equation, Nre > 500, liquid
droplets falling in vapor will deform
Then: C D ≠ 0.44
Let: ρp = ρL
ρ = ρV
For: Dp = 1750 micron
And: CD = 1
 4Dp g(ρ L − ρ V )
0.5 0.5 0.5
 4(1.75)(32.2)   ρL − ρV 
ut =   =   
 3C Dρ V   3(1)(304.8)   ρV 
0.5
ρ − ρV 
= 0.496  L 
 ρV  EDS-2004/GS-34
This drag coefficient is frequently used for separation in the Newtonian region,
where the assumption of a spherical particle is questionable.
Stokes’ Equation
For: N Re < 2
D P ρµ t
Where: N Re =
µ
24
Then: CD =
N Re
And:
ut =
(ρ P − ρ)gDP2
18µ
EDS-2004/GS-35
At low Reynolds numbers, the terminal velocity is a function of density, particle

diameter, and viscosity.
Stokes equation is used for small (3 - 200 micron) particles.

Stokes’ Equation
(continued)
24
Stokes NRe< 2 CD =
NRe
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
SPHERES
10
DISKS
CYLINDERS
1.0
0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Dpρut
500<NRe<200,000
SD-R05-03
EDS-2004/GS-36
Next, an expression approximating the intermediate section of the curve is found.

Intermediate Equation
For: 2 < N Re < 500
D p ρu t
Where: N Re =
µ
18.5
Then: CD =
N 0Re.6
0.153g 0 .71D1p.14 ( ρ p − ρ)
0 . 71
And: ut =
ρ 0 . 29 µ 0 .43
EDS-2004/GS-37
The intermediate segment of the curve yields a complicated formula where drop
diameter and density are the major contributors.
The intermediate equation is used for mid-size (200-1000 micron) particles.

Intermediate Equation
24
Stokes NRe< 2 CD =
NRe 18.5
Intermediate CD =
NRe 0.6
2<NRe<500
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
SPHERES
10
DISKS
CYLINDERS
1.0
0.1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

500<NRe<200,000
SD-R05-02
EDS-2004/GS-38
Therefore, we will always be in one of the three regions -- Newtonian, Intermediate,

or Stokes.
To determine ut, we need to find CD, which requires the particle Reynolds Number
(NRe). However, we need to know ut to find NRe. This is not the problem it appears
to be because we do not need the exact Reynolds Number; we only need to know
which of three regions it falls into - Newton, Intermediate, or Stokes. From case-to-
case, ut will vary by a factor of only 5 or 6, while Dp can vary by a factor of 100 or
more. Therefore, Dp has a much greater effect on NRe and the “region” to use. In
reality, certain types of separation (e.g., liquid from vapor) are considered to be in a
constant, specific, “region” (see Slide #41).
Close Fluid Densities
The closer the fluid densities are, the more

difficult they are to separate
– Example: Find the terminal velocity for
separating water from two fluids, air and a
hydrocarbon liquid and apply Stokes’ Equation
CASE A CASE B
Droplet diameter 175 175 microns
Water density 62 62 lb/ft3
Continuous density 0.5 45 lb/ft3
Viscosity 0.5 0.5 Cp
g 32.2 32.2 ft/s2
ut 0.108 0.030 ft/s
EDS-2004/GS-39
In Case A, the density difference is much greater and, therefore, the terminal
velocity is much greater for separating water from air than for separating water from
hydrocarbon.
Gravity Setting
Laws and
Particle
Characteristics
SD-R01-09
EDS-2004/GS-40
See the full size plot at the end of the handout.

Separators and Receivers Use --
Stokes Law
– Vapor separation from a continuous liquid phase
– Dispersed liquid separation from a continuous
liquid phase
Intermediate Law
– Liquid separation from a continuous vapor phase
EDS-2004/GS-41
These three cases give good consistent results.
Liquid from vapor separation is based upon a rather large particle size. This is
because there is usually a mist eliminator (e.g., mesh blanket) to remove smaller
particles via coalescence.
The applicable separation law to use for each type of separation is based upon the
typical size of particles targeted for separation.
Selection of the Dispersed
Particle Size to be Separated
Consider effect upon downstream equipment,

effluent quality, overall economics
Consider difficulty and cost of separating
small(er) particles
Dispersed particles vary in size but generally
follow a bell, or normal curve
– Use of an “average” size works well
Optimal particle size is difficult to determine
EDS-2004/GS-42
Some effects of poor separation include:
• Corrosion (water in hydrocarbon or vapor)

• Reduced product purity
• Product loss
• Downstream equipment damage
Separation efficiency is proportional to cost. A cost/benefit analysis compares the

cost of removing smaller particles (larger vessel, more inventory in the vessel, mist
eliminators, more plot area and support system for the larger vessel) versus the cost
of allowing the particles to pass (corrosion, product purity or loss, equipment
damage (pumps or compressors, etc.)).
Particle diameter varies so we must pick a “target” diameter.

Dispersed Particle Sizes for Separation
Default particle sizes used for gravity

separation are:
– Liquid from vapor separation: 250 microns
(0.00082 feet)
– Vapor from liquid separation: 175 microns
(0.00057 feet)
– Dispersed liquid from continuous liquid: 125
microns (0.00041 feet)
EDS-2004/GS-43
These default drop diameters are used unless we know something specific for a
particular system. This is almost never the case.
Horizontal Separator Sizing Example
Problem
Design a Reactor Product Separator for
a Naphtha Hydrotreating Process Unit.
The relevant portion of the heat and material

balance is reproduced on the next slide.
EDS-2004/GS-44
We will use this case to size a horizontal separator.

Horizontal Separator Sizing Example
(continued)
Tabulate data and calculate volumetric flows
HYDROCARBON WATER TOTAL

VAPOR LIQUID LIQUID LIQUID
Flow, lb/h 693 58586 2250 60836
, ft3/s 1.54 0.35 0.01 0.36
, gal/min – 158 5 163
3
Density, lb/ft 0.125 46.34 61.55
Viscosity, cp 0.01 0.42 0.51
–4
, lb/ft sec (x 10 ) 0.06 2.82 3.42
EDS-2004/GS-45
When sizing a vessel, use actual sets of conditions, not the worst of each piece of
data (Q, ρ, etc.). Combining the worst data will yield a conservative, but oversized,
uneconomically, sized vessel.
Flow Schematic
SD-R01-10
EDS-2004/GS-46
This is a three-phase separation problem in which we will separate vapor,

hydrocarbon liquid, and water phases.
Horizontal Vessel Sizing Example
Sizing Steps
Select L/D
Determine Liquid Residence Time
Determine Normal Liquid Level
Calculate Diameter to Satisfy Residence Time
EDS-2004/GS-47
As noted earlier, L/D is typically 3. In some cases, a different value may be

advisable. High pressure service is an example. The heavy (thick) shell makes the
vessel expensive, and significant savings can be realized by using a shorter vessel.
A shorter vessel may, however, result in a greater diameter and, therefore, a thicker
shell, eliminating any cost saving. It may even increase costs due to more welding
and fabrication (e.g, rolling) concerns.
The vessel length is a key component of many of the design formulas used in
horizontal separation vessel sizing. In the example problem, an L/D of 3 is built
into the formulas. Use of a different L/D will result in a different constant in many
of the formulas.
Sizing Steps (continued)
Calculate the diameter required for each

phase separation
– Liquid from vapor
– Vapor from liquid
– Liquid from liquid
If a liquid coalescing blanket is used, calculate
diameter for 3 ft/m liquid velocity
Select governing (largest) diameter
Round up to nearest multiple of 6" or 100mm
EDS-2004/GS-48
We will do several calculations and pick whichever gives us the largest vessel
diameter.
Liquid Coalescing Blanket
Coalescing blankets are often used to accelerate

separation of two liquid phases
– Because of the often close densities, dependence
upon gravity separation only may require a
large vessel
When removing water, UOP always uses
coalescing blankets
Liquid velocities over 3 feet per minute may re-
entrain droplets from the blanket
EDS-2004/GS-49
The coalescing blanket will be oriented vertically and cover the full cross section of
the vessel. The blanket is intended to coalesce small droplets into larger ones for
improved settling efficiency.
Velocity through the coalescing blanket is an important parameter. If the velocity is

too low, the drops will not contact the wire(s) and combine. If the velocity is too
high, the liquid drops will be re-entrained.
A maximum velocity of 3 ft/min through a liquid coalescing blanket is used to

prevent “stripping” droplets off of the mesh and re-entraining them into the
continuous phase. A low velocity is necessary because of the relatively high density
of the liquid continuous phase. Collisions with droplets on the mesh are more
violent at a given velocity than if the continuous phase is a vapor, making
“stripping” more violent.
Vessel Configuration
SD-R02-12
EDS-2004/GS-50
HLL, NLL, and LLL are defined on the next slide.

Liquid Levels
NLL = Normal Liquid Level

HLL = High Liquid Level
LLL = Low Liquid Level
EDS-2004/GS-51
The high and low liquid levels determine the range of the level transmitter. High
and low level alarms are frequently provided.
Calculate diameter based on residence time

– Select L/D = 3 (most common, economical value)
– For settling a water phase from a light
hydrocarbon phase, use a 10 minute residence
time
– Set the normal liquid level (NLL) at the centerline
EDS-2004/GS-52
UOP typically uses an L over D ratio of 3. See the comments on slide 47.
For three-phase separation, 10 minutes is a typical residence time.
The normal liquid level (NLL) is usually placed at the centerline in horizontal
vessels.
– Calculate liquid volume
 0.36 ft 3  60 s 
VL = Q L t =   (10 min ) = 216 ft
3
 
 s  min 
– If the vessel is 1/2 full, then the full vessel

volume is:
V 216 ft 3
VV = L = = 432 ft 3
F 0.50
EDS-2004/GS-53
0.36 ft 3
= total liquid flow = 0.35 (hydrocarb on) + 0.01 (water)
sec
VV is a cylinder with L/D = 3. Ignoring the

head volume:
πD 2L 3πD 3
VV = =
4 4
( )
1 1
 4V  3  4 432 ft
3 3
D=  V =
 3π   3π 
D = 5.7 feet
EDS-2004/GS-54
The head volumes could be included in the total volume calculation but are not
because they add unnecessary complication to the calculation. The head volumes
are small compared to the cylindrical section and will have a small effect upon the
required vessel diameter.
Phase Separation in Horizontal Vessels
Horizontal Vessels D Inside diameter, ft
DDL O.D. of drop leg, in
Vessel dimensions based on vapor/liquid/liquid separation with drop leg. ADL Area of drop leg, ft2
L L Tangent length, ft
LDL Length of drop leg, ft
0.5D L-D 0.5D
VCV Velocity of continuous vaper phase, ft/s
Max. Minimum Max. VDV Velocity of dispersed vaper phase, ft/s
VTL Velocity of total liquid phase, ft/s
VCV VDL Velocity of dispersed liquid phase, ft/s
VDL
VDLL Velocity of dispersed light liquid phase, ft/s
VDV D
VDHL Velocity of dispersed heavy liquid phase, ft/s
VTL VHL Velocity of continuous heavy liquid phase, ft/s
VDHL X Diameter fraction of the continuous phase under study
L
VDLL Y - 1 (inlet and outlet 0.5D from ends)
D
coalescing LDL VHL 0.5D
mesh blanket Z Fraction of cross-section area corresponding to X
DDL Max.
(optional) T Time, minutes
0.5D ρL Liquid density, lb/ft3
ρV Vapor density, lb/ft3
QCV Vapor flow rate, ft3/sec
Diameter for gravity setting liquid from vapor phase
µ Vapor viscosity, lb/ft•sec
V
µ Liquid viscosity, lb•ft/s
L
DPV Vapor particle diameter, ft (in the absence of
specific process data ,use 0.00057 ft.)
DPL Liquid in thevapor particle diameter (feet) (0.00082 ft.)
DPH Heavy liquid particle diameter (feet) (0.00041 ft.)
QL Total liquid flow rate, gpm
QCHL Heavy liquid flow rate, gpm
SD-R03-13
EDS-2004/GS-55
The dimensions to the inlet and outlet nozzles are to the side of the nozzle furthest
from the heads, giving the least length available for gravity separation. As shown,
the nozzles are at their maximum permitted distance (½D) from the head.
Horizontal Separator Liquid Levels
Normal liquid level (NLL) is usually set at the

centerline to maximize amount of fluctuation
permitted
With low vapor/high liquid rates, set NLL
above the centerline to maximize liquid
residence times
With high vapor/low liquid rates, set NLL
below the centerline to minimize vapor
velocity
EDS-2004/GS-56
In all cases, review the maximum and minimum liquid levels per the next slide.
Horizontal Separator Liquid Levels
(continued)
High and low liquid levels (HLL and LLL)

are set the same distance from NLL
Minimum vapor space is 20% of the cross
sectional area
– Corresponds to 25% of the diameter
– Excessive vapor velocity over liquid surface
is avoided
Minimum liquid level is 25% of the diameter
(20% of the cross sectional area) to allow
for separation
EDS-2004/GS-57
Use of a minimum vapor (or conversely, liquid) space of 25% of the diameter (20%
of the cross sectional area) keeps an adequate interface surface for separation and
keeps the continuous phase velocity in the small volume from becoming too large.
A minimum liquid level also guards against cavitation of any pumps taking suction
from the vessel. If either the liquid or the vapor space becomes too small, the
resultant high velocity will tend to re-entrain the other, already separated, phase at
the interface between the phases
Calculate the diameter based on vapor from

liquid separation
– The terminal velocity of the bubble rising in
the liquid, VDV, is calculated with Stokes’ Law
Continuous (Liquid)
VDV =
2
gD PV (ρ L − ρ V )
18µ L
Dispersed (Vapor)
EDS-2004/GS-58
VDV = Velocity Dispersed Vapor DPV = Vapor Particle Diameter

