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CHAPTER I
The vast Indian sub-continent, known for its devotion (bakthi), was the birth
place and cradle of many faiths and religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
Mahavira, Sankaracharya and Ramanuja, have preached values of life and shown the
path of righteousness to the people. With the dawn of the 19th century, India began to
witness social, economic and scientific progresses along with its religious bent of
mind. To change the faith and belief in superstitions which prevailed among Indians
evangelise and render social work. They left their homelands, their parents and
relatives for the sake of Jesus and for the greater glory of God.2 They served the sick
and the blind, the deaf and the lame, the unwanted, the incurable and the dying.3
The history of Christianity in India may be divided into four periods namely
the Syrian, the Roman, the Lutheran and the Modern Period. This chapter tries to give
a brief survey on the history of Christian missions in India. It sheds light on the origin
of Christianity in India, the arrival of Portuguese and Protestant missions into the
country and their agenda to Christianize India with special reference to Tamil Nadu
and Madurai.
1
Joseph Tekkedath, History of Christianity in India, Vol II, Church History Association of India,
Bangalore, 1982, p.32.
2
J. Neuuner, Mission in India, Ishvani Kendra, Pune, 1979, p.15.
3
A.Vincent Cinnadurai, Thuduvarum Deva pura (Tamil), Ithaya Veliyidu, Madras, p. 141.
45
There are two views among scholars about the origin of Christianity in India.
According to one, the foundation of the Christian church in India was laid by Saint
Thomas, one of the twelve Apostles of Jesus. The other view ascribes the arrival of
Christianity in India to the Christian merchants and missionaries belonging to the East
Syrian and Persian churches. But it has been widely believed that Christianity in India
was St. Thomas’ sphere of work. He reached Cranganore in the west coast of south
India in 52 A.D.4
The first converts of St. Thomas were mainly the high caste Hindus especially
Brahmins and the apostle maintained the caste structures tenaciously to the extent of
preserving nearly all the ceremonies of Hindus with regard to birth, marriage and
death. These converts of St. Thomas were called as Thomas Christians. In the
beginning of the Christian era while forming their own religious and social customs
Thomas Christians owed a great deal to Hinduism.5 As it is clear from the above, the
St. Thomas Christians adapted themselves well to the culture of the place.6 Living for
vision, which was inclusive, pluralistic and liberal. Compared to the modern missions’
approach to non-Christian religions one must admit that the vision of St. Thomas
Christians was truly an enlightened one. 7 Thus the legacy, which the St. Thomas
Christians received from Hinduism, had not only given them a high social standing,
4
Stephen Neil, The Story of Christian Church in India and Pakistan, Madras, 1972, pp- 21-23.
5
K.P.P. Menon, History of Kerala, Vol. 2, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1983, p.445. (The
early Christian were believed from four Brahmin families called Pakalomattam, Sankarapuri, Kalli
and Kaliankal.)
6
A.M. Mundadan, History of Christianity in India Vol.1,Theological Publications in India,
Bangalore,1982, p. 27.
7
Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985,
p 47.
46
but also helped in shaping spiritual life and attitude adapting itself to the
environment.8
C.V. Cheriyan observes that, “it is evident that their life was strikingly similar
to that of their Hindu brethren. Their customs and manners, life and culture
conformed to the general pattern in the land where they lived. Hence, Christianity in
Kerala developed as an essentially Indian religion while the votaries of that religion
zealously guarded the fundamentals of their faith as the most treasured of their
possession”9At the time of the arrival of Portuguese during the sixteenth century, the
Christians of Kerala were living a privileged life in the society, preserving the ancient
culture of India and vitalizing it with Christian principles. Scholars rightly described
the identity of Thomas Christians as: “Hindu in culture, Christian in Religion and
Oriental in worship.”10
Christian because of their hierarchical relations with the Eastern Syrian churches and
the liturgy in Syrian language.11The original community of St. Thomas Christians had
groups of Christians who came from Persia. This contact was an important event in
the history of St. Thomas Christians in the middle of the 4th century.12
8
L.W. Brown, The Indian Christians of St Thomas, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982,
p.167.
9
C.V. Cheriyan, A History of Christianity in Kerala, Kerala Historical Society, Kottayam, 1973,
p.153.
10
Placid J. Podippara, The Thomas Christians, Longman and Todd, London, 1970, p.27.
11
Joseph Pinto, Inculturation Through basic Communities, Asian Trading Corporation, Bangalore,
1985, pp. 75-76.
12
Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India, Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier, Edniburgh, 1908,
p. 30.
47
As is clear from the above, St. Thomas Christians adapted themselves well to
the culture of the place. Living for centuries in a positive encounter with Hindu
community they developed a theological vision, which was inclusive, pluralistic and
must admit that the vision of St. Thomas Christians was truly an enlightened one.
Stephen Neill in this regard opined that: “There is no clear evidence of attempts by
Indian Christian community to propagate its faith in the non-Christian society in the
Portuguese in India
In the second half of the fifteenth century, roughly thousand and five hundred
years after St.Thomas’ visit, the Portuguese discovered the sea route to India. Spain
also competed with them in maritime activities. One of the motives behind the sea
voyages was the desire to find out a new route to India for the purpose of spice trade.
The first Portuguese encounter with India took place on 20th May 1498 when Vasco
de Gama reached Kappad near Calicut on Malabar Coast in search of ‘Christians and
spices.’ 14 The second expedition, the Portuguese fleet comprising 13 ships and 18
priests, under Captain Pedro Álvares Cabral, anchored at Cochin on 26th November
1500. Cabral soon won the goodwill of the Raja of Cochin. He allowed four priests to
do apostolic work among the early Christian communities scattered in and around
Cochin. The Portuguese Kings viewed it as their sacred duty to render all support to
spread the gospel. Panikkar says, “The Portuguese Christianisation was a state
enterprise. The king paid for the entire ecclesiastical establishment of the East. The
doctrine of Padroado (jus patronatus established by the Papal Bull of 1514) vested the
13
Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity..., op.cit., p.47.
14
M.G.S Narayanan, The City of Truth, Calicut University Publications, Calicut, 2006, p. 47.
48
authority for missionary work effectively in the hands of the Portuguese crown in
areas where Portugal claimed political rights.”15 The Portuguese considered the Indian
Christians’ life to be inferior in many ways. Their attitude towards Indian Christians
or St. Thomas Christians was based on a sense of superiority about their form of
Christianity, which according to them was a genuine form to which all Christians
view. They could never assume that the Latin form of Christianity was the true form
of Christianity.16
Christianity with Indian culture. They did not practice religious tolerance. Many of
their moves were meant to destroy the customs of the indigenised Christians and to
but asked the new converts to give up their caste and as a sign of it they asked them to
eat beef and drink wine, so abominable to the Indian high castes. (Eating beef and
drinking liquor were the customs of the lowest castes and the outcastes in India).
Thus, they made Christianity a hated and untenable religion for the higher castes.17
Firth says, “In the eyes of the Hindus, Christianity was the religion of the ‘franks or
parangis.’ The term is used to denote especially the Portuguese but also any kind of
loose- living, arrogant persons, whose manners were so far removed from Indian
15
K.M. Panikkar Asia and Western Dominance ,George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1974, p. 280.
16
H.C.Perumalil & E.R.Hambye, Christianity in India- a History in Ecumenical Perspective,
Prakasam publications, Alleppey, 1972, p. 86.
17
Xavier Koodapuzha, Faith and Communion of the Indian Church of the Saint, Institute of
Religious Studies, Vadavathur ,1982, p.144.
49
18
propriety that social intercourse with them was unthinkable.” Anyhow, the
Portuguese colonists had introduced the western based version of Catholicism through
The Roman Catholic period is said to have begun from the year A.D.1500.
Though the missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church were in India in 13th and 14th
centuries, it was only after the arrival of Vasco da Gama in A.D 1498, that its
Roman Catholic Church was Francis Xavier. After a long gap of 15 centuries (from
the arrival of St. Thomas) St. Francis Xavier arrived at Goa on 6th May, 1542, and
moved along the areas between Goa and Cape Comerin. 21 By the year 1540 the
Portuguese had established themselves firmly on the west coast with their main
creation of an Indo-Portuguese Christian community. It was at this stage that the King
of Portugal, always solicitous for the progress of Christian faith in his rapidly
expanding dominions, appealed to the Pope and the newly formed Society of
18
C.B. Firth, An Introduction To Indian Church History, ISPCK, New Delhi, 2011, p111.
19
C.P. Mathew & M.M.Thomas, The Indian Churches of Saint Thomas, ISPCK, New Delhi, 1967,
p.27.
20
A. Mathias, Indian Christians: Search for Identity and Struggle for Autonomy, Dharmaram
Publications , Bangalore, 1984, p.69.
21
Catholic Encyclopedia online, New Advent, www.newadvent.org/cathen/06233b.htm.
22
George, Schurhammer, Francis Xavier, Vol II, Rome, 1977, p.321.
