Abstract

The soil deposits of the world are infinitely varied, it has not been found possible to

create a universal system of soil classification for dividing soils into various groups and

subgroups on the basis of their important index properties. However, useful systems based on

one or two index properties have been devised. Some of these systems are in such common use

by workers in various fields involving soils that the engineer must have at least a general

knowledge of them. At the same time it is essential to keep in mind that no system can

adequately describe soil of all engineering purposes.

Detailed testing of soils for determining their suitability as a load supporting material or

as construction material is difficult, expensive and time consuming. Engineers, on the basis of

their experience, therefore, have divided soils into various groups. Each group of soil has its

own peculiar engineering properties. This segregation of soils into various groups on the basis of

their engineering properties is known as soil classification.

The purpose of soil classification is to provide a systematic method of categorizing soils

into different groups in accordance with their engineering performance.

Introduction

Soils with similar properties may be classified into groups and subgroups based on their

engineering behaviour. Classification systems provide a common language to express concisely

the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied, without a detailed description. At

the present time, two elaborate classification systems that use the grain-size distribution and

plasticity of soils are commonly used by soil engineers. They are the American Association of

State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system and the Unified

Soil Classification System (USCS). The AASHTO system is used mostly by state and country
highway departments, whereas geotechnical engineers usually refer to use Unified Soil

Classification System.

The AASHTO classification was developed in 1929 as the Public Road Administration

Classification System. It has undergone several revisions with the present version proposed by

the committee on the Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular Type Roads of the

Highway Research Board in 1925 (ASTM Test Designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145).

According to this system, soil classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils

classified into groups; A-1, A-2 and A-3 are granular materials, where 35% or less of the

particles passes through the No. 200 sieve. Soils where more than 35% passes through the

No.200 sieve are classified into groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7.

The Unified Soil Classification System classifies soils into two broad categories: (1) Coarse

grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% passing through the

No.200 sieve. This group symbols start with a prefix of either G or S. G stands for gravel or

gravelly soils, and S for sand or sandy soil. (2) Fine grained soils with 50% or more passing

through the No.200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of M, which stands for

inorganic silt, C for inorganic Clay, or O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for

peat, muck and other highly organic soil.

Objective

The objective of this lab experiment is to determine the classification of soil using

AASHTO and USCS.

Theoretical Background

For the evaluation of the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, a number

called group index (GI) is also incorporated with the groups and subgroups of the soil.

GI = (F-35)[0.2+0.005(LL-40)]+0.01(F-15)(PI-10)

where

F= percent passing the No.200 sieve

LL= liquid limit

PI= plastic Index

When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use

the partial group index for PI, or

GI= 0.01(F-15)(PI-10)

In general, the quality of performance of soil as a subgrade material is inversely

proportional to the group index. The general rating of a soil as a subgrade material decreases

from left to right.

I. INTRODUCTION

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine-
grained soil: its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit. Depending on its water content, a
soil may appear in one of four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state, the
consistency and behavior of a soil is different and consequently so are its engineering properties.
Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's behavior.
The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and to distinguish between
different types of silts and clays.

On the other hand, the liquid limit of soils has been determined using Casagrande's liquid
limit device. This method is still the standard in the United States, but in other parts of the world,
the fall cone* has, in recent years, become widely used. The fall cone method is said to eliminate
most of the drawbacks of the Casagrande method, and results in improved accuracy and
repeatability. Since the method has the potential for improving the test, and is receiving
widespread attention in other parts of the world, it was determined that the Bureau (Bureau of
Reclamation) should evaluate the potential benefits of using the fall cone method for liquid limit
determination.

Meanwhile, the shrinkage limit is the water content dividing the semisolid and solid
states of a soil. It is quantified for a given soil as the water content that is just sufficient to fill the
voids when the soil is at the minimum volume it will attain on drying. Restated, the smallest

water content at which a soil can be completely saturated at this dry volume is called the
shrinkage limit. Below the shrinkage limit (SL), any water content change will not result in a
volume change of the soil.

Fall cone test is another method of determining the liquid limit of a soil sample.
Compared to casagrande, it is more preferred method to use it is more repeatable and less
variable with different operators. The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which a
cohesive soil ceases to behave as a semi solid material and reacts as a viscous fluid.
OBJECTIVES

The objective of this lab experiment is to determine the liquid and plastic limits of the soil

samples for identification and classification of dried soil.

III. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The moisture content corresponding to N = 25, determined from the flow curve, gives the

liquid limit of the soil. From the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests, the US Army Corps of

Engineers (1949) at the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, proposed an

empirical equation of the form

𝑵 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷
𝑳𝑳 = 𝒘𝒏 ( )
𝟐𝟓

Where:

N=number of blows in the liquid limit device for a 12.5 mm groove closure

wn= corresponding moisture content

tanβ= 0.121 (but note that tanβ is not equal to 0.121 for all soils)

Another method of determining liquid limit that is popular in Europe and Asia is the Fall

Cone Method (British Standard – BS1377). In this test the liquid limit is defined as the moisture

content at which a standard cone of apex angle 30 degree and weight 0.78 N (80gf) will penetrate

a distance d = 20 mm in 5 seconds when allowed to drop from a position of point contact with

the soil surface.

A one-point method for estimation of liquid limit using the fall cone device, similar to

liquid limit, has been suggested by Nagaraj and Jayadeva (1981), which can be expressed as
 𝒘
𝑳𝑳 =
𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓𝒅

Where

W= moisture content for 17mm ≤ d ≤ 23mm

The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content, in percent, at which the soil when

rolled into threads of 3.2 mm in diameter crumbles.

𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐
𝒘=[ ] × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒎𝟐

Where:

w=moisture content

𝑚1 =mass of wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the test

𝑚2 = mass of the dry soil

The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit of a
soil or,
𝑷𝑰 = 𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳
Where:
PI=plasticity index

LL=liquid limit

PL=plastic limit

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

For liquid limit determination using Cup Method

1. Liquid Limit Device – also known as Casa Grande used to determine the moisture

content at which clay soils pass from a plastic to a liquid state.

2. Grooving Tool- used with a Liquid Limit Machine to determine the liquid limits of the

fine-grained portion of a soil sample.

3. Aluminum container – storage of the sample when drying in the oven

4. Oven – use to dry the soil sample

5. Sieve No. 40- soil sample use for the plastic limit determination using cup method

6. Distilled water- added to soil for mixing

7. Mixing bowl- a bowl used to mix the sample

8. Evaporating dish or glass sheet

9. Spatula – use for mixing and spreading the soil to form paste

10. Balance sensitive up to 0.01g – use for weighing

For plastic limit determination using hand-rolling method:

1. Mixing bowl- a bowl used to mix the sample

2. Sieve no. 40 – soil sample use for the plastic limit determination using hand-rolling

method

3. Oven- used for drying

4. Spatula- use for mixing the soil

5. Distilled water – added to the soil for mixing

6. Glass sheet (surface for rolling)

7. Aluminum containers- storage of the sample when drying in the oven

8. Balance sensitive up to 0.01g – use for weighing

For fall cone method

1. Penetrometer apparatus - any device forced into the soil to measure resistance to vertical

penetration

2. Cone for Penetrometer apparatus - used to determine the geotechnical engineering

properties of soils and delineating soil stratigraphy.

3. Oven - use to dry the soil sample

4. Mixing bowl - a bowl used to mix the sample

5. Spatula - use for mixing and spreading the soil to form paste

6. Electronic Balance- use to weigh the sample

7. Distilled Water- added to soil for mixing

8. Soil sample passing sieve no. 40 – soil use to perform the fall cone method

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Liquid Limit Determination

Adjust the drop of the cup of the liquid limit device by releasing the two screws at the top

and by using the handle of the grooving tool or a gauge. The drop should be exactly 1 cm at the

point of contact on the base. Then, tighten the screw after adjustment. Take air-dried soil sample

passing 425 microns IS sieve (No. 40). Mix the sample thoroughly with distilled water in an

evaporating dish or a glass plate to form a uniform paste. Make sure to keep the mix under

humid conditions for obtaining uniform moisture distribution for sufficient period. For some fat

clay, this maturing time may be up to 24 hours.

 Next, take a portion of the matured paste and remix it thoroughly. Place it in the cup of

the device by a spatula and level it by a spatula or a straight edge to have a minimum depth of

the soil as 1cm at the point of the maximum thickness. The excess soil, if any should be

transferred to the evaporating dish. Cut a groove in the sample in the cup by using the

appropriate tool. Draw the grooving tool through the paste in the cup along the symmetrical axis,

along the diameter through the center line of the cup. Hold the tool perpendicular to the cup.

Rotate the handle of the device at a rate of 2 revolutions per second. Count the number of blows

until the two halves of the soil specimen come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a

distance of 12mm due to flow and not by sliding.Collect a representative sample of the soil by

moving spatula width-wise from one edge to the other edge of the soil cake at right angles to the

groove. This should include the portion of the groove in which the soil flowed to close the

groove. Remove the remaining soil from the cup. Mix it with the soil left in evaporating dish.