(continued)
– If X is the distance from the bottom of the

vessel to the minimum liquid (continuous
phase) level, expressed as a fraction of the
diameter D, then the time, T, for the bubble
to rise a distance XD is:
XD
T=
VDV
EDS-2004/GS-59
(continued)
– The horizontal velocity of the liquid phase is the

volumetric flow of liquid divided by the flow area
QL QL
VTL =
(
Z 0.785D 2
)(7.48)(60) =
352.3ZD2
Where: - QL is the liquid flow rate, gpm
- Z is the fraction of cross-sectional area
corresponding to X
- 0.785D2 is the total cross-sectional area
- (7.48)(60) converts from ft3/s to gpm
EDS-2004/GS-60
VTL is the velocity of the total liquid phase from the inlet to the hydrocarbon outlet.
7.48 = gal/ft3
352.3 = constant dependent upon the units as given above (gpm)
(continued)
– If Y = L/D - 1, then the time for the liquid

to flow from the inlet to the outlet is:
YD
T=
VTL
EDS-2004/GS-61
L
Y= − 1 is based upon the inlet and outlet nozzles being as far from the
D heads (0.5D each) as permitted; it is conservative.
The portion of the vessel length available for separation is the distance between the
inlet and outlet nozzles. It is expressed as a function of the diameter, with Y being
the number of vessel diameters in this length.
YD = L − (0.5D + 0.5D )
YD = L − D
L
Y= −1
D
(continued)
– In the worst case, the time for bubble to rise

XD is equal to time for liquid to flow YD, and:
XD YD
T= =
VDV VTL
XDVTL = YDVDV
– Substitute:
XDQL gYDD2PV (ρ L − ρ V )
=
352.3ZD2 18µ L
EDS-2004/GS-62
The worst case is for the bubble to rise from the lowest point in the vessel to the
surface just as the hydrocarbon liquid is withdrawn from the vessel.
Solve the equations for diameter.

(continued)
– Solve for D
0.5  0.5
 18X  Q Lµ L 
D=  2 
 352.3ZY   gDPV (ρ L − ρ V )
– For X = 0.25, then Z = 0.20

– For L/D = 3, then Y = 2
EDS-2004/GS-63
Solve for D:
Y = 2 based upon Y =
L with L
−1 =3
D D
(Nozzles as far from the tangent lines as possible)
(continued)
Use the minimum liquid level for any

separation occurring in continuous liquid
– Although the separation distance (liquid
depth) is short, the liquid velocity is
maximized, giving the minimum separation
time
Deep liquid increases the flowing area,
decreasing the horizontal velocity faster than
depth increases
– Does not govern vessel size
EDS-2004/GS-64
If we use the minimum hydrocarbon level, the vapor bubbles have the least distance
to rise, but the liquid velocity is at its maximum.
For a design where, at the minimum liquid level, a rising bubble reaches the surface
at the moment it reaches the outlet, at the maximum liquid level, the same bubble
will reach the surface only ¾ of the way to the outlet. The bubble must rise three
times as far (0.75φ vs. 0.25φ) taking three times as long (the terminal velocity, ut, is
the same in both cases). However, it takes four times as long to travel from the inlet
to the outlet. The velocity is ¼ as great because the flowing area is four times as
great (0.8ATOTAL vs. 0.2ATOTAL). After three times as long (when the bubble
reaches the surface), it is only ¾ of the way to the outlet.
The same scenario holds for all intermediate liquid depths; therefore, the minimum
liquid depth governs.
(continued)
– Then:
0.5
 Q Lµ L 
D = 0.18 
 gDPV (ρ L − ρ V )
2
0 .5

D = 0.18 
(163)(0.000282) 

 (32.2 )(0.00057 ) (46.34 − 0.125 )
2
D=1.75 feet
for vapor from liquid separation
EDS-2004/GS-65
Use the lower liquid density (hydrocarbon) because this is, by far, the predominant fluid in
the liquid phase and use of the lower density is conservative, if anything. The vapor will
separate more quickly from a denser fluid.
The vessel diameter determined is the minimum that will achieve separation of the specified
size of particle. If the actual diameter used is larger, the distance the dispersed phase particle
must travel, i.e., the continuous phase depth (at 25% of the diameter), increases as a function
of the diameter. The horizontal fluid velocity decreases as a direct function of the flowing
area, which increases as a function of the square of the diameter.
For example, double the vessel diameter from φMIN to 2φMIN. The flowing area in the first
case = 0.2πφMIN2/4. In the second case, the flowing area = 0.2π (2φMIN)2/4 = 0.2π4φMIN2/4.
Therefore, the flowing area is four times as great, and the velocity ¼ as great; hence, it takes
four times as long to travel the same distance. Additionally, the travel distance is a function
of the diameter (e.g., L = 2D) and would double; therefore, a droplet would take 4 x 2 = 8
times as long to go from the vessel inlet to outlet. The liquid depth doubles; therefore, it
takes twice as long to rise through the liquid.
For an increased vessel diameter, the time to escape the continuous phase is a function of the
diameter change, while the time in the vessel is a function of the second (or third,
considering that the length is also a function of diameter) power of the diameter. Therefore,
the desired particle size will escape the continuous phase more easily for a larger diameter
vessel, or one where the L/D is greater than the L/D used in determining the minimum
diameter.
(continued)
Calculate diameter based on liquid/liquid

separation
– The method uses Stokes’ Law to calculate the
terminal velocity of the heavy liquid droplet and
is very similar to the vapor from liquid case
– Use subscripts HL and LL for heavy liquid and
light liquid
EDS-2004/GS-66
(continued)
– From Stokes Equation:
gD2PH (ρ HL − ρ LL )
VHL =
18µ LL
– and:
XD YD
T= =
VHL VTL
EDS-2004/GS-67
(continued)
– Substitute and Solve for D:
0.5  0.5
 18 X  Q Lµ LL 
D=  2 
 352.3YZ   gDPH (ρ HL − ρ LL )
– For X = 0.25, then Z = 0.20

– For L/D = 3, Y = 2
EDS-2004/GS-68
Note that different density values will provide different diameters.
Here, Y is not strictly the correct value to use. What should be used is the distance
from the inlet to the leading edge of the boot, as a function of D (this may be the
same as Y).
(continued)
0.5
 Q Lµ LL 
D = 0.18  
 gD2PH (ρ HL − ρ LL )
0 .5

D = 0.18
(163)(0.000282) 

 (32.2 )(0.00041)2 (61.55 − 46.34 )
D = 4.2 ft
for liquid/liquid separation
EDS-2004/GS-69
Thus, we know that a larger vessel diameter is required to separate water from the
hydrocarbon liquid phase. The reason is that the densities are closer than for
vapor/liquid separation.
(continued)
Calculate the diameter based upon liquid

from vapor separation
Vapor is the continuous phase
– Use a vapor space depth of 0.25D, i.e. X=0.25
If there is more than one liquid phase, use the
least dense phase because it will separate
from the vapor more slowly
Use the intermediate law and logic similar
to that used in previous checks
EDS-2004/GS-70
Calculate liquid separation from the vapor phase at the maximum liquid level. This
gives the minimum continuous phase (vapor) depth (0.25φ). This governs the
design for the same reasons the minimum liquid depth is used for separation from
the liquid (see Slide #64).
Separate the hydrocarbon liquid from the vapor; separating the water from the vapor
will not govern the design because water is denser than hydrocarbon.
Here, we use the more complicated formula applicable to the Intermediate Reynolds
number regime. This is because the target particle size is greater because a mist
eliminator is typically present at the vapor outlet to trap and coalesce smaller
particles. Gravity separation of these particles is not necessary.
(continued)
XD YD
T= =
VDL VCV
XDVCV = YDVDL
QCV
VCV =
(
Z 0.785D 2 )
VDL =
0.153g 0.71D1PL
.14
(ρL − ρ V )0.71 (Intermediate Law )
ρ 0V.29µ 0V.43
EDS-2004/GS-71
Here, QCV is in units of ft3/sec, not gallons per minute, hence the different form of
the equation for VCV versus that for VTL (see Slide 60). The difference is the
conversion factor for changing GPM to ft3/sec.
(continued)
YD 0.153g 0 .71D1PL.14 ( ρ L − ρ V )
0 . 71
XDQ CV
=
(
Z 0.785D 2 ) ρ 0V. 29 µ 0V.43
0 .5 0 .5
 X   Q CV ρ 0V. 29 µ 0V.43 
D=   0 .71 1.14 0 . 71 
 0.785( 0.153) YZ   g D PL ( ρ L − ρ V ) 
For X = 0.25, then Z = 0.20

For L/D = 3, then Y = 2
EDS-2004/GS-72
Solve for D.
(continued)
0 .5
 QCV ρ 0V.29µ 0V.43 
D = 2.28  
 g DPL (ρ L − ρ V )0.71 
0.71 1.14
QCV = 1.54 ft 3 s
ρ V = 0.125 lb ft 3 ρ L = 46.34 lb ft 3
µ V = 0.06 x 10- 4 lb ft ⋅ sec g = 32.2 ft s 2

0.5

D = 2.28 
(1.54)(0.125)0.29 (0.000006)0.43 
0.71 
 (32.2 ) (0.00082 ) (46.34 − 0.125 )
0.71 1.14

EDS-2004/GS-73
(continued)
D=0.68 feet
For liquid from vapor separation

(without coalescing blanket)
EDS-2004/GS-74
The calculated diameter is low due to the high density difference and large particle
(droplet) diameter.
(continued)
Diameter Requirements
– Residence time 5.7 feet
– Vapor from liquid 1.75 feet
– Liquid from liquid 4.2 feet
– Liquid from vapor 0.68 feet
EDS-2004/GS-75
(continued)
The governing diameter, 5.7 feet, was that

determined by the liquid residence time
criteria. Round to:
D = 6 feet
L = 3D = 18 feet
EDS-2004/GS-76
Take the governing calculated diameter (5.7 feet), round up to 6 feet, and determine
length based on 3 x D = 3 x 6 = 18 feet. Overall vessel dimensions (diameter and
tangent length) are rounded up to the next multiple of 6 inches (English units) or
100mm (metric units).
Using the selected vessel diameter, the “actual” particle size gravity separated in
each of the preceding cases (vapor from liquid, liquid from liquid, liquid from
vapor) and the actual residence time provided could be determined. All will be
better, perhaps greatly so, than the values used for design.
If a demisting (mesh) blanket is used at the vapor outlet, check the vessel geometry
to insure that the blanket is entirely above the high liquid level. There must also be
sufficient space between the high liquid level and the underside of the blanket for
vapor flow (vapor can enter the blanket only from the underside). The clearance
should normally be a minimum of one fourth the largest dimension of the blanket.
(continued)
Check liquid velocity for a coalescing blanket.