50
Jesus 23 for sending missionaries to India. The first man to be chosen was Francis
Xavier (1506-1552). Francis Xavier was educated in Paris where he had come under
Francis Xavier was ordained in 1537. In 1541, he set out for India with the
objective of reclaiming for Christ the ‘heathen’ population of the areas under
Portuguese influence, or in other words ‘Conquer the East for Christianity.’25 Thus
began the Jesuit mission in India, which really changed the cartography of
Asia, of which India had a share. He towers above all those who followed him by his
sympathy for the poor and the lowly, by his energy and spirit, by his utter fearlessness
in the face of dangers and his supreme faith in his mission. His consuming desire was
to spread the message of Christ far and wide. He was dogmatic and intolerant, but it
was the outcome of his blind faith. By starting various schools at important places,
Xavier contributed also to the spread of education in India.26The fact that he showed
special concern for the sick and the poor, particularly the fisher folk, increased his
popularity. His spirit has been an inspiration for generations of Christian workers in
India. However, his main drawback, as it must be admitted, was that he knew very
23
The Society of Jesus is a Christian male religious order of the Catholic Church. The members are
called Jesuits. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six
continents.
24
Ignatius of Loyola, was a Spanish knight from a local Basque noble family. As a priest since 1537,
and a theologian, he founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and, on 19 April 1541, became its first
Superior General. The great missionary St. Francis Xavier was from a Basque noble family, like his
beloved mentor St. Ignatius Loyola. When Francis met Ignatius in Paris he was a proud, autocratic,
ambitious man wanting to accomplish great deeds in the world. For three years, Ignatius patiently
encouraged Francis to look at his life differently. “What profits a man,” Ignatius asked Francis, “if he
gains the whole world and loses his soul?”. Francis joined St.Peter Faber as the first of Ignatius’s
companions .
25
K.M. Panikkar, India Through Ages, New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1988, p.225.
26
Ibid., p.226.
51
little about the genius and wealth of the Indian culture and religions. Actually his
contacts with India were only through the coastal regions of the south-west and south-
east and with the less or least educated people. Firth is right as he writes, “He had
been criticized for hasty and superficial methods never stopping to learn a language or
really get to know the culture of the people.”27 He died in 1552, exhausted from his
His missionary enthusiasm, self-denial and aspirations after a holy life are
lessons for all time. Noble by birth and educated as a Scholar, he gave up all that was
dear to him to go to the ends of the earth out of love to Jesus Christ and zeal for
salvation of his brethren or mankind. Often he was houseless and homeless travelling
on foot without a servant, suffering from cold and hunger, fording rivers and forcing
his ways through unbroken forests exposed to perils of sickness and robbers.29
Since the Jesuits facilitated for the establishment of many Catholic women
missions in Tamil Nadu, especially Madurai, their presence in Tamil Nadu is traced in
the following few pages. Ancient Tamil Nadu was ruled by the kings of Chera, Chola
and Pandiya dynasties. During the late medieval period, the Pandiyas captured power
in Madurai. In this situation, Ala-ud-din khliji, Sultan of Delhi sent his commander
Malik Kafur to invade Tamil Country and establish the supremacy of the sultanate in
27
C.B. Firth, op.cit., p. 67.
28
Ignatian Spirituality, A Service of Loyola Press, (Online),
http://www.ignatianspirituality.com/ignatian-voices/16th-and-17th-century-ignatian-voices/st-
francis-xavier-sj/
29
J.Mallika Punniyavathi, Early History of the Missionary Works of the Royal Danish
Missionaries, the German and the Swedish in different packets of Tamil Nadu: A Historical
Perspective, Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, (Online) Vol.2, No.5, 201,
p.53.
52
south in A.D 1311.30 The Tamil country became a part of the Delhi Sultanate in A.D
1370. It paved the way for establishment of Muslim rule under the Carnatic Nawab.31
The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in AD 1336 to do away with the Muslim
onslaught in South India. The Vijayanagar Empire created the office of Nayaks to
administer the south (Tamil Nadu). These Nayaks took their seats in Madurai, Tanjore
The rule of the Madurai Nayaks began with Viswanatha Nayak (AD 1529- AD
1564) and ended with Minakshi (AD 1732- AD 1736) which was the golden age for
the Christian activities. During the period of Virappa Nayaka (AD 1572- A.D 1595)
the Christian Missionaries particularly the Jesuits started working in Madurai founded
the Madurai Mission in A.D 1592.33 Fr. Gonsalvez Fernandez was the head of this
Mission34. Robert De Nobili’s (1606- A.D 1656) arrival in Tamil Nadu during Muthu
history.35Robert De Nobili was a brilliantly gifted, highly educated and zealous man
who came to assist Gonsalvez and stay at Madurai to evangelise. Born of Aristocratic
parents at Rome in September, 1577, Robert De Nobili had to face opposition from
his family to become a Jesuit. The Jesuits were not permitted to assume high
ecclesiastical and civil offices, as it was the privilege enjoyed by the aristocratic
30
R.C. Majumdar (ed) The History and Culture of the Indian people, Vol VI, Bharatiya Vidhya
Bhavan, Bombay, 1960, p. 53.
31
N.Venkataramanayya, The Early Muslim expansion in South India, University of Madras,
Madras, 1942, pp.123-128.
32
J.Mallika Punniyavathi, op.cit., p.52
33
Raju Kalidos , History and Culture of the Tamils, Vijaya Publications, Dindugul, 1976,p.242.
34
A.Devanesan, History of Tamil Nadu (up to 2000), Renu publications, Marthandam, 2004, p. 237.
35
New Advent, Catholic Encyclopedia, Madura Mission, www.newadvent.org/cathen/09519b.htm.
53
families of those times.36 The only aim in his life was to become a Jesuit missionary
and go to far off India to preach and convert the non-Christians to Christianity. To
realise his dreams, De Nobili fled from his family to Naples and joined the Jesuits in
1597, with the hope that “when God calls, no human consideration can stop us.”With
great difficulty, he obtained permission to come to India. Starting on April 28, 1604
from Lisbon, he travelled in a Portuguese ship and reached Goa on March 20, 160537
and from there he moved to the fishery coast and stayed there for a short period. Later
he moved to Madurai and mastered Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit. He was the first
European scholar to have studied Sanskrit, a language reserved for Brahmins alone.38
without being imposed on them. He received the answer from St. Paul who said that
while preaching one has to get naturalised in the culture of the community for whom
the message is meant. 39 De Nobili obtained the approval of the Jesuit mission to
undertake a serious study of Hinduism and Madurai was suitable for this purpose.
Robert De Nobili became convinced that Hindus would never listen to the gospel until
disassociate himself from people and customs which might identify him as a Parangi.
36
J.N. Ogilvie, The Apostles of India, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1915, p. 167.
37
Joseph Chetany, Lead me to Light, the Mission Methods of Robert De Nobili, Divine word
Missionaries, India, 1875-1975, p. 109.
38
C. Selvaraj and C.Lawrence, The impact of British rule in Tirunelveli District- A Study, Golden
Research Thoughts (online), Volume 2, Issue. 6, Dec. 2012, p. 3
39
“And unto the Jews I became as a Jew, that I might gain the Jews; to them that are under the law, as
under the law, that I might gain them that are under the law”. St Paul to Corinthians 1: 9: 20, The
Holy Bible, Dake’s Annotated Reference Bible, Standard Size Edition, USA, 2013, p.182.
40
Parangi, the name by which foreigners were known in India during the time of Fernandez. It is
reported that, when asking a candidate for baptism whether he wished to become a Christian, the
question would be put in the form, “Do you wish to enter the parangi kulam?, Stephen Neill, A
History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707, op.cit., p. 280.
54
Fr. Fernandez, however, had been in India since 1560, and for nearly twelve years he
had worked virtually alone to establish a Christian base at Madurai. De Nobili told Fr.
After a year of stay with Fr. Fernandez, De Nobili dissociated himself from
him in 1607 and started living in a hut, in a secluded place provided by the king.41 He
decided to make himself an Indian to save the Indians; and to become a Brahman to
the Brahmans. 42 He bathed daily; sat down cross-legged and called himself a
sanyasi.43He ate no meat, and wear wooden clogs and a saffron robe (kavi) instead of
the traditional Jesuit black cassock. He shaved his head except for a small tuft of hair.
He spoke only Tamil, hired a Brahman cook and houseboy, and became a
vegetarian.44 Like all Brahmans, De Nobili limited himself to one meal a day. To
cover the "nakedness" of his forehead, he put sandalwood paste on his brow to
indicate that he was a guru or teacher.45Eventually, he ate only with Brahmans, and
for a brief period, he also wore the Brahman thread of three strands of cotton cord
(ponool), (muppirinul) draped from the shoulder to the waist as a sign of rank (which
symbolise Trinity). He bathed daily and cleansed himself ceremonially before saying
mass. 46 Closely following the social habits of Brahmins, he lived like a Brahmin
Sanyasi and the Tamils called him Thathuva Pothagar (The teacher of Truth) or
41
Joseph Chetany, op. cit., pp. 110-111.
42
J.N. Ogilvie, op.cit., p.171.
43
Sannyasi a Sanskrit word meaning "one who has given up everything," For a Brahman, being a
sannyasi was the last stage of life.
44
Maddy, Historic alleys: De Nobili-The Roman Brahmin,(Online), South India, 2008,
(http;//historicalleys.blogspot.com)
45
J.N. Ogilvie. op.cit., p. 173.
46
Roberto de Nobili: A case study, online Journal, http://home.snu.edu/~hculbert/nobili.htm.