Change the water content of the mix in the evaporating dish either by adding more water if the

water content is to be increased or by kneading the soil, if the water content is to be decreased. In

no case the dry soil should be added to reduce the water content. Repeat the steps 4 to 10 and

determine the number of blows (N) and the water content in each case. Lastly, draw the flow

curve between log N and w, and determine the liquid limit corresponding to N=25.

In the fall cone method, the liquid limit is taken as the moisture content at which a

standard 30 degree, 80 grams cone will penetrate the soil sample at a distance of 20 mm in

approximately 5 seconds. Repeat the process until three trials are made.

Plastic Limit Determination

Select a portion of soil from the material prepared for the liquid limit test, either, after the

second mixing before the test, or from the soil remaining after completion of the liquid limit test.
Then reduce the water content of the soil to a consistency of which it can be rolled without

sticking to the hands by spreading or mixing continuously on the glass plate or in the

mixing/storage dish. Next, from this plastic specimen, select 1.5 -2.0 g portion and add distilled

water until the soil is at a consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands. Form

the selected portion into an ellipsoidal mass. Then roll the soil mass by one of the following

methods: hands or rolling device. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform

diameter. The thread shall be further deformed on each stroke so that its diameter reaches 3.2

mm (1/8 in). When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into

several pieces. Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into the

moisture can, then cover it. Select another 1.5 – 2.0 g portion of the soil and repeat the operations

described at least 6 g of soil. Then weigh the moisture can (aluminium container) containing the

soil, record its mass, remove the lid and place the can into the oven for water content

determination. Compute the average of the water contents (trial plastic limit). This value is the

plastic limit, PL.

VI. ANALYSIS OF DATA

No. of Weight of Wet Oven-dried Moisture Number Liquid

Trials the sample + sample + content of blows limit
container container container (wn) % (N) (LL)%
(g) (g) (g)
Trial 1 22.1 35.6 30.3 64.63 25 64.63
Trial 2 19.9 47.7 37.5 58.59 23 58.00
Trial 3 19.9 50.2 39 57.95 17 55.31
Average 59.3133
Table 1. Liquid Limit Determination
calculations

𝑁 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑤𝑛 ( )
25
Trial 1:
91 0.121
𝑳𝑳𝟏 = 64.63 ( )
25
𝑳𝑳𝟏 = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟔𝟑 %
Trial 2:

23 0.121
𝑳𝑳𝟐 = 58.59 ( )
25
𝑳𝑳𝟐 = 58%

Trial 3:

23 0.121
𝑳𝑳𝟑 = 55.31 ( )
25

𝑳𝑳𝟑 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟑𝟏 %

𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + 𝐿𝐿3

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3

177.94
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3

Average = 59.3133%
 No. of Mass of Mass of Mass of Moisture
Trials container container + container + content
(g) soil soil after (wn) %
(g) oven
(g)
Trial 1 19.5 21.3 20.9 33.33
Trial 2 19.8 21.5 20.9 42.86
Trial 3 20.4 22.7 21.9 36.37
Average 37.52%

Table 2: Plastic Limit Determination

calculations

𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒆𝒕 − 𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒓𝒚
𝒘= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒓𝒚

Trial 1:
1.8 − 1.4
𝒘= 𝑥 100
1.4

𝑷𝑳𝟏 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟕%

Trial 2:

1.7 − 1.1
𝒘= 𝑥 100
1.1

𝑷𝑳𝟐 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟓𝟓%

Trial 3:
2.3 − 1.5
𝒘= 𝑥 100
1.5
 𝑷𝑳𝟑 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟑𝟑%

𝑃𝐿1 + 𝑃𝐿2 + 𝑃𝐿3

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3

136.45
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3

Average = 45.4833%

Plasticity Index

PI = LL – PL

PI = 59.3133 – 45.4833

PI= 13.83

No. of Weight of Wet Oven-dried Moisture Penetrat Liquid

Trials the sample + sample + content ion limit
container container container (wn) % (mm) (LL)%
(g) (g) (g)
Trial 1 9.8 29.6 23.8 41.43 20.9 40.79
Trial 2 8.9 47.3 38.1 31.51 19.0 32.07
Trial 3 8.9 40 32.1 34.05 20.6 33.69
Average 35.5166
Table 3. Liquid Limit Determination (Fall Cone Method)

calculations

𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒆𝒕 − 𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒓𝒚
𝒘= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒓𝒚
Trial 1:
19.8 − 14
𝒘= 𝑥 100
14

𝒘𝟏 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟒𝟑%

Trial 2:

38.4 − 29.2
𝒘= 𝑥 100
29.2

𝒘𝟐 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟓𝟏%

Trial 3:
31.1 − 23.2
𝒘= 𝑥 100
23.2

𝒘𝟑 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟎𝟓%

determining liquid limit using fall cone method

𝒘(%)
𝑳𝑳 =
𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓𝒅

Trial 1:
𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟑
𝑳𝑳𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓(𝟐𝟎. 𝟗)
𝑳𝑳𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟗%