QL
VTL =
352.3ZD 2
163
=
352.3( 0.2)( 6)
2
= 0.065fps = 3.9 fpm > 3.0 fpm
(Maximum velocity through coalescing blanket)
EDS-2004/GS-77
When the liquid level is low, the velocity through the mesh blanket may be too
high, but this is rarely the case. Check.
As noted on Slide 60, the 352.3 value is dependent upon the units used. Here, QL is
in GPM and is converted to ft3/sec.
At this point, a decision is necessary. At the lowest liquid level, the velocity
through the liquid coalescing blanket exceeds the target value (3 ft/min). One
option is to increase the vessel size to lower the velocity to less than 3 ft/min. The
other is to accept the consequences of the high velocity when the liquid level is at its
lowest. A little deeper liquid will result in a lower, acceptable, velocity. At the NLL
(half full), Z = 0.5 and the velocity = 3.9 x 0.2/0.5 = 1.56 ft/min, well below the
larger of 3 ft/min.
(continued)
Increase the vessel diameter to accommodate

maximum the permissible velocity through
coalescing blanket
Set VTL = 3 fpm = 0.05 fps
163
0.05 =
( )
352.3(0.2 ) D2
1
 163  2 1
D=  = (46.3 ) 2
 (352.3)(0.2 )(0.05 ) 
= 6.8, use 7 feet

EDS-2004/GS-78
We need to increase the vessel diameter to 6.8 feet, per this velocity criteria, so the
new vessel diameter is 7 feet.
(continued)
Drop Leg (Boot) Sizing Steps
Determine residence time

Calculate diameter based on phase separation
Calculate diameter based on process velocity
limits (if any)
Calculate diameter based on residence time
Use UOP’s standard drop leg (boot) length
of 3.5 feet
EDS-2004/GS-79
Calculate the boot diameter assuming the standard length of 3.5 feet. This length is
nearly always adequate to provide the required residence time with a boot diameter
below ½ the vessel diameter (see following slide). Long boots result in interference
with equipment and piping below the vessel and require the vessel elevation to be
increased to provide the needed net positive suction head (NPSH) on the water
pumps taking suction from the boot.
(continued)
Drop Leg (Boot) Sizing Steps
Select the governing (largest) diameter
If DDL is greater than half of the vessel diameter,

then set DDL = 1/2 vessel diameter and recalculate
LDL
Round up to the next pipe size
EDS-2004/GS-80
The drop leg diameter must be less than ½ of the vessel diameter or special,
expensive reinforcement of the vessel/drop leg attachment will be required.
In rare cases, we may have to reduce the drop leg diameter at the expense of
separation efficiency.
Drop leg diameters are usually selected based on standard pipe sizes.
If the drop leg diameter is greater than ½ the vessel diameter, reduce to less than ½
the vessel diameter and increase the drop leg, or boot, length. This is the normal
solution and will provide for the required residence time and solve the “problem”
when residence time governs the diameter and the new diameter is still greater than
needed for separation efficiency. If, at the new diameter, the continuous phase
velocity exceeds the terminal velocity, the separation of the desired particle size will
not occur. In that case, either use the boot size required for the desired separation
and design a special boot/vessel convection or back-figure the size of particle that
will be separated and determine if it is acceptable.
(continued)
SD-R01-14
EDS-2004/GS-81
(continued)
Vessel Drop Leg (Boot)
Size the drop leg for 10 minute residence time

for the water phase
Size the drop leg for separation of the dispersed

hydrocarbon liquid phase from a continuous
water phase
EDS-2004/GS-82
Because of the greater difference in densities, vapor separates out of the water phase
more easily than hydrocarbon liquid separates from the water so vapor separation
rarely, if ever, governs.
(continued)
Use Stokes’ Law to determine the terminal

velocity of the dispersed liquid droplet
VDLL =
2
gD PL (ρ HL − ρ LL )
18µ HL
Velocity of the continuous heavy liquid phase
(water) is the volumetric flow rate divided
by the cross-sectional area of the drop leg
Q CHL Q CHL
VCHL = = 2
A DL 0.785D DL
EDS-2004/GS-83
In this case, the flows are vertical with the heavy water phase flowing down and the
light hydrocarbon liquid phase flowing up. The larger the drop leg, the better the
separation because the downward heavy phase moves more slowly.
(continued)
To insure that the light liquid rises, set the

velocity of continuous water phase, VCHL, equal to
the terminal velocity of the hydrocarbon droplet,
VDLL, and solve for diameter of the drop leg, DDL
QCHL gD 2PL (ρ HL − ρ LL )
VCHL = VDLL = =
0.785D 2DL (7.48)(60 ) 18µ HL
0.5  0.5
 18  QCHLµ HL 
D DL = 12 ×    2 
 .785(7.48 )(60 )  gDPL (ρ HL − ρ LL )
EDS-2004/GS-84
Solve for the drop leg diameter when the terminal velocity and water velocity are equal.
The constants in the above equation are based upon Q in gallons/minute, converting it to ft3/sec.
Setting the continuous phase and terminal velocities equal gives the largest continuous phase
velocity, hence the smallest diameter boot in which the desired separation will occur.
To illustrate why the heavy phase velocity must be less than the light phase terminal velocity,
consider continuous and dispersed phase droplets that begin together. Assume the continuous phase
moves down at 10 feet/second, and the dispersed phase terminal velocity is 8 feet/second, meaning it
rises relative to the continuous phase at 8 feet/second. After one second, the continuous phase has
moved down 10 feet, and the dispersed phased has moved up 8 feet relative to the continuous
phase. It still dropped 2 feet, however, and will eventually be carried out the same outlet as the
continuous phase, hence no separation. If the terminal velocity were 12 feet/second, then the
dispersed phase moves up and out of the boot. This would happen for a larger particle size than the
particle with the 8 feet/second terminal velocity. In the example, particles with a terminal velocity
greater than 10 feet/second will separate. Another solution is to increase the drop leg diameter to
slow the continuous phase. Terminal velocities are not affected by the drop leg diameter.
Another illustration is an airplane flying into the wind. If the plane flies at 150 mph into a 200 mph
wind, it is moving at 150 mph relative to the wind and remains airborne. However, its speed relative
to the ground is 50 mph backwards! It will never reach its destination.
(continued)
0.5
 QCHLµ HL 
D DL = 2.71 
 gDPL (ρ HL − ρ LL )
2
0 .5
D DL = 2.71
 (5)(0.000342) 

 (32.2)(0.00041)2 (61.55 − 46.34 )
DDL = 12.4 inches
EDS-2004/GS-85
Thus, we need a minimum 12.4 inch diameter drop leg for good separation of the
specified particle (droplet) size, density, and viscosity.
Use of a larger diameter drop leg means a slower continuous phase velocity and
better separation. The terminal velocity of the specified particle size will exceed the
continuous phase velocity by more. Smaller particles will separate because their
terminal velocity will then exceed the continuous phase velocity.
(continued)
Calculate the drop leg diameter based upon a

10 minute residence time and a drop leg length
of 3.5 feet
πD 2DL L
VDL = QCHL t =
4
 5 gal   ft 3  3.5πD 2DL
  (10 min ) =
 7.48 gal 
 min    4
D 2DL = 2.43
DDL = 1.56 ft = 18.7 inches

EDS-2004/GS-86
Check the drop leg diameter to provide 10 minutes residence time.
In this case, residence time governs and the necessary drop leg diameter increases to
18.7 inches.
(continued)
Select the largest calculated drop leg inside

diameter, 18.7 inches, and round to next larger
standard pipe size, 20 inch outside diameter
Drop leg diameter is less than half of the 7 foot

vessel diameter
– Length of the drop leg is 3 feet, 6 inches
– Since the drop leg is less than 30 inches outside
diameter and vessel is internally lined, the drop
leg will be flanged to vessel
EDS-2004/GS-87
Round up 18.7 inches to 20 inches OD. It may be necessary to increase two pipe
sizes to provide the necessary ID, considering the wall thickness needed (for
pressure, etc.). For example, if the required ID were 19.7 inches, a 20 inch OD pipe
would not be adequate. 22 inches might work, but flanges are not readily available
for this size (therefore, the pipe may also be hard to get), meaning we might need to
increase three pipe sizes to 24 inches.
The drop leg is usually considered expendable and is flanged for easy replacement.
If replacement is difficult (all welded construction), an internal lining is sometimes
added to increase usable life. See the next slide for lining and flanging criteria.
Minimum drop leg diameter is 14" OD
If drop leg diameter is <30" OD and vessel

is lined, flange the drop leg to the vessel
– Drop leg is not lined because it is too small
to enter and apply an overlay
– Provide extra corrosion allowance
and replace when corroded
EDS-2004/GS-88
(continued)
If drop leg diameter is >30" and vessel is

lined, weld the drop leg to the vessel and line
the drop leg
If the vessel is not lined, weld the drop leg
to the vessel
Side outlets may be used to create a “trap”
for solids
– Effective boot length is measured from the top
of outlet nozzle
EDS-2004/GS-89
Placing the outlet on the side allows the bottom of the boot to act as a trap for solids.
For this to work, the continuous phase velocity in the boot and out the outlet must
be low enough that the particles are not carried out with it.
Reactor Products Separator
Inlet Vapor Outlet
21"-0"
Tangent Tangent
Line Line
1'-1" 2'-4" MR MR 1'-8" 1'-5" 8"
AI AH AU BL BK BB BO
Inlet Distributor
C Vortex Breaker C
2'-4"
20” OD
BO
3'-6" 6"
6" BN
12" Thick Mesh Blanket 9"
Tangent Line
Vortex Breaker
Hydrocarbon
BW Outlet
4'-4" 4'-4"
15'-7"
Water
PROVIDE 1/8" THICK E 316L WELD OVERLAY ON THE Outlet
BOTTOM HALF OF THE VESSEL. 316L OVERLAY IS CORROSION ALLOWANCE
NOZZLES IN LINED SECTION
SHALL BE LINED AND FACED.
SD-R03-15
EDS-2004/GS-90
The result of our vessel design calculations is a diameter of 7 feet and a tangent length of 21 feet.
The 4'4" dimension from the mesh blanket to the center of the dropleg is ½ the vessel diameter (the
minimum acceptable distance from the mesh blanket to the outlet, i.e., the leading edge of the
dropleg) plus ½ the drop leg diameter ½(7'0") + ½(20") = 3'6" + 10" = 4'4".
The dimension from the inlet to the boot is 15'7" - 10" (boot radius) - 3" (inlet nozzle radius) = 14'6".
The value used in the calculations was 2 x D = 2 x (7') = 14 feet. The value used is less than the
actual value…OK.
The 4'4" dimension from the tangent line to the center of the boot is found by allowing space for the
hydrocarbon outlet nozzle, the saddle, half of the boot diameter, flange and reinforcement clearances,
and clearance to the tangent line.
Generally, the inlet and outlet nozzles are placed as close to the tangent line as possible to maximize
the vessel length available for separation.
Since the vessel diameter was governed by the 3 feet/min (max) velocity through the coalescing
blanket criteria, it may be possible to shorten the vessel to 3 x the minimum diameter needed for
settling, e.g. 3 x 6 = 18 feet. Use of a shorter vessel than this would require recalculation of all of the
vessel dimensions because an L/D of 3 was incorporated into all of the separation calculations.
As sized, the vessel allows a longer than designed residence time and will also separate smaller
diameter particles than designed for (sometimes much smaller, e.g. actual φ = 7'0”, required diameter
for liquid from vapor = 0.68 feet). The actual potentially separated size particle could be back-
figured, although separation of very small particles will be affected by other factors such as
electromagnetic forces.
Horizontal Vessel Level Relationships
SD-R01-15a
EDS-2004/GS-91
The maximum liquid depth is 0.75 of the vessel diameter and the minimum liquid
depth is 0.25 of the diameter.
The high and low liquid levels are to be the same distance from the normal liquid
level. The smallest permitted distance (normal to high or low level) sets the total
range.
Horizontal Vessel Level Ranges
Percent of Allowable Time from Low Level to High Level of

Normal Liquid Vessel Level Allowable Level Range Based on Following
Level Elevations Liquid Full Range Vessel Design Residence Times, Minutes
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0.125D below CL 34 0.25D 4.4 8.8 13.2 17.6 22.1 26.5 30.9
0.0625D below C
L 42 0.375D 5.5 10.9 16.4 21.9 27.4 32.9 38.3
At C
L 50 0.5D 6.0 12.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 36.0 42.0
0.0625D above C
L 58 0.375D 4.0 7.9 11.9 15.9 19.8 23.8 27.8
0.125D above C
L 66 0.25D 2.3 4.5 6.8 9.1 11.4 13.6 15.9
EDS-2004/GS-92
If the normal liquid level is 0.125D above the centerline (at 0.625φ), the high liquid level is
at its maximum, 0.75φ. The difference is 0.125φ. Set the low liquid level the same distance
from the NLL as the high level or 0.625D - 0.125D = 0.500φ. If the material in the vessel at
NLL = 5 minute residence time, the time to go from the high to low level is found from the
following volume ratio:
The time to go from the high to low level =

Vol 0.75 D − Vol 0.5D
x 5 min
Vol 0.625 D
If the normal liquid level is 0.125D below the φ (at 0.375φ), the low liquid level is at its
minimum, 0.25φ. Using similar logic to that above, the high level is at 0.50φ. The volume
between the high and low liquid levels is the same as above, but the volume at the normal
liquid level is much less than in the above example.
Hence, Vol 0.5φ − Vol 0.25φ

Vol 0.375φ
is greater than in the above case. If 0.375φ = NLL gives a 5 minute residence time, then the
time to go from high to low liquid levels will be much greater than in the first case.
Use of the NLL at the centerline maximizes the range of high to low liquid levels, and the
fluid volume between those levels, hence the retention times between the high and low
levels. If the residence time at ½ full = 5 minutes, the time from the high level (0.75D) to
the low level (0.25D), which contains 0.60 of the vessel volume takes
5 minutes x minutes 0.6

= x =5x = 6 minutes
0.5 vessel vol 0.6 vessel vol 0.5
Residence Time
In addition to phase separation, separators

provide surge volume (i.e. residence time)
A major factor affecting cost and size of the

vessel is residence time of liquid phase
EDS-2004/GS-93
Residence Time
(continued)
Factors which determine residence time are:

– Experience with the same services
– Experience with actual operating conditions
and methods
– Difficulty of phase separation
– Effects of loss of level or high level on
downstream equipment
– Settling of two liquid phases
– Properties causing foaming or emulsions
– Source/destination of liquid phase
– Presence of suspended solids
EDS-2004/GS-94
What factors are used for residence time?
Experience is the best method of determining the proper residence time. The
recommendation of the process specialist and operations engineers are the best
sources.
Residence Time Guidelines
PROCESS SERVICE RESIDENCE TIME