55
Roman Brahmin and called his religion “Satya Vedam” (True Religion) 47 and not
of Eternal life’ and ‘Inquiry into the meaning of life’ and used them to draw the local
Brahmins to debates.49He wrote Tamil poems in classical style named 'Senthamil'. His
prose works in Tamil could be easily understood by everybody. Many of his writings
could not be printed during his time and they remained in palm leaves.50De Nobili
was able to obtain assistance from learned pundits in his study of Hindu religious
thought.51He hoped to win people of the higher castes by leaving the whole caste
system untouched. After years of arduous work, in the course of which he acquired a
fair mastery of Sanskrit, he used to engage in argument with the learned Brahmins of
thought. He is said to have gained the respect of even the orthodox Brahmins of the
court. But, as Richter says, “Nobili’s system stood in sharp contrast to that of Xavier,
which had prevailed hitherto, to the ordinary rule and practice of every monastic order
in India.”52
47
Joseph Chetany, op.cit., p.111.
48
Parangi Margam is a name given to Portuguese by the South Indians, which referred to the culture,
religion and custom of the Portuguese and for a Hindu it meant complete loss of caste. Donald F.
Lach, Edwin J. Van Kley, Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book
1, p.150.
49
Maddy, op.cit., (n.p)
50
C. Selvaraj and C.Lawrence, op.cit., p. 3.
51
T. Sundararaj, The Establishment of the Jesuit Mission of Madurai.” Indian Church History
Review, Madurai, 1980, p. 355.
52
Julius Richter, op.cit., p. 63.
56
won him some converts. He used the above mentioned techniques with the support
and approval of his superiors such as the Archbishop of Cranganore and Provincial of
Malabar.53 In 1607, he baptised ten people, including his Sanskrit teacher. In 1609, he
baptised his Brahmin teacher Sivadharma and number of his disciples increased to
63.54They were not required to break their caste or change their dress, food or mode
of life except in the matter of idolatry. They could also retain their sacred thread and
tuft of hair on their head. In the year 1623 De Nobili could reckon 50 Brahmin
converts, 70 Nayak of Raja’s own band and 180 others, a total of 300. In 1644 it rose
Karur and other places. 55 His success as a missionary became evident when the
Christian population swelled from around 30,000 in 1656 to over 100,000 in 1706.
Due to his successor’s effort in church lore, he was able to convert a large number of
treatment of the Missionaries in a courteous way and the help rendered to them when
53
J.H. Nelson, The Madura Country: A manual, Asian Educational Society, Madras, 1989, p. 116.
54
Joseph Chetany, op.cit., p. 112.
55
Joseph C Houpert, A South Indian Mission, St. Joseph’s Industrial School Press, Tiruchirappalli,
1937, p.45.
56
The Couplin Mission Unit, India and its Mission, Sands and Co, Edinburg, 1923, p. 81.
57
S.Krishnasamy Aiyangar, South India and her Muhammaden invaders, Asian Educational
Services, Madras 1991, p. 75.
57
they approached him was favourable to the missionaries. Thirumalai was much
fascinated by the qualities and services of De Nobili and granted him permission to
But the other mission groups could not appreciate Nobili’s attempt to present
Christianity in a Hindu garb. Rome forced Nobili to abandon his methods and forbade
practices into it. Any compromise with Hindu life or religion was forbidden for
example, the eating of beef was held to be necessary as it would put the convert
letter, decided in favour of the method proposed by De Nobili, and permitted the
converted Brahmins to follow their culture.60 Later to convert the sudras he started
spent two years as superior of the Jesuit mission. By this time, he was growing old
and was almost blind. Then he was sent to Mylapore, where he lived in retirement in a
hut outside the town, as a sanyasi until his death in 1656 in his seventy ninth year.
Robert De Nobili died but his work continues to live until this day.61 Thus, De Nobili
was able to offer a solid foundation and that enabled women Missionaries to involve
Johnson writes, “Nobili always seemed to be looking for a way in which Hindus,
58
A.Sauliere,” The Life of Fr.Robert De Nobili,” Journal of Asiatic Society, August, 1967,(np).
59
K. M. Panikkar, Asia and..., George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1974, p. 281.
60
Joseph Chetany, op. cit., p. 114.
61
C.B. Firth, op.cit., p. 118.
58
especially those from high castes, would be comfortable with the gospel and be able
to express their Christianity in the context of their culture. By devoting his life to this
pursuit, this Italian Jesuit brought more advances into the Catholic Church’s
understanding of what the indigenous church in India should look like than any before
sense.”62After Robert de Nobili, 122 Jesuits worked in the Madurai Mission till 1759.
Among them are courageous, holy men like St John de Britto (1647–1693), martyred
in Oriyur, Ramnad district and the renowned Tamil scholar, Constantine Joseph
1656 A.D. While Chokkanatha Nayaka (A.D 1659- A.D 1682) and Muthu Virappa
Nayaka III (AD 1682- AD 1684) were the rulers of Madurai, John De Britto (AD
1649- AD 1693) had to face many setbacks. Anyhow De Britto who came to Madurai
in AD 1680 was devoted to the cause of promoting Christianity with all devotions.63
This period assumes greater significance because of the missionary activities of John
Thever and that led him to be executed in 1693. 65 The activities of the Madurai
62
Todd M. Johnson, Contextualization: A New-Old Idea Illustrations from the Life of an Italian
Jesuit in 17th Century India, http://www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/04_1_PDFs/Johnson_4.pdf.
63
Alphonse Manickam, Jesuit Madurai Province Historical Backround, In Jesuit Madurai
Province Golden Jubilee (1952-2002) Souvenir, Dindigul, 2002, p.39.
64
J.H. Nelson, The Madura…, Vol-III. op.cit., P, 217.
65
Thadia Thevar, a member of royal family embraced Christianity and he became an ardent follower
of John De Britto. During that period, Polygamy was widely prevalent besides many other ills.
Thadia Thevar was no exemption and he was also practicing polygamy before he became a Christian.
John De Britto imparted in him the virtues and values of Christianity. He was persuaded to live with
only one wife leaving all other women. One among those women was Kadalayi who was related to
Sethupathi. She was offended by the decision of Thadia Thevar to desert her in the name of
Christianity. She sought the help of Kilavan Sethupathi who was the illegitimate son of the former
59
tamilicised it.’67 Of all the Jesuit Missionaries who have worked in India, Beschi is
probably the most distinguished for his learning and intellect.68 His literary works
were multifarious. They have enriched Tamil poetry, prose, grammar, lexicography
and translation. His grace the most Rev. Dr. Justin Diraviam instituted an endowment
lecture in his honour at Madurai Kamaraj University. The Beschi Research Institute of
Tamil Nadu in 1736 A.D. and continued the services with great zeal and enthusiasm.70
He deserves a special mention for his zeal and he wrote two important books “Lives of
saints for everyday of the year” and the “Book of Miracles for everyday of the week”.
In the absence of priest, particularly after the suppression of Society of Jesus, these
Sethupathi. In addition to that she induced a Brahmin by name Pampavanam to lead a delegation to
Sethupati and impress him to ban Christianity, demolish all the churches and execute the missionary.
Sethupathi summoned Thadia Thevar and enquired. The status of Thadia Thevar prevented
Sethupathi to go ahead with stringent action. Sethupathi arrested John De Britto and imprisoned him.
The best efforts of Thadia Thevar to release the missionary could not meet success. Sethupathi
started playing tricks. He banished him from his realm and sent him to his brother who was Governor
of Oriyur, a fortress on the northern frontier of the Marava Country situated on the river Pamban. He
also sent through the escorts a secret letter ordering for execution of John De Britto. The Governor’s
wife, who was also a Christian, implored her husband to spare the missionary but it was of no avail.
On 4th February 1693, John De Britto was led to an elevated site and beheaded. His head and limbs
were cut off and hung up as a warning to all the missionaries and Christians. His mortal remains
were not handed over to his followers for burial but were thrown to birds. Also see: Ramasamy.A.,
Ramanathapuram District Gazetteer, Government of Tamil Nadu, 1972, p.165.
66
V.M. Gnanapragasam, A Pearl of Great Price, Nobili Publications, Madurai, 1988, p. 6.
67
Thekkadath, op.cit., p. 214.
68
J.H. Nelson, op.cit., P.299.
69
Golden Jubilee Souvenir (1938-1988), Archdiocese of Madurai, 1988.
70
Joseph.C. Houpert, op.cit., p. 66.
60
Christians.71Steps were taken to unite all the members of the Old Madura Mission into
Jesuits' service all over the world was painfully interrupted by an unfortunate
development. As Jesuits went about educating, inspiring and conscientising the people
everywhere, powerful men with strong vested interests, for whom neither God nor his
people really mattered, began to fear and loathe the Jesuits. Yielding to the pressure
exerted by such men with political power, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Society
of Jesus on 21 July 1773. Jesuits ceased to exist openly and officially in Madura
Mission and everywhere else.73 At this juncture, the arrival of Protestants into Tamil
The Society of Jesus was re-established on 7 August 1814 by Pope Pius VII.
Fr. J. Rootham was the General of the Society of Jesus, at the time of restoration.