Trial 2:

𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟏
𝑳𝑳𝟐 =
𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓(𝟏𝟗)
𝑳𝑳𝟐 = 32.07%
Trial 3:

𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝟓
𝑳𝑳𝟑 =
𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓(𝟐𝟎. 𝟔)

𝑳𝑳𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟗%

𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + 𝐿𝐿3

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3

106.55
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3

Average = 35.5166%

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on the

water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic, and liquid. In

each state the consistency, behaviour, and properties of the soil are completely different. The

boundary between these states can be defined using the change in behaviour of the soil. The

Atterberg limits are commonly used to distinguish between silts and clays, and also types of silts

and clays. Atterberg limits like the liquid limit, the plastic limit and the plasticity index of soils

are also used widely, either individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with

engineering behaviours such as compressibility, permeability, shrink swell, shear strength, and

compaction.

The liquid limit (LL) is defined as the water content at which, when subjected to 25 drops

of the liquid limit process, the separation of the soil in a standard cup cut by a groove of standard

dimensions flows together at a groove base at a distance of 13 mm. In addition, it describes the

transition from fluid to solid in the state of a sheet of clay. Total soil fluid is a very important
property of fine-grained soil and firm soil, and its value is used for the classification of fine-

grained soil. It also provides information on the on-site state and soil quality. Total soil liquid

may also be used to measure soil settling properties when calculating appropriate bearing force

and base settlement. Liquid soil cap quality is also used for the calculation of clay activity and

soil hardness index.

The plastic limit (PL) is measured by rolling a thread out on a flat, non-porous surface

from the fine portion of the soil. The thread will keep its form down to a very limited diameter if

the soil has moisture content where its motion is elastic. It is then possible to remould the sample

and repeat the test. The thread can begin to break apart in larger diameters as the moisture

content decreases due to evaporation. The plastic cap is referred to as the moisture content where

a 3.2 mm diameter separates the thread. If the thread cannot be rolled down to 3.2 mm at any

temperature, a soil is considered to be non-plastic.

Plasticity index (PI) is an important soil identification variable that can be used. Soils

with a high plasticity index are known to have a susceptibility to clay. Adding only small

amounts of water to such soils may cause unusually large or regular losses in the slope. Soil is

known to have little or no clay or silt in the case of zero quality and is referred to as non-plastic

soil. It is suggestive that a higher plasticity index has high organic matter in soil. Soil plasticity is

also a slope stability area measure. The soil plasticity engineering theory has emerged to

understand why some soils are more prone to failure than others.

𝑁 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
By using the equation 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑤𝑛 (25) , the values obtained for the Liquid Limit are:

64.63% for trial 1, 58% for trial 2, and 55.31% for trial 3 with an average of 59.3133. For the

Plastic Limit of the soil after three trials to get the moisture content obtained are: 28.57%,
 𝒘(%)
54.55%, and 53.33% with an average of 45.4833%. By using the equation 𝐿𝐿 = ,
𝟎.𝟔𝟓+𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓𝒅

the values obtained for the Liquid Limit are: 40.79% for trial 1, 32.07% for trial 2, and 33.69%

for trial 3 with an average of 35.5166. Therefore, the PI resulted to 13.83 with the usage of given

formula PI = LL – PL.

SUMMARY

The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove formed by a tool into the

sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for 10 mm on being given 25 blows in a standard

manner. This is limiting moisture content at which cohesive soil passes from liquid state to

plastic state. After conducting the experiment, we can differentiate the liquid limit and plastic

limit. The difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit is known as plasticity index (PI)

and it is in the range of water content that the soil has a plastic consistency. Value of liquid limit

is used to classify the grained soil and gives information regarding the state consistency of soil

on site.

CONCLUSION

After thorough analysis of the liquid limit and Atterberg Limit of the soil sample, it was

conducted that the soil was classified as silty clay under the Unified Classification System. After

three trials of determining the Liquid limit and Plastic limit of soil the calculated data has an

average of 59.3133 and 45.4833 respectively. The Plasticity Index resulted to 13.83. And the

average result of liquid limit using fall cone method was 35.5166
RECOMMENDATION

Inhalation of dust from soil sample used mask that will serve as protection while

performing the experiment. Assure to put the materials/equipment in the safe area to avoid

misplace of materials and equipment. Use tongs while putting or getting soil samples.

DOCUMENTATION

REFERENCES

ASTM D4318-00, Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of

Soils, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2000, www.astm.org

Das, Braja M. (2017).Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering. 5th ed. Phil. Edition. Cengage

Learning