Vapor/Liquid Separation 5 Minutes on Liquid
Horizontal Vessel
NLL at Centerline
Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Separation 10 Minutes on Liquid
Horizontal Vessel
NLL at Centerline
Liquid Surge for Control 2-4 Minutes
High to Low Level HLL to LLL
Critical Separator 2 Minutes from HLL to
Vertical Vessel Bottom of Inlet Nozzle
EDS-2004/GS-95
These are typical guidelines.
For a critical service vertical separator, if the liquid outlet line is blocked in, provide
two minutes of residence time after reaching the high liquid level. This allows time
for operator action. An example is a compressor suction drum upstream of a
compressor (locate near the compressor to minimize possible condensation between
the drum and the compressor).
Residence Time Guidelines
(continued)
PROCESS SERVICE RESIDENCE TIME

Drop Leg (Boot) 5-10 Minutes
Controlled Level
Drop Leg (Boot) 600 Minutes
Manually Drained
Feed Surge Drum 15-30 Minutes
Reflux Drums 2-5 Minutes (50% Full)
Product Receiver 5-20 Minutes (50% Full)
EDS-2004/GS-96
Drop legs that are manually drained usually have 600 minutes or 10 hours of
residence time so they can be drained no more frequently than once per operator
shift. This is used for small liquid loadings.
Residence Time
Two Liquid Phases
ρH -ρL > 14 lb/ft3 5 Min
ρH -ρL < 7 lb/ft3 30 Min
Viscosity of lighter phase > 1 Cp 30 Min
EDS-2004/GS-97
These are other factors that affect residence times.
If the densities are close together, separation is difficult. The same is true for a high
viscosity.
Horizontal Separator Nozzle Locations
0.25D + 4" + 0.5 Dia. of Manway + 6" (Minimum)
3'-6" Max. (For Tangent Length 10'-0" through 14'-6")
4'-0" Max. (For Tangent Length 14'-6" through 24'-6")
5'-0" Max. (For Tangent Length over 24'-6")
0.5 Dia. of Ventilation Flange +
0.5 Dia. of Process Outlet
0.5 D (1' min Flange + 3" 6" + 0.5 Dia. of Process Outlet
5' max) Flange (min), 0.5D (max)
L=3D
Ventilation
6” + 0.5Dia of inlet flange (min) Nozzle Process Outlet Nozzle
0.5D (max)
Manway
Saddle
D/4 Max. Coalescing Blanket 0.5D (max)

0.5D
Basis: 1. 24" Manway with a 6" Reinforcing Pad.
2. L/D Ratio of the Vessel is 3 to 1.
3. Inlet is at the Top or on the Side.
4. Saddle Width of 8". SD-R03-16
EDS-2004/GS-98
Generally, the inlet and outlet nozzles are as close to the tangent lines as possible to
maximize the length available for gravity separation. The minimum dimension is
measured between the tangent line and the nearest point on the nozzle ID. The
maximum distance is measured between the tangent line and the furthest point on
the nozzle ID. This is conservatively used when sizing the vessel.
The 6" clearance from the inlet/outlet flanges allows for some straight flange on the
head and access for head/shell weld inspection and NDE.
UOP Manways and Auxiliary Nozzles
Manways (18” min ID)

– Vertical Vessels
• Provide on top head
• Flange top head if vessel diameter ≤ 30"
– Horizontal Vessels
• Provide on the side at or below centerline
• Place above the centerline if the bottom
half of the vessel is lined
• Flange vessel head if diameter ≤ 30"
• Locate near one end
EDS-2004/GS-99
(continued)
Ventilation
– Required for safety on horizontal vessels > 10'
diameter
– Locate on top, at the end opposite the manway
– Minimum sizes
≥ 10' diameter 4" nozzle
> 15' diameter 6" nozzle
EDS-2004/GS-100
Ventilation nozzles are provided to safe the vessel for operators to enter the vessel
when the unit is shut down for inspection and repair. A fan or air mover is usually
provided to increase air flow through the vessel.
(continued)
Vents and Drains

– Generally required on the vessel or on piping
near vessel
– Locate to completely vent and drain the vessel
(no pockets)
– Minimum sizes
≤ 15' diameter 2" nozzle
15' - 20' diameter 3" nozzle
EDS-2004/GS-101
When provided with a drain, the vessel must also be provided with an equal or
larger sized vent. The vent is used to avoid pulling a vacuum when the vessel is
drained.
Vertical Separator Sizing
Without a Disentraining Device
Calculate the diameter based on phase

separation in the vapor phase
Calculate the diameter based on phase

separation in the liquid phase
Select the governing (largest) diameter
EDS-2004/GS-102
Residence time requirements do not influence the required vessel diameter. The
necessary residence time is provided by lengthening the vessel. Because of its
footprint and vessel and support structure costs, horizontal vessel lengths are usually
set at 3 x D. This gives the most economical vessel. Residence time requirements,
therefore, influence the diameter, footprint, and support costs. The same is not true
for as vertical vessel. Added length does not affect the footprint or the support costs
(for a relatively short vessel).
Without a Disentraining Device (continued)
Determine the liquid depth

– Distance between HLL and LLL is determined
from the required residence time (surge
volume)
– Provide 6" from vessel TL to LLL
– Set NLL—and center of float (COF) on the level
glass — at the NLL
EDS-2004/GS-103
Without a Disentraining Device (continued)
Determine the required tangent length

– Determine distance from HLL to inlet nozzle
• Use 1' 6" (minimum)
– For critical services, where moisture carryover is a
major concern, provide 2 minutes of surge volume,
with a 1' 6" minimum
– Determine the distance from the inlet nozzle to the
top TL
• Use 3' 0" (minimum)
– Add the maximum liquid depth + HLL to inlet + inlet
to TL + inlet nozzle size to determine the overall TL
– If TL is too long, consider a larger vessel diameter
EDS-2004/GS-104
TL = tangent length
Vapor/Liquid Separation
With Mesh Blanket
1′ 0″ Minimum
6″ 1′ 0″ Minimum
EDS-R01-3422
EDS-2004/GS-105
The space between the bottom of the mesh blanket and the inlet nozzle is required
for good separation of the hydrocarbon liquid from the vapor.
See Slide 106 for requirements on dimensions ¨, ª, and «.

Vapor/Liquid Separation
A Cross-sectional area, ft2

D Vessel I.D., ft.
DB Diameter of mesh blanket, ft.
DPI Nominal pipe diameter of inlet, in.
DPO Nominal pipe diameter of outlet, in.
DPL Liquid particle diameter, ft. * (0.00082 ft.)
4 DPHL Heavy liquid particle diameter, ft. *(0.00041 ft.)
DPLL Light liquid particle diameter, ft. *(0.00041 ft.)
4 DPI DPV Vapor particle diameter, ft. *(0.00057 ft.)
D F Percent liquid full
g 32.2 ft/s2
DPI L Tangent length, ft.
QL Flow rate of total liquid phase, gpm
6 QV Flow rate of vapor phase, ft3/s
t Liquid residence time, minutes
L Maximum Level ρL Liquid density, lb/ft3
ρHL Heavy liquid density, lb/ft3
ρLL Light liquid density, lb/ft3
2 minute residence time ρV Vapor density, lb/ft3
µL Liquid viscosity, lb/ft sec
D for critical service µHL Heavy liquid viscosity, lb/ft sec
µLL Light liquid viscosity, lb/ft sec
µV Vapor viscosity, lb/ft sec
* Use in the absence of specific process data
Minimum Level e 0.4DB (Min.)
f 0.5DPI + 3'-0"
6" g 0.5D + 0.5DPI
>0.5DPI + 2'-0"
<0.5 DPI + 4'-0"
h 0.5DPI + 1'-6" (Min.)
Note: flowing data are at operating conditions.
SD-R01-04
EDS-2004/GS-106
Criteria for Vertical Vessel Sizing
The following equations are derived by setting

the vapor velocity equal to particle terminal
velocity and solving for D
For gravity settling of liquid from the vapor
phase (terminal velocity based upon
intermediate equation)
0 .5
 Q V ρ 0V.29µ 0V.43 
D = 2.9  
 g D PL (ρ L − ρ V )0.71 
0.71 1.14
EDS-2004/GS-107
Vertical vessels without mesh blankets use the same basic design equations as used
for horizontal vessels.
The constants are dependent upon the units used. Here,
QV = feet3/second
QL = gallons/minute
D is in feet. On slides 84-85, D is in inches.

Criteria for Vertical Vessel Sizing
(continued)
For disentraining vapor from the liquid phase

(terminal velocity based upon Stokes’ Equation)
0 .5
 Q µ 
D = 0.23 2 L L 
 gD PV (ρ L − ρ V ) 
EDS-2004/GS-108
Level Instrument Nozzles
Vessel
Nozzle Vessel
Nozzle
Displacer Displacer
Float Float
Instrument Instrument
Gauge Gauge
Glass Glass
Pipe
Column
Pipe Column Bridle

Installation Installation
SD-R00-17
EDS-2004/GS-109
UOP has standardized on the use of pipe columns for the installation of level
instrumentation. Bridles are an acceptable alternate.
Gauge glasses are normally used because they provide a positive, visual indication
of the fluid level. Magnetic level indicators are used in some services where the
consequences of a failure and leak are serious. Examples are high pressure, toxic,
corrosive, or low vapor pressure services. Services that cloud the gauge glass,
making visual observation of the liquid level impossible, may also use a magnetic
level indicator. One drawback of the magnetic system is dependency upon a
mechanical system. There is no way to confirm the proper level is being shown.
Level Instruments
Span and Nozzle Size
Arrangements and Nozzles for Displacer Float Instruments and Gauge Glasses
Displacer Float Gauge
Instruments Glasses
Max. Span
Between Max.
Vessel Min. Vessel Max. Float Min. Vessel Nominal
Nozzles Nozzle Size Length Nozzle Size Length
Separate 15' 0" 1½" 10' 0" 1" 5' 6"
Connections (4600) (3048) (1650)
Bridle 9' 0" 1½" 5' 0" 1½" 5' 6"
Installation (2700) (1524) (1650)
Pipe Column 15' 0" 2" 10' 0" 2" 5' 6"
Installation (4600) (3048) (1650)
EDS-2004/GS-110
Level Float Dimensions
Note: Dimensions given for flanged connections are suitable for

SD-R01-18
ASME Class 150, 300, and 600 raised face and ring type joints EDS-2004/GS-111
The maximum length is based upon rigidity and differential thermal expansion of
the vessel and the level glass connection.
Level Float Dimensions
(continued)
SD-R01-18
EDS-2004/GS-112
The maximum length is based upon rigidity and differential thermal expansion of
the vessel and the level glass connection.
Level Gauge Dimensions
SD-R01-19
EDS-2004/GS-113
This chart is based upon Jurguson series 10 and 20 level gauges. The chart is for the
bottom connection below (under) the level glass.
Level Gauge Dimensions
SD-R01-19
EDS-2004/GS-114
This chart is based upon Jurguson series 10 and 20 level gauges. The chart is for the
bottom connection off of the side of the level glass.
Vortex Breakers
Provide vortex breakers on liquid outlets

to eliminate possible vapor entrainment
(especially objectionable on a pump suction)
When two liquid phases are present, raise the

light phase vortex breaker to prevent possible
inflow of heavy phase liquid
– For water, it is typically raised 6 inches
EDS-2004/GS-115
Vortex breakers eliminate the tendency of liquid flow into a nozzle to form a
tornado (vortex) of spinning liquid. A vortex, if formed, will have a tendency to re-
entrain the separated light phase vapor or liquid.
Raising the vortex breaker for two liquid phase cases allows for possible “slugs” of
the heavy phase.
Vortex Breakers
Four Way
3 - 3/4" x 1/4" Bars Baffle
Spaced at 120º 2D
8" Dia.
for 3" 2D
6" Dia.
under 3"
D
D
4"
2" 3"
D D
3" and Under 4" Through 8" 10" and Over
2D 2D
8" Four Way
Baffle
D
D Pipe D D Pipe
4"
4" Pipe 2" 2" 3"
H H H
D D
3" and Under 4" Through 8" 10" and Over
H = as specified
Raised Vortex Breaker Required for Two Liquid Phases

SD-R01-20
EDS-2004/GS-116
Use raised vortex breakers in the hydrocarbon liquid phase when a heavier liquid is
present. This reduces the possibility of the heavy liquid phase being carried over in
the light hydrocarbon liquid.
The raised vortex breaker is set about 4-6 inches (100-150 mm) above the bottom of
the vessel.
Vortex Breakers
(continued)
EDS-2004/GS-117
This type of vortex breaker is typically used on vertical vessels.