Pope Gregory XVI, by his Bull Multa Praclare(order from pope), had put an end to
the Jurisdiction of Archbishop of Goa over the missions and handed over the new
Madura Mission, to the Provincial of France, Fr. Francis Renault, who at once sent
four French Jesuits to the Mission in 1837. Joseph Bertrand (1801 –1884), Louis
Garnier (1805 – 1843), Louis du Ranquet (1801 –1843) and Alexander Martin (1799
71
V.M.Gnanapragasam, op.cit., p.8.
72
Sebastian Anand, (ed) 150 years of Jesuit Presence in Madurai Mission, Jesuit Madurai Province
Publication , Dindugul , 2002, p-9.
73
Jesuit Madurai Province, News Letter, (online), http://www.maduraijesuits.org/whoweare.htm.
74
Joseph et.al, Jesuit Madurai Province Golden Jubilee souvenir, Jesuit Madurai Province
publication, Dindugal, 2002, p. 20.
61
– 1840). Later, the Madurai Mission was entrusted to the care of Toulouse Province in
Madurai Province
The two Madura Missions - the ‘Old Madura Mission' (1606-1773) run by the
Portuguese Jesuits (before the suppression in 1773) and the “New Madura Mission'
(1837 – 1952) managed by the French Jesuits of the Society became eventually the
Madurai Province. Since its foundation in 1606, all the European Jesuits of both Old
While the Old Madura Mission had Madurai as its headquarters, the
consolidated the Mission with remarkable vision and zeal. Madurai Mission was
In the year 1952, when the Toulouse Province celebrated its centenary, the Madurai
Vice-Province was raised to the status of an independent Province. All the well
known Jesuit institutions in Tamil Nadu are the fruits of the vision, due to the tireless
efforts and heroic sacrifices made by the French Jesuits. They are St. Joseph's School
and College, Tiruchirappalli (1844), St. Mary's School, Dindigul (1850), St. Mary's
School, Madurai (1855), St. Xavier's School (1880) and College (1923),
Palayamkottai, St. Francis Xavier School, Tuticorin (1884), Loyola College, Chennai
75
W.Francis, Madura Gazetter, Cosmo publication, New Delhi, 2000, p. 77.
76
Ibid., p.71.
62
(1925), De Britto School, Devakottai (1943) and St. Xavier's College of Education,
Palayamkottai (1950).77
In 1836 A.D. when Pope Gregory XVI ordered the bifurcation of Pondicherry
Mission, the members of the Society of Jesus revived their services at Madurai as a
separate Mission. 78 In 1842 A.D. the Madurai Mission was divided into three
(South).
The French Jesuit Bishop Alexis Canoz S.J. (born on 8 Sep 1805, and died 2
Dec 1888) was the first Bishop of Tiruchirappalli.80 He had the privilege of holding
the office of bishop for forty one years (1846-1888) earning the deepest respect and
affection of those for whom he cared. For them, his death was a sort of a personal
students enrolled Jesuit institutions. Fr. Canoz felt that the only way to safeguard the
future of the church was to provide education, secular and religious on a high level.
As a result in 1844, the college of St. Joseph came into existence at Nagapatinam.81
Mgr. Faisandier took over as Bishop in 19th December 1913 and held his
office till 24 Sep 1934. He founded St. Paul’s Seminary, on 8th June 1921. He was
Diocese was established Bishop Peter Leonard was appointed as the first Bishop.
77
http://www.maduraijesuits.org/whoweare.htm.
78
Sukuna, Padarum Kodikku Pavala Vila, Diamond Jubilee Celebration Publication May 1986,
Madurai, 1986, p. 3.
79
Amalavai, Amalavai Vidiyalin Vilasam, Madurai, 2011, p. 2.
80
Kenneth Ballhatchet, Caste, Class and Catholicism in India 1789-1914, Curzon press, New York,
1998, p.125.
81
Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity...,op.cit., p. 296.
63
Faith and Justice were the two eyes of him. He led a very simple and saintly life
which showed his devotion for God and community. He worked for the bifurcation of
the diocese and effected the creation of the Madurai Diocese and became its first
the age of 78 he retired and went to live at Shenbaganur, the sacred place where he
had began his Jesuit life. He reached the feet of the Lord on 5th December 1985.
Madurai Diocese became a model diocese under the apostolic guidance of Bishop
Leonard.83
The Madurai diocese was created on January 8, 1938 by the Bull “Si inter
infidel” and its territory was carved out of the former Tiruchirappalli Diocese. At the
time of its inception, it included six out of the eight taluks and former Madurai
District, the whole of former Ramanathapuram District and five taluks of former
Tirunelveli Districts. The present territory of the Archdiocese comprises the whole of
Madurai Civil district, Viruthunagar District, Theni District and four taluks-
By the apostolic constitution “Mutant Res” dated September 19, 1953 the diocese of
84
Kottar as suffrages to Madurai. In the Madurai Archdiocese there are 39
congregations of women religious present and doing valuable services to the society
82
Stanislaus Ponnand, Archdiocese of Madurai origins and development, Nobili Publication,
Madurai, 1983, p.14.
83
Ibid., p.15.
84
Idem., p.17.
64
especially to women. The researcher has limited her study to three congregations
which rendered service during the study period (19th and early 20th century). They are
The Congregation of the Immaculate Conception, Sisters of St. Joseph of Lyons and
Panjampatty was formally erected as a new, separate parish in Madurai Mission with
from European countries were involved in pastoral work for assisting priests. Nuns
not only undertook spiritual services in their home lands but also volunteered to work
in mission countries. France was on top in sending sisters abroad for missionary work.
The parish priests responded to the call of these congregations by supporting and
encouraging them. The call of vocation was heard at Panjampatty. Four young girls
were determined to take the vow of celibacy and dedicate themselves to the service of
God.
Fr. Larmey was strongly reminded of the apostolic work of the “Beates” in his
85
Agnes, “The Heart Speaks” Platinium Jubilee Souvenir (1911-1986) of the congregation of the
Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, Madurai, 1986, p. Not given.
86
Amalavai, Amalavai Vidiyalin Vilasam, (Tamil), Madurai, 2011, p.4.
87
Sukuna, Padarum Kodikku Pavala Vila, Diamond Jubilee Celebration Publication 1986, May,
Madurai, 1986, p.10.
65
He gave Bro. Augustine the responsibility of shaping up the girls who wanted to
dedicate their virginity and purity to the service of God. 88 Bro. Augustine with a
paternal affection and care looked after them for 10 years. He named them “The Little
Children of the Mother Immaculate”. The house of the “Immaculates” was founded
89
and named “Amalorpaviyin Veedu” Visuvasam(27 yrs old),Viyagammal(25
yrs),Annammal(33 yrs) andSavariammal(33 yrs)90 the first four sisters attired in white
sari, with candles in hands dedicated themselves to the service of God on 2nd February
New Congregation
Though dedication and piety were at a higher degree with the sisters, they had
not yet taken their vows to become full-fledged nuns. Fr. Augustine’s prayers and his
efforts resulted in success. Fr. Clave SJ visited Madurai Mission in 1907 and “Little
House of the Immaculates” too.92 After having discussion with Fr. Eugine Nespoulous
and Fr. Augustine, he recommended to the Holy Father and got his blessing and
approval for the new Congregation. Fr. Augustine framed regulations for the internal
life of the new order with the help of the rules of the Society of Jesus, and the
regulations and principles related to the practical day to day life, from those of the
Congregation of Unruliness. Fr. Augustine did everything only after a careful study
and planning. Education of the poor villagers was the need of the hour. Hence, he
88
John Britto,“Mary and her Immaculate Conception”, Platinium Jubilee Souvernir..., op.cit.,
page not given.
89
Congregation of Immaculate Conception, Amalavai Kanniyar, (e.d) , Madurai, 1954, p.7.
90
Sr. Ananthi (ed), Amalavai Vidiyallil Vilasam(Tamil), Ammalavai publication, Madurai, April
2011, P. 12.
91
Sukuna, op cit., p.3.
92
Thomas Mc givern (ed), At the Hands of the Lord, Congregation of the Immaculate Conception,
1996, p.11.
66
made teacher training certificate pre requisite for the entry into the Congregation.
freedom, and unconditional acceptance, thereby reducing the external evaluation and
Panjampatty and spread their radiance over the lands of Silukkuvarpatty also.
with a view to obtain permission at the earliest from the Holy Father and to start a
Congregation. He purchased a small portion from the “Lyons” and built a house for
the Immaculate Novitiate. He chose only seven sisters out of twenty three for
noviciate training, on the basis of competence and spiritual maturity. They are
Augustine Mary, Louie Mary, Catharine Mary, Saviour Mary, Theresa Mary,
Rosammal and Yagammal.94 He took them to Madurai on 2nd July 1911 and put them
under Sr. Radugondh’s care. This solemn day is considered as the day of inauguration
of the CIC.95
Fr. Augustine fell seriously ill. The thoughts about the novices at Madurai,
their entirely new atmosphere of life troubled him much. He grew weaker mentally as
well as physically. On 21st October 1911, he felt intense heart pain. He was hopefully
93
Sr. James Ceylene, “Akkanthiranai Valarppan,” Platinium Jubilee Souvernir..., op.cit., P.not
given..
94
Sr. Thanishlas Mary, CIC, Murriyya Urravin Moovar(Tamil), Pavalla Villa Ninaivu Mallar, 1911-
1986, Amala sabai Kanniyar Publication, Madurai, p.160.