Vortex Breakers
(continued)
EDS-2004/GS-118
This is a vortex breaker used for liquid withdrawal on the side of an unlined vertical
vessel.
Vortex Breakers
(continued)
EDS-2004/GS-119
This is a vortex breaker used for liquid withdrawal on the side of an alloy lined
vertical vessel.
Vortex Breakers
(continued)
EDS-2004/GS-120
Inlet Distributors
Inlet distributors change the liquid direction

to provide momentum separation
Horizontal Vessels
– Subcooled liquids use an open ended pipe
from the top or bottom of the vessel
• Distributor exit located to always remain
beneath the liquid
– Bubble point liquids (e.g. small amount of
vapor) use a vertical slotted pipe the same size
as the inlet
EDS-2004/GS-121
Inlet distributors are used to change the direction of flow to accomplish some degree
of momentum separation of phases.
Subcooled
Below the bubble point temperature, i.e., an input of heat does not result in any
vaporization.
Bubble Point
The liquid temperature at which the first vaporization occurs, i.e., bubbles appear.
This is also the temperature at which the last vapor would condense.
Dew Point
The vapor temperature at which the first condensation occurs (depends upon the
relative humidity, too). This is also the temperature at which the last liquid would
vaporize.
Inlet Distributors
(continued)
Horizontal Vessels (continued)

– Two liquids of approximately equal volume --
use a horizontal slotted inlet pipe near the
normal liquid interface (i.e., vessel centerline)
• Pipe is the same size as the inlet
– Mixed Phases -- use a vertical slotted inlet one
pipe size larger than the inlet pipe
• Slot area is 2 to 3 times the pipe area
• If there are two approximately equal liquid
phases, locate the inlet near the center of
vessel and use two slots facing the shell
EDS-2004/GS-122
Slotted pipe distributors reduce the velocity, still the vessel, and provide a change in
direction of flow. The light phase preferentially exits at the top of the slot, and the
heavy phase exits preferentially at the bottom of the slot.
The type of inlet shown on slide #20, an elbow, has less flowing area ( 1 x pipe
cross section) than the slot used by UOP (2 or 3 x pipe cross section); therefore, a
higher exiting velocity, perhaps creating a mixing turbulence around the pipe exit.
Obviously, this works against separation. On the other hand, the higher velocity and
sharp turning radius (as compared to a slot) enhances momentum separation.
Additionally, the minimum dimension of the elbow is much greater than that of the
slot; therefore, it is less likely to plug. The slot, however, allows flow to exit the
distributor along the full diameter rather than at one discrete point as with the
elbow. This aids gravity separation because particles can exit the distributor nearer
their ultimate “destination”.
In most vessels, the inlet piping is small to maintain or even increase velocities and
limit phase separation(s). In a separator inlet we want to promote phase separation,
hence a larger pipe and slot area (for gravity separation at low velocities) and
direction changes (to promote momentum separation at higher velocities).
Inlet Distributors
(continued)
Horizontal Vessels (continued)

– Unless otherwise noted:
• Slots begin 6" from the inlet nozzle
• Slots end at the end of the distributor
• Distributor ends 6" from the vessel bottom
• Slot area is twice the distributor area
• Use one slot
• Use intermittent rather than very narrow
(<3/16" (5mm)) slots
• Slots face the nearest head (to maximize vessel
gravity separation length and residence time,
and provide additional momentum separation)
EDS-2004/GS-123
Intermittent slots, rather than narrow slots, are used to avoid plugging and minimize
any venturi effect.
Facing the slots towards the nearest head results in flow exiting towards the head,
turning and coming back to the inlet pipe before proceeding down the vessel. Only
the direct distance between the inlet and outlet is used in the design calculations.
The actual path, as explained above, is much longer, meaning smaller particles are
able to settle out.
Inlet Distributors
(continued)
Vertical vessels use a tee style distributor,

except on small vessels with flanged heads
Orient the “Tee” in the horizontal plane,

so the discharge directions are tangential
EDS-2004/GS-124
This distributor also changes the direction of flow and accomplishes some
momentum separation.
Subcooled Liquid Distributors
Bottom Entry
EDS-2004/GS-125
Subcooled Liquid Distributors
Bottom Entry (continued)
Alloy Lined Vessels Vessels

SD-R00-43
EDS-2004/GS-126
Vertical Distributors
for Horizontal Vessels
SD-R00-55
EDS-2004/GS-127
Use of a slot (vs. an elbow) means a lower inlet velocity and less turbulence, hence better gravity
separation. The slot also allows fluid to enter over more of the vessel’s diameter, with the lighter
phases tending to make the turn and exit the slot nearer the top than the heavier fluids, already
beginning the separation process.
π
Area (actual ) = D p 2 , ∴ using only Dp2 to determine the required slot area gives a larger,
conservative area4 to provide. Dp2 is used as the area to provide in the following equations.
For vapor/liquid/liquid; equal liquid flow:
Dp2 (area to provide ) Dp2

w= (in.) (mm )
D v − 12 (length of slot ) D v − 300
There are two slots, ∴ the total area is twice the inlet
area (more, actually, because the pipe’s area is π/4Dp2, not Dp2.
For subcooled (top entry) liquid: C = 0.25Dv - 3” (in.)

C = 0.25Dv - 75 (mm)
For vapor/liquid/liquid: 2D p 2 2D p 2
w= (inches ) or (mm )
D v − 12 D v − 300
The total area of the single slot is more than twice the pipe area.
As noted on an earlier slide, vapor/liquid/liquid separation aims toward the back head for greater
effective length than considered in design. If the liquid amounts are about equal, the outlets are at
opposite ends of the vessel and the inlet is in the center of the vessel. Aiming the inlet slots to the
sides of the vessel maximizes the length of all of the flow paths. The incoming flow is not directed
towards either outlet.
Horizontal Pipe Distributor
Liquid/Liquid Distributor
(approximately. equal volume liquids)
EDS-2004/GS-128
Per UOP standard drawing for a distributor on the vessel centerline:
2D p 2 2D p 2
W= (inches ) or W= (mm)
D v − 17 D v − 430
Tee Distributor for Vertical Vessels
EDS-2004/GS-129
The distributor style is based upon the size of the inlet.
The outlet of the distributor must direct the flow parallel to the liquid surface, not
down into the liquid. This is to avoid entrainment of the liquid falling through the
gas. The liquid is to contact and flow down the wall with a minimum of splashing.
Tee Distributor for Vertical Vessels
(continued)
EDS-2004/GS-130
Separation Phase Examples
PHASES EXAMPLE
Vapor/Liquid Separator
Flash Drum
Liquid/Liquid Caustic Settler
Desalter
Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Hydrotreater Separator
Wet Overhead Receiver
Vapor/Solid FCC Regenerator
Liquid/Solid Slurry Separator
EDS-2004/GS-131
The FCC regenerator separates regeneration flue gas from FCC catalyst.
The FCC slurry separator concentrates entrained FCC catalyst from the Main
Column Bottoms stream to the Slurry Settler bottoms.
Separators - Vertical
Efficient use of vapor cross section - it does not

change
Limited liquid-vapor interface for disengagement
Liquid level is subject to variation
– Reacts rapidly to flow changes
Efficient use of plot space
Easy to support (skirt or legs to foundation)
Continuous phase motion is opposite the direction
of the terminal velocity and can counteract the
tendency of the phases to separate
EDS-2004/GS-132
Separators - Horizontal
Large liquid-vapor interface, optimal for

disengagement
Liquid level responds more slowly to variations
in flow
Handles two liquid phases well
Vapor space subject to variation
Uses more plot space
Requires support structure
Continuous phase motion is perpendicular to
the direction of the terminal velocity
– Do not influence each other
EDS-2004/GS-133
Horizontal vessels require saddle support on top of the foundation.
In horizontal vessels, the relatively shallow liquid, and the large liquid/vapor
interface area, provides for better vapor and second liquid separation.
Horizontal vessels are also more effective separators because the continuous
medium flows slowly and horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of separation
(vertically) and the terminal velocity direction. Therefore, it does not tend to
counteract the particle’s terminal velocity.
Separators - Spherical
Minimum shell steel and weight

Compact
Cross sectional area changes rapidly
– Dimensions change in two directions at the
same time with elevation
Low liquid flow volumes
Rarely used (occasionally on high pressure
systems to reduce shell thickness and cost)
EDS-2004/GS-134
Spherical separators are rarely used because the liquid level response changes
rapidly as the level rises and falls. This is due to the rapidly changing cross-
sectional area.
Separators
PROCESS VESSEL
CONDITIONS CONFIGURATION
High Vapor Rate Vertical Vessel
Low Liquid Rate (makes efficient use of the vessel
One Liquid Phase cross section)
Low Vapor Rate Horizontal Vessel
High Liquid Rate (vertical vessel may be considered)
One Liquid Phase
No Vapor Phase Horizontal Vessel
Two Liquid Phases
EDS-2004/GS-135
Compressor suction drums are vertical because the flow is nearly all vapor, with a
small amount of entrained liquid, and because the liquid level responds rapidly to
changes in the liquid flow, triggering an alarm.
A horizontal vessel is used for two liquid/no vapor separation for ease of separation.
The densities of the two fluids are normally close, making separation more difficult.
In a vertical vessel, where the terminal velocity and the continuos phase motion are
both on the same axis, this may prove to be especially difficult.
Separators
(continued)
PROCESS VESSEL
CONDITIONS CONFIGURATION
Vapor Phase Present Horizontal Vessel with
Two Liquid Phases Drop Leg (Boot)
Low Heavy Liquid Phase Rate
Vapor Phase Present Horizontal with Baffled
Two Liquid Phases Outlet for the Heavy
Low Light Liquid Phase Rate Liquid
Vapor Phase Present Horizontal with 2 Baffled
Two Liquid Phases Outlets
Liquid Phases Equal Rates
EDS-2004/GS-136
The top case on the slide is the sample problem we worked earlier.
Types of Vessels
Tangent Length
M.R. M.R.
Vapor Out
A B F C
Min. Min.
Inlet Distributor
C
L
I.D.
150
Min.
D
Example:Overhead Receiver Liquid Out
SD-R03-05
EDS-2004/GS-137
This vessel configuration may or may not be provided with a mesh blanket.
Types of Vessels
Liquid/Liquid Separator
Note: Use side inlet and horizontal distributor if liquid volume

flows are approximately equal.
SD-R03-06
EDS-2004/GS-138
Types of Vessels
Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Separator
Low Heavy Liquid Rate
Tangent Length
M.R. M.R.
Vapor Out
Feed
A B D E
Min.
Inlet Distributor
I.D.
CL
6"
Min.
F
Light Liquid Out
Example: HP Separator G
Heavy Liquid Out SD-R02-07
EDS-2004/GS-139
This was the configuration used for the sample problem.

Types of Vessels
Equivalent Light and Heavy Liquid Rates
SD-R00-44
EDS-2004/GS-140
HL = heavy liquid LL - light liquid
On the right side, the baffle heights are set so the HL goes under the first baffle and
over the second baffle, while the first baffle keeps the LL out. The HL is driven
over the second baffle by the head of liquid (HL + LL) on the left side of the first
baffle.
The design baffle heights are set so the HL and LL spill over their respective baffles
at the same time.
The inlet distributor is located midway between the two baffles, with the slots
oriented towards the vessel wall, so the HL and LL flow paths, and time for
separation, are both the same. The baffles are 2D apart, so each flow path is D long.
The vapor space clearance on the highest baffle is 0.25D, the same space used for
other separators.
Types of Vessels
Low Light Liquid Rate
SD-R00-45
EDS-2004/GS-141
In this configuration, the light liquid leaves the vessel via a trough and a side-
mounted nozzle to minimize turbulence.
Again, the vapor space above the highest baffle has a depth of at least 0.25D, just as
for other separator designs.
The heavy and light liquid baffle heights are set so that both the heavy and light
liquids spill over their respective baffles at the same time.
The light liquid outlet nozzle is flush with, or even extends slightly below, the
bottom of the “trough”. The “trough” also slopes towards the outlet. Both of these
features allow full drainage of the “trough”.
The distributor slot faces the rear head of the vessel to maximize the flowpath
length, hence the separation time.
A
I.D.
E B
Vortex Breaker
C
Access Opening
Example: Separator, Flash Drum

EDS-R01-3443
EDS-2004/GS-142
Vertical vessels without mesh blankets are used when liquid entrainment in the
vapor phase is not a critical design parameter.
Vertical vapor/liquid/liquid separators are only used when the available space does
not allow installation of a horizontal separator.
Small Vertical Separators
Mesh Blanket A
B 3" Min.
Inlet Distributor
E C
O.D.
Vortex Breaker
D
ID of 30 inch or less
Elevation of 5 feet or less
Example: Reciprocating Compressor Suction Drum SD-R02-08
EDS-2004/GS-143
Small diameter vertical vessels with mesh blankets.

Mist Eliminators
EDS-2004/GS-144
Mist Eliminators
Purpose
Types
Theory and Typical Installations
Size Criteria
EDS-2004/GS-145
Mist Eliminators
(continued)
Efficiency
Pressure Drop
Fabrication and Installation
Material of Construction
Sample Problem
EDS-2004/GS-146
Purpose of Mist Eliminators
Enhance the separation of entrained:

– Small liquid droplets from vapor
– Liquid from liquid
– Small solid particles from vapor
EDS-2004/GS-147
Vapor/liquid separation in a mist eliminator generally refers to use of mesh

blankets.
Liquid/liquid separation is more commonly referred to as coalescing (i.e. coalescing

blanket).
Solid particle separation is more commonly referred to as filtration.