95
St. Joseph’s Lyons, Madurai Journal, Vol II, p.184.
67
waiting for his last minute.96 Though Fr. Augustine firmly believed that Mother Mary
the Immaculate would spiritually guard the sisters, he requested his nephew Ignatious
to attend their material needs including their food requirements during their two years
of novitiate. The positive response from Ignatious filled Fr. Augustine’s sinking heart
with joy. The pious, peaceful, purposeful life of Fr. Augustine came to an end after
fulfilling its objectives and reaching its goal on this earth. Fr.Augustine’s health
deteriorated. On 21st October 1911, he lost his life. By his own individual efforts,
along with regular routine religious services, he contributed to the birth and growth of
&A.D 1923-1940), Mother Bernardt (1917-1922 A.D.), Mother Sovit (A.D 1941 -
1952) were in the service, and guided the Congregation. 97 Followed by Sr.
Radugondh, Sr. Patrice took charge of the novices. She is remembered even today for
encouragement and endurance she imparted to the novices.98 To fulfil the devices of
Fr. Harmey on 27th May 1909, Annammal Vironikkam and Susai Mariammal founded
Mother Patrice, the first novice mistress, was one of the Lyon’s sisters from
France. The arrival of Mother Patrice on the scene was really felt as God sent.100As an
affectionate and responsible mother, able teacher and capable Superior, she guided
96
Sr. Alphonsa,(compiled), Fr. Thomas Mcgivern S.J (ed), At the hands of God, Congregation of
the Immaculate Conception-History (1899-2006), Congregation of the Immaculate Conception
mission house, Zambia, pp.15-16. pp. 14-15.
97
Congregation of the Sisters of Immaculate Conception, op.cit., p.33.
98
Sr. Josphine Alphonsa,CIC History Book 1899-2001, CIC generalate, Madurai, P.23.
99
Congregation of Immaculate Conception, op.cit., pp.14-15.
100
Sr. Alphonsa,(compiled), Fr. Thomas Mcgivern S.J (ed) op.cit., p.16.
68
and governed for a remarkable span of forty years. Kindness, strictness, perseverance
and enthusiasm were the medium of instruction of Sr. Patrice, which drew the novices
towards her and God. The 8th of September 1913 was a golden day in the history of
the Congregation. The first five sisters of the Congregation took their first vows on
that day. The Novice Mistress Sr. Patrice herself took the five sisters to
Panjampatty.101 It was a wonderful and joyful sight to the villagers to see a white
woman as a Rev Mother. It inspired courage and confidence among the sisters. Rt.
status of religious order. The rules and regulation framed by Fr. Augustine were
printed and given to the sisters. A sacred book of the rules and regulations revised by
Fr. James Planchard SJ was sent to Rome for approval. Sr. Augustine Mary who had
undergone novitiate training was installed as the first Superior General. A dim red
Panjampatty, Madurai was considered in every sense to be its head quarters. So the
changes in the regulations, procedures and dress were on the move.103The sisters of
the CIC were loved and considered by people as catechists of the poor and the simple,
volunteers of the backward and downtrodden villagers, mothers of the oppressed and
101
Ibid ., p15.
102
Sr. Ananthi,op.cit., p.45.
103
Sr. Alphonsa,(compiled), Fr. Thomas Mcgivern S.J (ed), op.cit., p.16.
69
neglected, who needed comfort and helping hands of Jesus Christ.104 They had a very
large scope for spiritual, social and educational services, especially in villages.
Among the four sisters, Sr. Catherine died at the age of 73 in 1944 Sr.
Saveriammal at the age of 83 died in A.D.1949, Sr. Annammal died in 1949 at the age
of 83 and Dadiris died in 1934 itself.105 Though they are no more, the services they
December A.D.1921, all the sisters were provided with a book of rules and
regulations. They were also called Blue Sisters because on 8th December 1932106 they
changed from saris to blue religious habit.107 From 18thMay 1970 onwards, the blue
dress was replaced by white dress as per the desires of Fr. Jeganath. The rules and
regulations introduced in 1922 were remodeled and new rules were implemented from
1942 by Fr .Peter Leonard. In 1927, Fr.Gomaz founded the rest house at Kosakulam
Pudur for the physically ailing sisters. Up to 1941 there were 15 branches. On 8th
January 1938, the Madurai Diocese was made as Madura Diocesan Congregation.108
The Motto of CIC is “In the Loving foot step of Mary Immaculate” and their
charism is “Preaching the good news in simplicity and love”. Their apostolate is
education, medical care, social work, evangelization, pastoral work, culture and
communication and inter-faith dialogue.109 At present there are totally 795 sisters in
104
Pavala Vizha Malar, op.cit., P.24.
105
Congregation of Immaculate Conception, op.cit., p.33.
106
St.Joseph of Lyons, Notice Historique St. Joseph’s Convent,Vol II, p.11.
107
Fr. Joseph kuyini S.J. with the permission of Bishop changed the dress code of CIC sisters. From
8-12-1932, they started to wear blue colour dress, from that time onwards the sisters of CIC were
called Madurai Blues or Blue sisters.
108
Sukuna, op.cit., pp .26-32.
109
Engravings in the Mother House of the CIC at Old Kuyavar Palayam, Madurai.
70
168 convents. 110 In 25 dioceses, both India and abroad, they are engaged in
evangelisation. In 1986, and 2011, it celebrated its Platinum and Centenary jubilees
respectively.111
i. To strengthen the faith of the Christian people, particularly the children and
priests.
vi. To promote devotion to the most Sacred Heart of Jesus and to Our Lady of
Spirituality
The Spirit of the Congregation is to live according to the spirit of the Blessed
Mother of the Immaculate Conception which expressed as: “Behold I am the hand
maid of the Lord: let it be done to me according to your word” (Luke 1:38) and
110
CIC- Catalogue-2013-2014(unpublished), p.17.
111
Sr. Thanaseeli Solomon(ed), Centenary Souvenir 1911-2011, CIC, p.1.
112
Sr. Josphine Alphonsa,(compiled), Fr. Thomas Mcgivern S.J (ed), At the Hands of the Lord,
Congregation of the Immaculate Conception, 1996, p.13.
71
committed herself totally to God; humbled herself and remained so till the end.113 The
spirituality of the members is to live “In the loving footsteps of Our Lady of the
iii. Being industrious and enthusiastic even when one is tired, dull and
disgusted.
Immaculate Sisters”. A History of The Congregation was released and was dedicated
to ‘Our Blessed Mother Immaculate’(Mother Mary) for the first time.116The age of the
Congregation was calculated from 1911 as it was formally inaugurated in that year,
113
Sr. Thanishlas Mary, CIC, Murriyya Urravin Moovar(Tamil),op.cit., pp 158-159.
114
Sr. Antony Pushpa Ranchitham(ed), Oru Thuli… Oddum Nathi, Amalavaiyyin Thanivara
Annmegam, CIC Headquarter’s publications, Madurai, op.cit, p. 40.
115
Ibid., pp.33-34. .
116
Antony Maria Lilly (ed),Amalavarpa Matha Sabai-Madurai(Tamil), killai Illangal Varalarru
(1899-2001) Madurai,2001, p.5.
72
and the Golden Jubilee was celebrated in 1961. At the age of fifty, the Congregation
looked youthful, energetic and cheerful. The decade 1953 – 1963 was an important
milestone in the history of the growth of CIC. The strength of the “Immaculates”
the “Immaculates” contributed an item to the catechetical exhibition and got the
blessings of the Pope. A quarterly journal ‘Anbukkural’ (The Voice of Love) was
brought out in 1970 to proclaim the relationship within the family of the
Leprosy Control Centre was started at Nilakottai. The sisters got trained in Allopathy,
One of the first Apostolic Congregations for women in Church is the sisters of
St.Joseph, founded by Fr. John Peter Medaille in 1650 at Le Puy, France. 119 The
missionary activities of The Sisters of St. Joseph of Lyon took shape like a miracle
when French government passed a decree in the year 1904, forbidding the religious
from teaching in schools unless they gave up their religious habits and names taken
while entering religious life. That made them to close down their educational
institutions in France.120 Sisters from all over France arrived at Mother House as their
schools were closed.121 When the door in France was closed, God opened many doors
117
Sr. Josphine Alphonsa,op.cit., P.54.
118
Antony Maria Lilly (ed), Amalavarpa Matha … op.cit., p.7.
119
Sr. Rose Kakanatt(ed), 100 years of Mission in India… St. Joseph of Lyon, 1906-2006, p.5.
120
Edward Schillebeeck, The mission of the Church, Shed and Ward, London, 1973, p.117.
121
St. Joseph of Lyons, Le Regne De Dieu (trans), Chronology of St. Joseph of Lyons in India, Dairy,
1907, p.101.
73
for them. This situation inspired them with missionary zeal and they went to different
During this period in September 1904, Fr. Heraudeau S.J, the procurator of the
Jesuits in Madurai mission, was in France searching for a congregation to work with
them in the mission.123 He visited the Mother House of the Sisters of St. Joseph of
Lyons and requested Superior General Rev. Mother Henri Xavier to accept this, and
make it known to the sisters and many who came forward for his mission. 124 Fr.
Heraudeau spoke to those sisters, placing before them the demands of the life at
Madurai (the extreme heat of the sun, scarcity of water, epidemics, serpents and other
poisonous insects). He gave a very discouraging picture but that was the reality.125 It
took almost one and a half year to make a decision. On June 8th 1906, at mid-day of
Trinity Sunday, six chosen missionaries embarked on the French ship named ‘Armand
Behic.’ They were Sr. Marie Justin Pinatel , Sr. Marie Berchmans Mary, Sr. Henri
Madaleine Bouel, Sr. St. Cyrenie Marjollet, Sr. Jeanne Augusta Camus and Sr. St.
Patrice Longin.126 Their journey had its ups and downs; for certain days they had to
endure unbearable heat and later severe sea-sickness. Besides, as they knew only
French, they were isolated in the crowds of passengers of varying cultures. In the
midst of these trials, they experienced deep joy by their anticipation of a life of
service.127 After 18 days of arduous journey, they arrived at Colombo. Again after 13
122
Sr. Rose Kakanatt(ed), op.cit., p.5.
123
St. Joesph of Lyons,Madura Journal, vol I, Madurai, p.2.
124
Sr. Maria Caecilias Dairy (unpublished), p.16.
125
Ibid., p.17.
126
St.Joseph of Lyons, Madura…, op.cit., p.3.
127
Ibid., P. 39.
74
hours of sailing, they landed on the Indian soil at Tuticorin, with great joy and
excitement.128 The Holy Cross Sisters led them to their Convent, with Soosaipillai, a
man sent by the Jesuits in Madurai, as guide. After a night’s rest, the missionaries
The diligent missionaries set their feet at Madurai on June 29, 1906 at 3 pm.
They were welcomed at the Railway Station by Fr. Pages SJ, the erstwhile minister
and procurator of St. Mary’s Madurai, the Jesuit residence.129They stayed in a convent
called the St. Joseph’s Bungalow130 and began their services. In organizing their life
and mission, the Sisters had to face inevitable difficulties as they had to learn the local
languages, get used to the climate, the food habits, the culture, etc. But courageously,
they set out on their duties. It was a herculean task for some of them to master Tamil.
However, their purpose in life and conviction won over all hardships. The Jesuit
Fathers exhibited great concern for their welfare and their mission. They arranged
More Arrivals
During the next few years, the Indian Mission kept growing due to the arrival
of new members. Sr. Alix Marie D’Ormano and Sr.Radegonde Girardeau arrived on
128
St. Joseph of Lyons, Le Regne…,op.cit., p.152.
129
Ibid., P.166.
130
St. Joseph’s Bungalow is presently called as St. Patrick’s Convent, the Mother House of the
Congregation of Immaculate Conception situated in Old Kosavapalayam Road, Madurai. Ref:
Pamphlet of St. Joseph of Lyons, p.1.
131
St.Joseph of Lyons, Madura…, op.cit., p.67.
75
November 14th of 1908 when Mother Valentine, the Assistant General visited India.132
Sr.Yvonne Bombes de Villiers and Yolande Marie joined the Indian Mission in
1910.133 In 1912 Sr. Regina Etienne and Edwige Bourgin landed at Madurai.134 The
civil authorities, appreciating the services rendered by the Sisters, granted free pass in
1909 to travel in train and to visit different villages.135 Sisters enjoyed this privilege
till 1914 and when this facility was withdrawn, they travelled by bullock-carts.
In June 1911, Madurai was again ravaged by cholera which caused the death
of 2 orphans, 2 workers and a cook in the convent.136 The sisters were much grieved
but they placed their trust in Our Lady and installed a statue of Our Lady of Lourdes
in the house which averted the danger.137 In the same year, the novitiate for the Sisters
of the Immaculate Conception was opened. The founder of the new Congregation
formation of the candidates for his Congregation. In response to him, Sr. Radegonde
took charge of this formation but she had to discontinue it very soon, due to her ill
health. Sr. Patrice continued as their novice mistress for forty years.138 Thus, a new
dimension was added to the mission of the Sisters of St. Joseph in India.139 [
132
St.Joseph of Lyons, Madura…,vol II, Madurai,p.59.
133
St.Joseph of Lyons, Notice Historique of St. Joseph’s Convent, vol I, Chronology of St. Joseph of
Lyons in India, Madurai, p.6.
134
St.Joseph of Lyons. Madura…, vol II, op.cit., p.210.
135
Sr. Rose Kakanatt(ed), op.cit., p.9.
136
St.Joseph of Lyons. Madura…, vol II, op.cit., p.185.
137
Le Regne De Dieu, op.cit., p.273.
138
Sr. Alphonsa,(compiled), Fr. Thomas Mcgivern S.J (ed), op.cit., p.16.
139
St.Joseph of Lyons. Madura…, vol II, op.cit., p. 195.
76
On 1st January 1920 three new members Sr. Joseph Albert Badole, Sr. Jeanne
d’ Arc Ferrand and Sr. Rosalie Castenet were added.140 After a year, on March 1st
1921, two more arrived, Sr. Paul Theoleyre and St. Remi Bernard. 141 In 1924
November 6th, three missionaries came to India with Mother Marie Benedicte the
Assistant General; they were Sr. Anne Placidie Landy, Sr. Henri Madeleine and Sr.
Rose Benedicte Benoit.142 Sr. Rose Benedicte was the first American missionary to
India and she started teaching in Dhanappa School immediately. In November 1925,
Seven Dolors)
The Servite order is one of the oldest religious communities in the western
Church. It came into being in 1233 at Florence, Italy when a band of Florentines
decided to group together to form a fraternity under Mary’s aegis, which would
attempt to live a more deep Christian life of prayer. The indigenous congregation of
Servites was founded by five Tamil women with their earnest efforts on 8th December
144
1854, as the congregation of our Lady of Seven Dolors at Melapudur,
Tiruchirappalli and under the guidance of the Jesuit missionaries, particularly Father
Peter Mecathi and Mgr. Alexis Canoz. They rendered their service to the humanity by
140
St.Joseph of Lyons, Notice Historique St. Joseph’s Convent,vol I, op.cit., p.7.
141
St. Joseph of Lyons, Petit Historique De La Communaute De Hospital De Government(trans),
Chronology of St. Joseph of Lyons in India, Madurai, 1916-1946, p. 8.
142
Notice Historique St. Joseph’s Convent,op.cit., p.8.
143
Petit Historique De La Communaute De Hospital De Government, op.cit., p.50.
144
Peregrine of Servites, Golden Jubilee Souvenir, 1927-1977, Trichy, p.38.
77
Liberating Involvement with the powerless in the power of Resurrection. 145 Their
order is Second order of Servants of Mary. Patron is Mother of Sorrows. 146 This
Servites had extended their services to places like Australia, Philippines, Italy, Burma,
and North India like Delhi, Kolkota, Orissa, Bhopal, Maharastra and South India like
Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Bangalore. Servite Provinces are Alexis Province,
Province, and Maria Mandal and under generalate. Generalate is located in Chennai.
Approval Rules through constitution and directives. Servites were approved in the
year 1876.147
The Servite Sisters wanted to organise small gatherings and educate them. One
such attempt was in formation of sodality to bring women together. Soon many girls
too joined the sodality. These women gathered for group prayers and offered
themselves to Mother Virgin Mary. They gathered together every evening with pious
widows in private houses for prayer. The sodality was a social gathering where they
discussed the problem faced and prayer united them. Nearly 1000s of children
gathered for Sunday catechism. An active woman of the sodality was Maria Susai
Natchatiram. A very notable feature of this congregation was that an Indian priest
145
Ibid., p.3.
146
Seven Dolors pay more devotion to the seven sorrows of Our Lady that happened in her life. They
are the prophecy of Simeon (St. Luke 2: 34, 35), the flight into Egypt (St. Matthew 2:13-14), the
loss of the Child Jesus in the temple (St. Luke 3: 43-45), the meeting of Jesus and Mary on the Way
of the Cross, the Crucifixion, the taking down of the Body of Jesus from the Cross and the burial of
Jesus.
147
Sr.Corona Mary, Directives…, op.cit., p.4.
78
named Antony Pereira was in charge of it. He was replaced by Fr. Mecathi.148It was
this experience of Mecathi that helped him in organising the sodality for women.
Formation of Congregation
would start a refugee home for the widows. Mean time, the young Christian women
also wanted the Jesuits to establish a home exclusively for them. Due to financial
problems Alexis Canoz had to postpone it later. 149 The Mission had to face two
II. To identify a suitable person who would train and form them. They sought
due to their helpless state and the misery of young widows there. They divided the
plan of gathering them in a big house near the present Cathedral at Tiruchirappalli and
give them a new orientation in living for the Kingdom of God so as to expose them to
Fr. Mecathi had a fervent devotion for “Our Lady of Dolors”, a devotion much
valued by the Christians. The religious Father Mecathi had inherited the name from
their early Father who had put them under her patron age. Maria Susai Natchathiram
148
Servites Diary, File No 1, Generalate, Trichirappalli, 1992, p.173.
149
Letter from Alexis Canoz to Fr. H. Pouget, France, 10 June 1858. Ref: The Advent: Catholic
Encyclopedia, (Online).