Benefits of Mist Eliminators
Reduce loss of valuable product (for evaporators,

absorbers, etc.)
Increase throughput capacity (anywhere gases
and liquids come into contact)
Improve product purity or yield
Eliminate contamination (evaporator overheads)
or catalyst poisoning
EDS-2004/GS-148
Mist eliminators (mesh blankets) are used to increase the efficiency of vapor/liquid
separation to improve the vapor purity or to recover liquid from the vapor.
Mesh blankets increase separation efficiency and allow increased throughput

through a separator vessel. Further increased flows may ultimately result in re-
entrainment and loss of separation efficiency.
Capacity increases are possible because a mist eliminator can coalesce and remove
droplets much too small for gravity separation at the elevated velocity that goes
with the higher throughput. The higher velocity means less time in the vessel,
therefore, less time for droplets to settle out at their terminal velocity. A velocity
increase, therefore, means an increase in the minimum size of particle that will be
gravity separated and more entrained material will be carried out of the vessel. A
mist eliminator compensates, and more, for the velocity increase. The same size
vessel can be used for much higher throughput. This works for separation of liquid
droplets.
Benefits of Mist Eliminators
(continued)
Stop downstream corrosion

Prevent equipment damage (compressor
knockout drums)
Prevent air or water pollution (reduce
emissions from FCC regenerators and acid
plants)
Permit the use of smaller separation vessels
EDS-2004/GS-149
Corrosion occurs due to the formation of aqueous, corrosive solutions made possible
by water carryover. Elimination of the liquid water prevents acid formation.
Compressors may be damaged if liquid water is introduced into them.

Reciprocating compressors are more sensitive to water than centrifugal
compressors.
How Does Entrainment Occur?
Entrainment of liquid droplets of varying size

and quantity in a gas occurs:
– Whenever gas contacts a liquid
– When liquid condenses from a gas
– When gas is generated from a liquid
EDS-2004/GS-150
Examples are:
• Vapor stream exiting an amine absorber with entrained amine solution

• Vapor/liquid phases in a fractionator overhead condenser rundown system
• Vapor is generated from a volatile liquid in a flash drum
How Does Entrainment Occur?
(continued)
FROM FRACTIONATAR
OVERHEAD
AIR COOLER
Liquid may
M
be swept
along with
Liquid condenses
the vapor.
from the vapor
WATER CONDENSER
NET GAS
OVERHEAD
RECEIVER
LIQUID
WATER SD-R00-28
EDS-2004/GS-151
Mechanisms That Cause Entrainment
Mechanical
sprays
evaporation
surface
trays and
column packings
Condensation
on surface
from saturated
vapor
chemical
reaction
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000

Particle Size (µ)
SD-R00-25
EDS-2004/GS-152
Here are the typical droplet sizes created by common entrainment mechanisms.
Droplet Size
Droplet sizes are controlled by:

– Viscosity
– Surface tension
– Density
– Velocity
Actual sizes are unknown and likely to follow
a normal distribution
Design based upon average, estimated, sizes
works well
EDS-2004/GS-153
What are some of the factors that can affect droplet sizes?
• High velocity shear can reduce drop diameter

• Low velocity and coalescing can increase drop diameter
Advantages of Mist Eliminators
Given enough time and low enough velocity, most

liquid can be separated by gravity settling;
however, the required equipment size may be
impractical
Mist eliminators accelerate the separation process
– Remove smaller droplets than would be practical, or
possible, to remove by gravity
– Enhance separation of fluids with smaller density
differences
– Allow higher vapor velocities and, therefore, smaller
equipment size by forming large droplets that can
more easily gravity settle
EDS-2004/GS-154
Disadvantages of Mist Eliminators
Purchase and installation cost

Require maintenance
Increase pressure drop, potentially affecting
operating cost
May plug
EDS-2004/GS-155
Decide if Mist Eliminator is Required
Determine smallest size of particle/droplet to

be removed
– Smaller particles require larger vessels and
lower velocities for gravity settling
– Consider effect of particle/droplet carryover
Determine required equipment size for
gravity settling
– Is it excessive?
EDS-2004/GS-156
Do not provide a mist eliminator if gravity separation is reasonable.

Decide if Mist Eliminator is Required
Evaluate costs of larger particle/droplet

carryover vs. cost of removal
Is particle/droplet removal critical, considering
economics and safety?
– Liquid entrance into a compressor may damage
or destroy the expensive equipment and shut
down the unit
– In these cases, removal equipment is often sized
for gravity removal
• Mist eliminator added for additional
thoroughness of particle/droplet removal
EDS-2004/GS-157
Process requirements must be evaluated relative to the additional cost of the mist
eliminator (mesh blanket, coalescing blanket) installation.
If gravity separation is too costly or the separation is critical, a mist eliminator is

probably required.
When protecting costly equipment that is time consuming to replace (causing a

prolonged unit shutdown), UOP provides a mist eliminator as well as designing for
gravity separation. This provides a measure of extra protection.
Types of Mist Eliminators
Vanes
Centrifugal Elements
Filters
Mesh Blankets
Perforated Plates
Electrostatic Precipitators
EDS-2004/GS-158
Characteristics of Vanes
Inertial impaction devices (continuous phase

forced to quickly change direction; however,
entrained particles and heavy droplets do not
turn quickly, collide with vanes, and drain)
Reduced distance of drop (or settlement) before
extraction
Do not drain liquid into rising gas stream where
it can be reentrained
Liquid can be routed to downcomer
Depend on inertia performance – turndown is a
problem
EDS-2004/GS-159
Characteristics of Vanes
(continued)
Do not readily plug or foul

Can be put into smaller vessels
Same separation performance as wire mesh
Suitable for high vapor velocities, high liquid
loadings, viscous fluids, and solids
Sturdy construction
Designs are proprietary
Purchase and installation cost can be high
Maintenance cost is higher
EDS-2004/GS-160
Vertical Separator
With Vane Mist Extractor
EDS-2004/GS-161
Vane Element Mist Extractor
Cross Section
EDS-2004/GS-162
The vapor flows through the vanes and liquid droplets get caught in the drainage
traps, coalesce into larger droplets and, eventually, drain out of the device.
Vane Mist Eliminators
EDS-2004/GS-163
Momentum separation.
Characteristics of Centrifugal Elements
Use inertial separation

– Flow is spun rapidly, high density materials go to
the outside
Separate solids, as well as liquids, from gas
Design(s) are proprietary
Less maintenance than a filter
Efficiency is lower than other types
Can handle high “loadings” of dense, dispersed
phase materials
EDS-2004/GS-164
“Centrifugal” forces generated throw the high density material against a collection
device where particles or drops are concentrated and removed from the system.
Low density material rises in the center.
Small particle separation is not very efficient, although some new high efficiency
cyclone separators have recently become available.
Centrifugal elements are most often used to separate solids from a vapor stream.
The cyclones in FCC Reactors and Regenerators are, perhaps, the most common
example in refineries. Third-Stage Separators in FCC flue gas systems use many
mini-cyclones to remove fines before the vapor stream enters the expander.
Characteristics of Centrifugal Elements
(continued)
Pressure drop higher than vane or mesh

Narrow operating flow range
Subject to wear and tear
May plug
May not handle sudden increases in flow (“slugs”)
EDS-2004/GS-165
The circumferential flow pattern causes an increased pressure drop. Centrifugal

elements are optimized for a specific set of design velocity and dense phase loading.
Changes in these conditions result in a significant loss of efficiency.
Low velocities result in reduced momentum and lower efficiency; therefore,

turndown is a concern.
At higher velocities, erosion can become a problem. Fines carryover is also a

problem as the denser phase is “swept” out with the lighter vapor. The same effect
occurs as the dense phase loading is increased, overwhelming the device’s capacity.
Slugs of liquids or solids may overwhelm centrifugal elements and get carried
through.
Centrifugal Elements
SD-R00-46
EDS-2004/GS-166
Characteristics of Filters
Continuous phase passes through a porous

media with very small openings to trap larger
particles/droplets
High efficiency
Can remove small particles
Filter elements need replacement or a backwash
system
Handle higher solids load
Design is proprietary
EDS-2004/GS-167
The efficiency of filters relates to the pore size and the diameter of the suspended
droplets or solid particles.
Characteristics of Filters
(continued)
Filter-separators can remove solids and large

drops; small liquid droplets are coalesced for
easier separation by a downstream mesh
Velocity out of filter-separator tubes must be
low to prevent shearing drops back into a fine
mist that will pass through a mesh
High pressure drop, 1-2 psi when clean and 10
psi or more prior to cleaning
– May collapse at 25 psi
Higher operating costs
Higher purchase and installation costs
EDS-2004/GS-168
Filters are taken off stream periodically to be backflushed, cleaned, or replaced

when the pressure drop begins to increase. This may require duplicate backups that
go on stream while other filter elements (cartridges) are backflushed, cleaned, or
replaced.
Filters may consist of group(s) of cartridges and a system to split the flow among
them.
Horizontal Filter Separator
Inlet Vapor Out

Filter-Coalescing Baffle
Elements
Mist Eliminator
Flanged
Head
Liquid Out
SD-R02-47
EDS-2004/GS-169
Horizontal filter separators require regular maintenance and are rarely used.
The filter elements catch any solids in the stream. The filters are cleaned at
turnaround. Access is provided by removing the vessel head.
The filter elements also act as coalescers, holding small droplets and combining
them with other droplets. Large liquid droplets fall to the bottom of the vessel. In
the bottom of the vessel, separation is by gravity, just as described earlier. The
liquid level is usually low and only one vapor phase is present.
Vapor and the remaining entrained liquid pass to the center of the filter and are
carried to the next section of the vessel. A mist eliminator is provided at the vapor
outlet to “scrub” small droplets from the outgoing vapor.
The system can begin with a solid/liquid/vapor mix and end with a clean vapor.
Perforated Plates or Staggered Baffles
Large openings are less likely, or take longer,

to plug
EDS-2004/GS-170
“Sticky” materials pass through. Staggered baffles are used at the inlet to Demex
resin settlers. Further separation is provided by a system of sloped vanes.
Electrostatic Precipitators
Removes very small solid particles (< 3 microns)

Uses attraction/repulsion from static electrical
charges
Equipment is large and costly
Electrical usage, hence utility costs, during operation
EDS-2004/GS-171
Electrostatic separators are highly efficient but capital and utility expenses are high.
They are sometimes used in FCC Units to remove catalyst fines from Regenerator
flue gas when environmental constraints are severe.
Characteristics of Mesh Blankets
Used for coalescing of liquid

High efficiency through wide velocity range
Applicable to wide range of process operations,
fluids, and droplet sizes
Used for very small droplets and high overall
removal percentage (up to 99.9% or more)
EDS-2004/GS-172
Mesh blankets are highly efficient for the separation of liquid droplets out of vapor
streams down to about 5 micron particle diameters.
Mesh blankets are also known as demister pads.

(continued)
Efficient for a wide range of gas velocities

without liquid reentrainment
Low pressure drop - approximately 1" H2O
Low installed cost
– For 6" thick mesh blanket
• Stainless Steel 30 $/ft2
• Monel 60 $/ft2
Easy to install
EDS-2004/GS-173
They work well over a wide range of operating conditions, but drops can be re-
entrained if the velocities go too high. This will be addressed in the design
procedures.
(continued)
Low operation and maintenance costs

Can be used for new and existing vessels
Blankets installed vertically are less efficient
Cannot be used where fouling or hydrate
formation is possible because it plugs easily
EDS-2004/GS-174
In many services, mesh blankets can be installed and forgotten about.
Higher maintenance requirements are seen in corrosive and fouling services.
Mesh blankets are easily installed in new and revamped services and vessels.
Mesh Blanket Installation Sites
Knockout Drums
Separators
Absorbers
Scrubbers
Distillation Columns or Towers
Steam Systems
EDS-2004/GS-175
Specific services include compressor suction drums, amine scrubbers, and fuel gas
knockout drums.
Installing mesh blankets in knockout drums and separators reduces (greatly) the size
of the vessel needed if only gravity separation were used.
Mesh blankets reduce the overhead loss in absorbers and remove particles entrained
in scrubber liquid.
Mesh blankets improve the vapor stream purity and increase the capacity of
distillation (fractionation) columns.
In steam systems, mesh blankets help “ensure” the presence of dry steam.
Typical Mesh Blanket Installations
Suction Drum
Secondary Separator
SD-R00-29
EDS-2004/GS-176
(continued)
SD-R01-30
EDS-2004/GS-177
Mesh blankets (coalescing blankets) are used to efficiently separate immiscible

liquids.
(continued)
Horizontal Mesh
Blanket
Products Separator
SD-R01-48
EDS-2004/GS-178
Liquid separation from vapor streams.