150
Memories of Alexis Canoz, dated 9 May1857 (n.p).
http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bcanoz.html/
79
as superior, in 1859 on the feast day of Our Lady of Seven Dolors, the sisters
pronounced their vows. The Servants of Mary formerly called “Sisters of Seven
Dolors” 151 was founded at Tiruchirappalli in 1854. 152 The members of this order
patron saint.153 They came to Madurai in 1882. They render educational, medical and
social service besides the spiritual service in Madurai Archdiocese. They have a
simple mission target of liberating women and their development. So they concentrate
more on social work. They were popularly known as “Friends of Servants of Mary.”
Thus, in their own way, Servite sisters are doing their best to improve the condition of
The Indian Sisters were treated as second rate citizens in their own land. The
Reparatrice155 were supposed to teach the Sisters of Seven Dolors all the duties of
religious life and all the things needed to direct them to conduct successful school for
girls. This hope had not been fulfilled and not developed so people could understand
it. It was considered as useless and people never thought about it in that line. The
sisters of Seven Dolors were treated as servants. As in those days, both French and the
English were ruling over India. The European Sisters too wanted to control the Indian
151
Seven Dolors pay more devotion to the Seven Sorrows of Our Lady which made them known as
Seven Dolors.
152
Corona Mary,Vallin Vetri(Tamil), Servite publications, Tiruchirappalli, 1977,p.23.
153
The Servites Religious Order, Italy,1905, p.11.
154
Corona Mary. op.cit., p.24.
155
Reparatrice are the religious sisters who came from France to train Indian sisters.
80
Sisters. 156 But the Vellalars who had been considered superior caste of the Tamil
Society could not tolerate the French Sisters who sent away many local sisters to their
homes without proper reason. Even the professed sisters who lived long in the
The converts at the Tiruchirappalli town were dissatisfied with the attitude of
the French Sisters. So the Seven Dolors was separated from the Reparatrice. But they
did not have Church organised constitution. The Dolors started the religious life at
Tiruchirappalli. 157 Sr. Maria became the first superior General in 1876. She was
elected by twenty one professed Sisters. It was the first general election in the Dolors
Congregation.158
The congregation of St. Anne was started on 2nd February 1858 with five
widows at Tiruchirappalli. The founder and the first mother was Annammal who was
a young widow. During that time in Tamil Nadu the condition of widows were very
pathetic. They were made to wallow in the mire of misery like maggots. In order to
give a meaning to their life, this convent was started.159 In course of time it became a
convent for spinsters. Their motto is “Witness unto Dedication and Simplicity.”160 In
1910, they first came to Rayappanpatti and established middle school, orphanage,
hostel, nursery school, school of typing, tailoring and dispensary. Then they started a
156
Besse Leon, Le Mission Reparetrice Madure, Trichirappalli, 1926, p.202.
157
Personal interview with Sr. Carona Mary on 7.10.2014.
158
Sr.Corona Mary, op.cit., pp.52-53.
159
St.Anne sister, Thelintha Neeruttu(Tamil), St. Anne’s Publications, Tirchirappally,1998, pp.70-78.
160
Silver Jubilee Souvenir (1982-2007), Mariya Province of Sisters of St. Anne, Trichy, p.1.
81
liturgical service. They came to Madurai on 16th September 1982, 161 and their
service centre which is located near Race Course Ground, Madurai. It was founded by
Dr. Manuel A. Thangaraj and his wife Mary Thangaraj in 1970 with the aim to serve
mentally challenged children. When their vision of Anbaham was complete, and
owing to advancing age, the founders found it necessary to obtain assistance in the
day to day running of Anbaham. After long consideration, they approached the Sisters
disabled. The sisters agreed to take over the management of the Institution under the
direction of the “Anbaham Governing Council”. Ever since they took over in 1987, it
Michael Ansaldo S.J in 1775. Their mission in India was fighting for the
empowerment of the dalits (suppressed section), who are marginalised in the society
due to Varna system.162In Palanganatham at Madurai they started a house with four
sisters in 1968 to do evangelical work and render social service. They run a middle
school also. Through their educational ministry, social work and parish work, they do
161
Ibid., p.26.
162
Varna System- Racial Factor or Varna or colour was the original basis of the caste system. The
caste Hindus were grouped as varnas and the outcastes were held as avarnas (colourless).
163
Gonzaga Congregation, History of Gonzaga Congregation, St. Alosius Gonzaga Congregation
Generalate, Pondicherry, 2000, p.22.
82
Maduari in 1968 and later at Moonrumavadi near Kosakulam Pudur. They run a
hospital with all modern equipments. Sisters of this Congregation serve as nurses and
specialised doctors are brought from outside in 1986, Elisa Bondolfi Gregori (EBG)
Matriculation School was started to cater to the need of the local society in
founded in the year 1844 in Pondicherry. The very inception of this congregation
aimed at liberating the illiterate womenfolk from various types of atrocities and social
injustices. The sisters of this Congregation are deeply committed to their motto, "In
the experience of God towards liberation of Women". Though the congregation runs a
various parts of India and abroad, education has been their strongest weapon to
achieve the above said motto. The sisters have rendered their great service for over a
century to the oppressed and the marginalised. In the field of education the
congregation has got Higher Secondary Schools, High Schools, Middle and Primary
Schools. The sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary have their Generalate in
164
Interview with Rev Sr. Prisca of St Mary of Leuca convent, Moonrumavadi, Madurai.
83
matriculation school by name Arul Malar and now it’s one of the best Hr. Sec.
Schools in Madurai.165
1925. They started a crèche and a dispensary there in 1936. They also started a Tamil
Medium School for girls and upgraded it to higher secondary School in 1984. This is
the first educational institution for girls in Kodaikkanal. They also have social work
centre called Natpagam (House of Friendship). They also run Sacred Heart Higher
the fort St George in AD 1639 by the British and the Danish settlement founded at
Missionary activities. But they had no intention towards religious propagation and
were specific in improving their lucrative income through trade and commerce.167
Protestants had been in existence since the early sixteenth century, but were slow to
recognise any obligation to preach the gospel to non Christians. At this time few men
did begin to be aware of this obligation. In England the Society for the Promoting
Christian Knowledge (SPCK) 168 was formed by some members of the Church of
165
Directory of Madurai Archdiocese, Madurai, 1987, pp.135-136.
166
V.M. Ganapragasam op.cit., p..225.
167
David Immanuel, Reformed Church in American Missionaries in South India, (1838-1939),
Asian Trading Corporation, Bangalore, 1986, p.23.
168
Raju Kalidos, op.cit., p243.
84
England in 1698, with the objective of not only maintaining charity schools and
distributing Bible and other Christian literature in England and Wales, but also in
promoting Christian knowledge both at home and in other parts of the World. In 1701,
the Society for the Propagation of Gospel in foreign parts was founded169. During the
emergence of modern period in Asia, Protestant Christianity had its way in south
India.170
India. Ziegenbalg (1682-1719) and Plutschau, two godly generals were the first
Lutheran to preach the Gospel in the Danish possessions in India, and they arrived at
Tranquebar on 9th July 1706 as royal missionaries at the personal expense of the
king.172 Ziegenbalg was born in Pulsnitz, Saxony, (Germany) on 10th July 1682, he
was born to a poor but devout Christian parents.173 He studied at the University of
Halle, the centre for Pietistic movement in the Lutheran Church. He responded to an
appeal from the King of Denmark for missionaries, and in September 1706 he and
Heinrich Pluetshau arrived at Tranquebar on the south-eastern coast of India, the first
169
C.B. Firth, op.cit., pp.130-131.
170
D.D. Kosambi, Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India, Vikas Publications, Bombay, 1970, pp.
1-3.
171
John Rutherfurd, Missionaries Pioneers in India, Edinburgh Publishers, Edinburgh, 1896, p.2.
172
C.B. Firth, op.cit., p. 131.
173
Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholom%C3%A4us_Ziegenbalg.
174
James E. Kiefer, Biographical sketches of Memorable Christians of the Past, Lutheran Calander,
23 Feb 1914, P.1.
85
was started on 22 March 1707.176 In August 1707, a small mission church was built.
The first Tamil converts, nine in number, were baptised in the following month.177
He set up a printing press, and published studies of the Tamil language and of Indian
religion and culture. His translation of the New Testament into Tamil in 1715, and the
church building that he and his associates constructed in 1718, are still in use today.
He thus became a pioneer in the Western study of South Indian culture, society, and
religion.178 With him, a new epoch in the history of the Christian mission in Tamil
Nadu had begun. His close co-operation with the Society for the Propagation of
Christian Knowledge (an Anglican group) was an early exercise of harmony between
Christian communities in the mission field.179 He was called the father of Modern
175
Francke established first series of school at Halle in 1695. These schools were originally a
charitable institution for the children of beggars and similarly destitute parents. Ref : James van
Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in
Prussia and Austria, Cambridge University Press, 1988,UK, p.33.
176
Hudson, Protestant Origins in India: Tamil Evangelical Christians, 1706-1835, William B.
Eerdmans , Massachusetts, 2000, pp. 6-9.
177
C.B Firth, op cit., p.133.
178
Gerald H. Anderson, Pioneer German missionary in South India, History of Missiology, Boston
University,(online book), http://www.bu.edu/missiology/missionary-biography/w-x-y-
z/ziegenbalg-bartholomaus-1682-1719/
179
James E. Kiefer, op.cit., p.2.