Types of Impingement Separators
SD-R01-24
EDS-2004/GS-179
Mesh blankets are highly efficient for drop diameters over 5 microns.
The vertical vane type is a little less efficient that the horizontal vane type because
the liquid falls into the rising vapor stream and some re-entrainment may occur.
Separation Steps
SD-R01-23
EDS-2004/GS-180
The mesh blanket combines small drops into larger drops which exit the bottom of
the blanket and separate from the vapor by gravity.
Separation Steps
1. Liquid - vapor disengaging from

liquid forms fine droplets.
2. Gas rising from liquid carries
entrained droplets.
3. Mist - vapor impinges on
blanket, drops coalesce into
larger drops.
4. Liquid droplets falling free.
5. Dry gas leaving blanket.
SD-R01-42
EDS-2004/GS-181
Coalescing Separation Theory
Mesh blankets operate by forcing the fluid

to follow a torturous path and coalescing,
or combining, small liquid droplets into larger
droplets that may then be removed by gravity
settling
For given fluids, the rate of gravity settling
(rising) is a function of particle/droplet/bubble
size
– Larger particles/droplets/bubbles will separate
faster, requiring a smaller vessel
EDS-2004/GS-182
(continued)
Droplets contact, but do not stick to,

the curved wire surfaces
– Surface tension causes droplets to remain
in contact with the wire
Droplets flow down the wire and gather
at wire intersections
Droplets coalesce or combine and grow in size
As droplets increase in size, they drop lower
in the mesh
EDS-2004/GS-183
When droplets move down the wire, they probably do not contact and combine with
one another, until a cross wire is reached.
One drop reaches a cross wire and is stopped. The following drop strikes it and they
combine. When the new drop grows large enough, it spills over the obstructing wire
and continues down the original wire (or falls off the mesh blanket).
(continued)
When large enough to overcome surface tension

and separate from the mesh, droplets are pulled
down by gravity against the upward gas velocity
Droplet size is governed by physical properties:
– Density
– Surface tension
– Viscosity
EDS-2004/GS-184
(continued)
The higher the viscosity, the larger the droplet
The higher the surface tension, the larger the droplet
EDS-2004/GS-185
Droplet Capture Mechanisms
Droplet flow doesn’t follow rapid

streamline changes.
SD-R01-26a
EDS-2004/GS-186
(continued)
Droplet flow follows streamlines but is captured

by surface tension or approach distance is less
than the particle radius.
SD-R01-26b
EDS-2004/GS-187
(continued)
Brownian Movement - constant random movement

(caused by collisions with dispersed and continuous
phase particles) of small particles dispersed in a
fluid. This movement brings some particles close
enough to the wire for capture.
SD-R01-26c
EDS-2004/GS-188
Only some, not all, particles encounter the wire and are captured. Design cannot be
depended upon to remove particles that are this small.
Typical Layer of Wire Mesh
SD-R00-43
EDS-2004/GS-189
The typical mesh blanket consists of several layers of intertwined wire mesh.
Mesh Blanket Construction
Wire is manufactured in a cylinder of

sufficient length to make a blanket module
of the desired thickness and length
Cylinder is flattened to form a double layer
of the desired width (usually 12 ¼ inches); the
cylinder diameter is set by the desired width
Wire is folded and refolded lengthwise to the
proper dimensions
EDS-2004/GS-190
WIRE
WIRE SURFACE
DIAMETER DENSITY AREA VOIDS
3 2 3
STYLE (in) (lbs/ft ) (ft /ft ) (%)
A 0.011 9 85 98.0
B 0.011 5 45 99.0
C 0.011 12 110 97.7
EDS-2004/GS-191
(continued)
Style A
– General purpose mesh used when there
are no special requirements
Style B
– Used where fouling (such as coking) or solids
are probable
• Wire directions alternated
• Has largest open area
EDS-2004/GS-192
(continued)
Style C
– Heavy duty, general purpose mesh used where
excellent separation efficiency is required.
– Herringbone pattern and alternating crimp
directions reduce sheltering of wires behind
other wires and increase wire surface area
(for more droplet impingement) with a
minimal change in voidage.
EDS-2004/GS-193
UOP Severe Duty Mesh
Developed due to improved separation

requirements to avoid burner fouling,
compressor damage, etc.
Constructed of 3 - 3 inch layers.
Entrance layer removes solids and larger

drops, drains well, and resists plugging.
EDS-2004/GS-194
Severe duty mesh blankets were originally used to remove entrained corrosive
liquids from fuel gas to minimize corrosion and fouling of burners in fired heaters.
Now also used in compressor suction drum service.

UOP Severe Duty Mesh
(continued)
Middle layer removes drops larger than

15 microns
Exit layer removes drops down to 5 microns
Installed horizontally
Mesh blanket style normally used by UOP
EDS-2004/GS-195
The exit layer has very fine wires tightly spaced which provides maximum
disentrainment of particles under 5 microns diameter.
Severe Duty Mesh
3 - 3" Zones - Total 9" Thick
WIRE
WIRE SURFACE
DIAMETER DENSITY AREA VOIDS
LAYER (in) (lbs/ft3) (ft2/ft3) (%)
Exit 0.006 8 140 98.4
Middle 0.011 9 85 98.0
Entrance 0.011 5 45 99.0
EDS-2004/GS-196
Installed Thickness
Styles A, B, or C are installed 4-12" thick

– Most common is style A, 6" thick, to remove
15 micron droplets
Severe duty mesh is installed 9" thick (3 - 3"

layers) to remove > 5 micron droplets
If any of the mesh is submerged in liquid (e.g.

to aid liquid from liquid separation), use 2 - 6"
layers of style A, with offset joints
EDS-2004/GS-197
Generally increasing the mesh thickness has little effect on improving separation or
allowing a flow increase. As noted later, the “K” value used in finding the optimal
velocity is not a function of the mesh thickness; therefore, the optimal velocity and,
for a given diameter, the mass flow rate does not change.
Size Criteria
Vapor Velocity Effects

– If the velocity is below the lower limit, the droplets
follow the stream of gas without impinging on the
wire
– If the velocity is at the lower limit, the droplets
impinge on the wires due to the change in direction
forced on the gas and the liquid runs off the wire
EDS-2004/GS-198
Mesh blankets operate well over a wide range of flow rates. At very low velocities,
small diameter drops follow the vapor and do not impinge on the wires of the
blanket. At very high velocities, the vapor pulls the drops off the wires and re-
entrainment results.
Size Criteria
(continued)
Vapor Velocity Effects (continued)

– If the velocity is increased above the minimum, a layer
of liquid begins to form on the mesh and scrubbing
helps to improve further entrainment separation
– If the velocity is further increased, the liquid layer
gradually increases in depth, nearing the exit side
of the mesh
– If the maximum velocity is exceeded, re-entrainment
will occur at the outlet of the mesh
EDS-2004/GS-199
The “scrubbing” action in the lower part of the mesh is similar to what occurs on
fractionation trays.
Size Criteria
(continued)
Several factors govern gas velocity limits

– Surface tension of liquid
– Viscosity of liquid
– Wire surface area
– Liquid entrainment loading
– Suspended solids content
– Gas and liquid densities
Liquid and gas densities have the most influence
EDS-2004/GS-200
Mesh blankets are most efficient at velocities just below the point where re-
entrainment begins to take place. This is the maximum throughput permitted before
re-entrainment. The efficiency drops rapidly once re-entrainment begins to occur.
Size Criteria
(continued)
– From Stokes’ Law and Souders-Brown

Correlation
 ρ l - ρ g  0 .5
V=K  
 ρg 
V = Optimum velocity, ft/s

ρl = Density of liquid, lbs/ft3
ρg = Density of vapor, lbs/ft3
K = Constant based on system pressure
VDesign = 0.7 VOptimum
EDS-2004/GS-201
Optimum performance and range occur when the mesh blanket is designed to
operate at 70% of the “optimum design” rate. This allows for some variation in
throughput without a significant loss of efficiency.
Optimum Velocity
VOptimum is the velocity at which re-entrainment

is about to occur
– Is the maximum velocity, hence maximum
throughput, for which the desired separation will
occur
– Is the maximum pressure drop
EDS-2004/GS-202
The optimum velocity results in the highest pressure drop, but that is only on the
order of one inch of water.
Mesh Blanket Efficiency
Mesh blanket efficiency is fairly constant

through a wide range of velocities
For 15 micron and larger removal, the range
is 30 - 110% of VOptimal
For smaller than 15 micron removal,
the range is 50 - 110% of VOptimal
Use of VDesign = 0.7VOptimal provides an
allowance for actual velocity variations
EDS-2004/GS-203
This slide and the following slide illustrate the ability of wire mesh to accommodate
a wide range of flows. This makes it very tolerant of turndowns or variations in
flow.
Velocity vs. Removal Efficiency
Style A, 6" Mesh Blanket
SD-R01-34
EDS-2004/GS-204
This curve indicates a wide capacity range for efficiencies over 95%.
K vs. Pressure
PRESSURE 9" SEVERE 6" NORMAL

(inches of Hg absolute) DUTY MESH DUTY MESH
Less than 1” 0.14 0.17
1" 0.14 0.17
5" 0.18 0.23
10" 0.22 0.28
20" 0.26 0.32
30" 0.28 0.35
EDS-2004/GS-205
K vs. Pressure
PRESSURE 9" SEVERE 6" NORMAL

(psia) DUTY MESH DUTY MESH
15 0.28 0.35
50 0.27 0.34
100 0.26 0.32
200 0.25 0.31
300 0.24 0.30
500 0.22 0.28
1000 0.22 0.27
Greater than 1000 0.22 0.27
EDS-2004/GS-206
Mesh Blanket Size Criteria
Vdesign = (0.7) * K [(ρ1 - ρv)/ρv]0.5
DM CFSactual = from process data
AREA = CFSactual/Vdesign
Dv
Mesh diameter = (4 * AREA/π)0.5
K is a function of pressure
Dv can be sized for gravity settling if critical service or Dv

can be sized for the mesh blanket diameter if not critical
SD-R00-31
EDS-2004/GS-207
CFSactual = actual Cubic Feet per Second

Extended Surface Arrangements
for Various Size Ranges
θ θ
Up to 36 inch 36 in to 72 inch
Diameter Diameter
72 inch and Larger

Diameter
EDS-R01-3404
EDS-2004/GS-208
Mesh blankets can be sloped to provide increased capacity, although this is rarely
used.
The ∆P increase due to flooding, i.e., forcing the flow through liquid on the
underside of the mesh, is less pronounced because the liquid concentrates on the
lower part of the mesh. Vapor then passes, preferentially, through the remainder of
the mesh.
Rather than use sloped mesh blankets, the vessel could be expanded, but that is
costly.
For mesh blankets smaller than the vessel, the blanket is put into a “can” over the
outlet and flow is forced to pass through the blanket to exit. Alternatively, the
vessel can be swedged.
Size Criteria for a Sloped
Mesh Blanket
 ρ l - ρ g  0 .5
Vθ = KΘ  
 ρg 
KΘ = K + 0.3 SINΘ
Maximum angle (Θ) = 45 degrees
Vθ is the optimum vapor velocity

over the vessel cross section
EDS-2004/GS-209
Using the above equation yields a higher optimal velocity over the vessel cross
section. This considers the fact that the mesh is at an angle, therefore, the surface of
the mesh is a greater area than the vessel cross section. Flow passing through the
mesh will tend to pass through perpendicular to the mesh surface, not axially along
the vessel. The greater mesh surface area means the vapor velocity is actually less
than it is in the vessel cross section. Therefore, it will still be okay even if the
vessel velocity is greater than VOptimal. At Vθ (above), the velocity over the mesh is
okay.
Although the ∆P through the mesh is small, it is sufficient to cause the low density
vapor stream to change direction and follow the lowest ∆P path - straight through
the mesh rather than at an angle.
Mesh Blanket Location
for Vertical Vessels
SD-R02-32
EDS-2004/GS-210
Typical dimensions for mesh blanket installation in vertical separators.

Mesh Blanket Location
SD-R02-33
EDS-2004/GS-211
The optimal velocity through a coalescing blanket is 1-3 ft/min.
The coalescing blanket is to be far enough from the inlet that any turbulence has
damped out.
Pressure Drop
2
0.193fctad g Vact
∆PD =
g ce 3
Where: ∆PD = Pressure drop across the mesh blanket with

no entrainment (i.e., dry), inches of water
fc = Friction factor, dimensionless
t = Thickness of mesh blanket, ft
a = Surface area of wire, ft2/ft3
dg = Gas density, lb/ft3
gc = Gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/lbm/lbf /sec2
e = Void fraction of mesh blanket
Vact = Actual superficial gas velocity, ft/sec
EDS-2004/GS-212
This pressure drop calculation is for a clean wire mesh.

Friction Factor vs. Reynolds Number
of Mesh Blanket
SD-R01-35
EDS-2004/GS-213
Pressure Drop
The total pressure drop across an operating

mesh blanket is sum of the dry pressure drop
plus additional pressure drop caused by liquid
loading within the mesh
The total pressure drop may be determined by:
∆PT = ∆PD + ∆PL

(Total) (Dry) (∆P Due to
Liquid Load)
EDS-2004/GS-214
Pressure Drop for Entrainment Load
A B A B C
1.0 1.0
D
C
0.1 0.1
00.1 0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
A 2200 lb/hr•ft2
Vact. Vact.
B 935 lb/hr•ft2
( )
dl - dg 0.5
dg C 160 lb/hr•ft2
( )
dl - dg 0.5
dg
Style B, 6 inch thick mesh blanket D 16.5 lb/hr•ft2 Style C, 6 inch thick mesh blanket
DPL for style “A” is the average of styles “B” and “C.” SD-R03-36
EDS-2004/GS-215
These charts were developed empirically (by experiment), not by theoretical

derivation.
Total Pressure Drop
Total pressure drop may be estimated as:

2
 V 
∆PT = 1.5 Actual 
 VOptimal 
 
This is based upon a normal total pressure

drop of 1.5" of water at VOptimal
EDS-2004/GS-216
Pressure drop through a mesh blanket is negligible.

Typical Horizontal Installation
of a Sectional Mesh Blanket
SD-R01-37
EDS-2004/GS-217
The support method must ensure that flow cannot bypass the mesh blanket.
Provide a support grid on the downstream side of all mesh blankets. This grid both
supports the mesh and prevents any part of the mesh from being carried downstream
if it separates. This is particularly important if there is downstream mechanical
equipment, such as a compressor.
Typical Vertical Arrangement
of a Sectional Mesh Blanket
SD-R02-38
EDS-2004/GS-218
Coalescing blankets are installed against a support ring with the flow pushing the
blanket against the ring. The ring is left open at the bottom to allow unimpeded
flow of the heavy liquid phase, and drainage of the vessel.
Provide one manway in horizontal vessels, with a vent at the other end. Be sure the
mesh blanket can be assembled and disassembled from the manway side only.
Disassembly is needed to provide access to the rest of the vessel, for example,
during inspection. The flow direction should tend to push the mesh against the
support ring rather than pull it away (straining, even breaking the twist ties). The
manway would be on the downstream side of the mesh blanket to allow
assembly/disassembly. It is also a better place, considering cleanliness, hence
safety. Finally, it is normally the largest, and least obstructed portion of the vessel,
facilitating entry. It also allows immediate access to the vapor outlet mesh blanket,
if one is present. Wherever it is placed, insure the manway is in a safe, accessible
location. It is not to open into the vessel at the drop leg, where someone entering
could fall into the drop leg, or at an internal obstruction such as the inlet distributor
or vapor mesh blanket, that limits accessibility.
Occasionally, it may be advisable to put a relief valve upstream of the mesh blanket
to guard the vessel against a pressure buildup if the mesh blanket plugs and does not
fail. This is, however, a very unlikely situation.
Typical Horizontal One-Piece
Mesh Blanket
SD-R02-39
EDS-2004/GS-219
In this installation detail, the mesh blanket hangs like a light fixture.
Installation and Removal from Top
3/4 inch
3/4 inch
1 1/2 inch x 1/4 inch plate ring
furnish in minimum number
of pieces to pass thru manway Spacers - 1/2 inch standard pipe
Nominal blanket
thickness +2 inch Grids (1 inch each)
3/16 in 2 inch x 3/8 inch plate support ring

3/16 in 1-6
1 1/4 in Tack weld bolt head to ring
Centerline, 1/2 inch diameter alloy bolts 3/4

Max. spacing 13 inch centers inch
SD-R04-40
EDS-2004/GS-220
Spacers are used to minimize compression of the mesh blanket.
Compression would decrease the mesh’s void volume, increasing the ∆P and,
possibly, reducing coalescing efficiency.
Installation and Removal from Bottom
3/4 inch Inside Diameter

clearance Vessel Ring
Top Grid Diameter Width
Up to 8’ 2"
1/8 inch diameter staple
8' to 15’ 2½"
Over 15’ 3"
1 inch
Bottom Grid
Tie Wire
1/4 inch Diameter Holes, 5 inch Centers
Annular Ring, 2 inch to 3 inch Wide
SD-R03-41
EDS-2004/GS-221
The mesh blanket must be able to pass the support ring. In most cases, the blanket
is assembled in sections to accomplish this.
Support Strength
Mesh must be firmly supported to resist

dislodging from back pressures due to
blowdown or upset conditions, and pressure
due to limited plugging
EDS-2004/GS-222
Vertical blankets in liquid can plug and develop a higher liquid level on one side
than the other, possibly dislodging the mesh. Horizontal, vapor, blankets can
occasionally plug also.
Support Grids
Support grids are constructed from 1" x 1/8"

bars on 5¼" centers (3 bars to a 12¼" module)
Ordinary grating is not used because the

closer bar spacing will interfere with liquid
drainage and the function of the mesh blanket
EDS-2004/GS-223
Materials of Construction
Mesh Material
Even small amounts of corrosion may damage

the fine wire of the mesh; therefore, use:
Austenitic Stainless
Monel
Polyethylene (limited to 170°F)
Polypropylene (limited to 170°F)
Teflon (limited to 350°F)
Proprietary Materials
EDS-2004/GS-224
Mesh and coalescing blankets can corrode quickly in hostile environments because
the fine wires are exposed to the environment on all sides and have no corrosion
allowance.
Since mesh blankets have essentially no corrosion allowance, select the metallurgy
best suited to resist the corrosive environment. A corroded wire will break, making
coalescence impossible because droplets cannot travel down the wire and combine.
Therefore, use a high alloy, “corrosion-proof,” wire.
Before using any of these materials, confirm that they are compatible with the
internal atmosphere. Polyethylene and polypropylene may be damaged (destroyed)
in some hydrocarbon environments because they, too, are hydrocarbon based.
Materials of Construction
Support Grid Material
Austenitic Stainless
Monel
Carpenter 20
Hastelloy
Titanium
EDS-2004/GS-225
Sample Problem
Design a mesh blanket for a vertical separator

with the following data:
Pressure 110 psig

Temperature 115ºF
Vapor Flow Rate 257,760 lb/h
Vapor Density 0.147 lb/ft3
Vapor Viscosity 0.013 Cp
Liquid Density 50.1 lb/ft3
EDS-2004/GS-226
Calculate Optimum Velocity
0.5
dl − dg 
V = K 
 d g 
0.5
 50.1 − 0.147 
V = 0.32 
 0.147 
V = 5.9 ft/s
EDS-2004/GS-227
Thus, the optimum velocity is 5.9 ft/sec.
K is based upon normal duty mesh.

Calculate Design Velocity
Entrainment would fall into the spray

category with a droplet size of 20 microns
and larger
Efficient separation is accomplished over

a range of 30% to 110% (70% average)
of optimum allowable velocity
Vd = 0.7V
Vd = 0.7 (5.9) = 4.13 ft/s
EDS-2004/GS-228
The design velocity is 70% of the optimum velocity or 4.13 ft/sec.

Calculate Required
Mesh Blanket Area
257,760
AR =
0.147(3600 )4.13
A R = 117.9 ft 2
EDS-2004/GS-229
AR is the required cross sectional area of the mesh blanket exposed to the vapor
flow, not the area of the vessel.
Calculate Required
Mesh Blanket Diameter
0 .5
A
D = 2 
π
0.5
 117.9 
D = 2  = 12.25 ft.
 3.14 
Because support ring is 2.5" wide, add 5" to diameter

DR = 12.25 + 0.42 = 12.67 ft (12'-8")
Use Style A, 6" thick mesh blanket with diameter of 12'-8"
EDS-2004/GS-230
The final mesh blanket diameter is the calculated diameter available for vapor flow
plus an allowance for the support ring (2.5 inches x 2 = 5 inches or 0.42 feet).
In this example, the required diameter is 12.67 feet or 12 feet, 8 inches. This is the
diameter of the mesh blanket, not the vessel.
Estimated Pressure Drop
2
0.193fc tad g Vact
∆PD =
g ce 3
Vact = 4.13 ft s
For Style “A” mesh:
a = 85 ft 2 ft 3
e = 0.98
EDS-2004/GS-231
See Slide 189 for information on the mesh.

(continued)
µ = (0.013Cp )(0.000672 ) = (0.0000087 lb/ft ⋅ s )
d g Vact 0.147(4.13 )
Re ynolds Number = = = 821
aµ 85(0.0000087 )
From the curve: fc = 0.20
EDS-2004/GS-232
See Slide 213 for the curve used to find fc.

(continued)
(0.193)(0.20)(0.5)(85)(0.147)(4.13) 2
∆ PD =
32.2(0.98)3
∆PD = 0.136 inch water
EDS-2004/GS-233
Pressure drop is negligible.

(continued)
Pressure drop due to liquid on the mesh
257,760
Superficial Velocity, = 2186 lb/hr ⋅ ft 2
117.9
Vact 4.13
= = 0.224
0 .5 0 .5
 dl − dg   50.1 − 0.147 
   
 dg   0.147 
 
EDS-2004/GS-234
Superficial velocity is the mass flow rate divided by cross section area, i.e.,
(lb/hr)/ft2.
Space velocity is defined as mass flow rate divided by catalyst volume, i.e.,
(lb/hr)/ft3.
(continued)
∆PL for Style B ≈ 0.12 inches water
∆PL for Style C ≈ 1.0 inches water
Average ∆PL ≈ 0.56 inches water
EDS-2004/GS-235
Refer to Slide 215 for determination of the pressure drop.

(continued)
∆P = ∆PD + ∆PL = 0.136 + 0.56 = 0.696 inches of water
Determine with simplified method:
2 2
 Vact   4.13 
∆P = 1.5  = 1.5  = 0.74 inches of water
 VOptimal   5.9 
 
EDS-2004/GS-236
The simplified method is normally an adequate means of determining the pressure

drop through the mesh, especially since the pressure drop is negligible.

Gravity Separation

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 Absorbs variations in the incoming flow,

 Allows time for problem correction or shut

 May be a dedicated vessel or provided as

A surge volume protects downstream equipment by providing a continuous and

 Normal time a fluid remains within a vessel,

 May be defined to give the needed surge

 Requirement set by process or operational

 Smoothes liquid flow variations resulting from

Size a feed surge drum for a Tatoray Unit. The

L/D is the ratio of the vessel’s length to diameter.

Set the volume of the vessel equal to the volume of a

We derive the formula by substituting 3 x D for L, and solving for D.

 The Act or Process of Separating

 The State of Being Separate

 To Isolate From a Mixture

 To Divide Into Constituent Parts

 Remove unwanted fluids, such as water.

Vapor/liquid separation is used to keep liquids out of compressors and to keep

 For gravity separation to occur, fluids must

 The closer the fluid densities, the more

 No separation method is complete. The

Incapable of being mixed without the

• Emulsion - (e.g., fat in milk) - liquid remaining dispersed within an immiscible

• Solution - A liquid containing a dissolved substance (e.g., salt water). A

• Mixture - Two or more components blended together, each of which remains

• Compound - Formed by a union or joining of two separate ingredients, each of

Separation using a combination of these methods is

Momentum separation involves changes in the direction of flow (a cyclone is an

Gravity settling uses velocity and time functions.

 Denser fluid changes direction more slowly

 Often used for initial or “bulk” separation

 Denser fluids sink and lighter fluids “rise”

 Most common means of separation used in

Gravity separation is “free” of energy needs such as required by fractionation.

 To unite into a whole

Large drops or particles settle better than smaller ones.

 Droplets follow a torturous path through a

 Generally used for fine droplet removal,

Coalescing blankets provide lots of twists and turns to increase drop-to-drop

 Usually four zones in a separator

Primary separation comes from the inlet distributor.

A = change in direction, promoting momentum separation

B = gravity separation zone

C = mist eliminators combine or coalesce small drops into large drops

D = residence time and settling zone

 For Vessel Design

 Steady state velocity at which a dispersed

 Reached when the forces acting on the

 The predominant, or carrying fluid in the

In fog, the air is the continuous phase.

 Fluid scattered within and being carried by

In fog, the suspended water droplets are the dispersed phase.

F (force) = m (mass) x a (acceleration)

and u = ut = terminal velocity

At steady state, neither velocity or acceleration is changing.

Variables are defined on the next slide.

Substitute and solve for ut:

 Terminal velocity for a particle can now be

To simplify the calculations, some limitations are assumed:

• Stagnant, laminar or, at least, not highly turbulent flows

Particle Reynolds Number, NRe = Dpρut

We are only concerned with spheres in the laminar flow regime.

 For: 500 < N Re < 200 ,000

Absorbs variations in the incoming flow,

Allows time for problem correction or shut

May be a dedicated vessel or provided as

Normal time a fluid remains within a vessel,

May be defined to give the needed surge

Requirement set by process or operational

Smoothes liquid flow variations resulting from

The Act or Process of Separating

The State of Being Separate

To Isolate From a Mixture

To Divide Into Constituent Parts

Remove unwanted fluids, such as water.

For gravity separation to occur, fluids must

The closer the fluid densities, the more

No separation method is complete. The

Denser fluid changes direction more slowly

Often used for initial or “bulk” separation

Denser fluids sink and lighter fluids “rise”

Most common means of separation used in

To unite into a whole

Droplets follow a torturous path through a

Generally used for fine droplet removal,

Usually four zones in a separator

For Vessel Design

Steady state velocity at which a dispersed

Reached when the forces acting on the

The predominant, or carrying fluid in the

Fluid scattered within and being carried by

Terminal velocity for a particle can now be

For: 500 < N Re < 200 ,000

Where: Particle Reynolds Number D p ρu t

For: 2 < N Re < 500

The closer the fluid densities are, the more

Consider effect upon downstream equipment,

Default particle sizes used for gravity

Tabulate data and calculate volumetric flows

Determine Liquid Residence Time

Determine Normal Liquid Level

Calculate Diameter to Satisfy Residence Time

Calculate the diameter required for each

Coalescing blankets are often used to accelerate

Calculate diameter based on residence time

VV is a cylinder with L/D = 3. Ignoring the

Normal liquid level (NLL) is usually set at the

High and low liquid levels (HLL and LLL)

Calculate the diameter based on vapor from

Use the minimum liquid level for any

Calculate diameter based on liquid/liquid

Calculate the diameter based upon liquid

The governing diameter, 5.7 feet, was that

Increase the vessel diameter to accommodate

Determine residence time

Select the governing (largest) diameter

If DDL is greater than half of the vessel diameter,

Round up to the next pipe size

Size the drop leg for 10 minute residence time