180
P. Daniel Jeyaraj, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, the Father of Modern Protestant Mission: An
Indian Assessment, ISPCK, New Delhi, 2006, p.52
181
John Rutherfurd, op.cit., p.1.
86
Schultze, Kiernader, Gericke, Schwarkz and others. Grundle and Schulize translated
the scriptures into Tamil and completed the first vernacular Bible in India in the year
A.D. 1727 Kiernander was the first protestant missionary from Sweden who worked
at Cuddalore and later at Bengal. Fabricius gave the Tamils their first hymn book.182
Ziegenbalg died in 1719 at the age of thirty six. He was buried in the New Jerusalem
completed.183
Tiruchirappalli’. Firth says, “Of all missionaries connected with the Tranquebar
He arrived in South India on 16th July 1750 and for nearly half a century
worked unceasingly in these districts until his death in 1798.185 He was sent out by the
(SPCK). Schwartz was a man of unusual ability. 186 The young Schwartz worked
182
P. Daniel Jeyaraj, A German Exploration of Indian Society: Ziegenbalg’s ‘Malabarian
Heathenism’, ISPCK, New Delhi, 2006, pp. 34–41.
183
Julius Richter , op.cit., p.163.
184
C.B. Firth, op.cit., P 140.
185
J Mallika Punniyavathi, op.cit., p. 53
186
Gospel for Asia Missions journal, Christian Frederick Schwartz (1726-1798), Early Protestant
Missionary to India, 5/19/2000.
87
in Halle.187 He and his "helpers" then became responsible for all new mission work
south of the Kaveri River. This task involved caring for congregations in Tanjore,
kept at Tanjore, Tiruchirappalli and Tirunelveli. His earnings as the Chaplain were all
spent on establishing schools for orphans and helpless children. Major A. Preston, the
Commander of forces helped Schwartz a big deal in his ministry for the poor and
needy.189
sepoys and soldiers was so appreciated, he was given an award of nine hundred
pagodas (gold currency, equivalent to about 360pounds) from the Nawab of the
Carnatic (the Arcot prince whose palace in Tiruchirappalli was then under company
"protection"). 190 These funds were useful for building new schools, including a
government, still lay before him. His scheme for a modern, state-subsidized "public"
system of schools in India began with the Rajahs of Tanjore, Shivaganga, and
187
Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the West, Grand
Rapids,Mich,Eerdmans, 2003, pp.15–22
188
Jaques and Wright, Remains of the Rev. C.F. Schwarz Missionary in India, London, 1820, p.6.
189
Ibid., p.4.
190
Hendry and Owen Chadwick (ed), Oxford History of the Christian Church, Christianity in
India- from the beginning to the present, Oxford University press, Oxford, 2008, p.154.
191
Farlex, The legacy of Christian Friedrich Schwartz, Periodicals, International Bulletin of
Missionary Research , the free Library, July 1, 1999, p.2.
88
Ramnad. High schools that he established so impressed the East India Company's
residents at Tanjore that the company's directors in London and its government at Fort
St. George, in Madras, were persuaded to subsidize them, even though none of these
schools lay within company territory.192An affluent Brahmin widow, residing with an
Schwartz for help. In 1778, having come to Tirunelveli to see for himself, he baptized
her, and christened her Clarinda.193 She later made a personal endowment to pay for
sent Satyanathan Pillai, one of his most gifted "helpers," to serve as a permanent
Schwartz died on 13 February, 1798. Heber later wrote, “He was one of the
most active and fearless, as he was one of the most successful missionaries since the
Apostles.”195
This mission stepped into the shoes of the Tranquebar Mission of the
Lutherans of Europe and America in the great missionary enterprise in India. For
192
Wm. H Price A.M, The life and labors of the Rev. Christian Frederick Schwartz: The great
Lutheran Missionary to India, Lutheran Book Concern, January 1, 1895, p.50.
193
A. Madhaviah, Clarinda:A Historical Novel, Tirunelveli Nambar Vattam, 1915; 2nd edn.1992,
p.47.
194
Jaques and Wright, op.cit., p.7.
195
Thomas Robinson, The Last Days of Bishop Heber, Vepery Mission Press, Madras, 1829, p.55.
89
seventeen years they operated out of Dresden as a branch of the Basel Society.
Leipzig continued to work in the south among the Tamils. They basically carried on
the work begun by Ziegenbalg and Pluetschau and worked with other societies also.
Today, the Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church (TELC) traces their history back
On 14th January, 1919, the Tamil Lutheran congregations that had been tended
by Swedish and German missionaries with the assistance of Indian pastors formed the
Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church. Churches of the TELC are the oldest Lutheran
for the Lutheran churches among the Tamils in the eighteenth century.197The first
Indian minister to be ordained was Aaron way back in 1730. The Leipzig Evangelical
Lutheran Mission (LELM) continued the mission work of the Tranquebar mission
when the Danish East India Company sold its property to the British East India
Company in 1845.198 Karl Graul (1814–1864), LELM’s first director and a famous
exponent of the concept of Volkskirche, visited India during 1849 and 1853,
strengthening the local churches. Karl Graul opposed the tendency among the
churches connected with English missions in tolerating caste system in the church,
196
Dave Koenig, Lutherans in History of India 1909-2009, (online),
http://lutheranmissions.org/history/history-of-lutherans-in-india-1909-2009/
197
Arno E Lehmann, Lutz(trans), It Began in Tranquebar: The Story of the Tranquebar Mission
and the Beginning of Protestant Christianity in India Published to Celebrate the 250th
Anniversary of the Landing of the Protestant Missionaries at Tranquebar in 1706, Christian
Literature Society, Madras, 1956,p.112.
198
P.Daniel Jeyaraj, “Lutheran Churches in Eighteenth-Century India,” Lutheran Quarterly, 17,
2003, p.90.
90
and he saw caste as a social system that gave a sense of dignity and belonging.199 This
attitude towards caste led to sever his connection with LELM and start Danish
constitution for an independent Tamil Lutheran Church in the second half of the
role right from the days of the arrival of German missionaries in 1706.
among the Tamils. They began to assist LELM starting in 1848. In 1874 the Church
of Sweden Mission assumed responsibility for a share of a Tamil field and in the year
1901 a separate Swedish diocese was established in India.201 In 1919 the Church was
formally established adopting Episcopal form of polity. 202 It had many illustrious
missionaries.
preaching the gospel and he landed at the shores of Cuddalore of Tamil Nadu in India
on 8th August 1740 AD.203 He was the first Swedish Missionary to come to India. He
turned his attention to Bengal, on 29th September 1758, after he had arrived at
199
Ibid., p.91.
200
Sunder Singh, “The Federation of Evangelical Lutheran Church in India: A Study of its
Relationship to the Movements for the Lutheran Unity, with Special Reference to Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh,” M.Th. Thesis, Senate of Serampore College 1992, p.42.
201
E.Theodore Bachman and Mercia Brenne Bachmann, Lutheran Churches in the
World: A Handbook, Augsburg, Minneapolis, 1989, p.217.
202
Julius Bodensieck (ed), The Encyclopedia of the Lutheren Church, Auguburg Publishing House,
Minneapolls, 1965, p.117.
203
M. Wilkinson, “Sketches of Christianity in North India”, Seeley Londen, 1786,p.31
91
Calcutta.204 Another missionary of the Church of Sweden mission was Carol Jacob
Sweden and came to India on 17th November 1869, when missionary Rev. C.T.
Kremmer was the pastor at Chennai. 205 Rev. C.J. Sandegren stayed with him and
served the church. He married Miss Theodara Kremmer, the daughter of Rev. C.T.
Kremmer. This marriage gained significance since it helped the church of Sweden
Mission and Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission to work together. Later Sandegren
Coimbatore, Madurai, Virudunagar and Sirkali. Between 1901 and 1915 he was the
1858 and studied at Uppsala. He was ordained on 12th June 1889.207 He reached India
Sweden Mission Council in India and he occupied the post from 1916 to 1921.208 The
Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church was constituted in the year 1919 with the native
Tamil Pastorates. The first Synod of the newly constituted Church of TELC was held
in 1919. Dr. Rev. Ernst Heuman of CSM was elected the first Bishop of the Tamil
204
Ibid., p.4.
205
J.S.Ponniah, An Enquiry in to the Economic and Social Problems of the Christian Community
of Madura, Ramnad and Tirunelveli Districts, Madurai, 1938, p.26.
206
J. Mallika Punniyavathi, op.cit., p.55.
207
Richard Fox Young (ed), India and the Indianness of Christianity: Essays on Understanding-
Historical, Theological and Biological-in honor of Robert Eric Frykenberg, Wm,B. publishing
house, U.K, 2009, pp.207-208.
208
Robert Eric Frykenberg, (ed), Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural
Communication since 1500, Wm,B. publishing house, U.K, 2008,p.282.
92
Evangelical Lutheran Church and with the name “The Bishop of Tranquebar”, he
Rev. David Heuman Bexell was born at Barnar in Sweden on 24th August
1861, studied at Lund and Leipzig, and later he was ordained in the year 1887. He
reached India on 30th August 1887. Motivated by the famous Sweden Church
missionaries Peter Fjellstedt and C.A. Quchterlong, he came to India as the Swedish
Church Missionary. Between 1912 and 1916, he served as the President of the Church
of Sweden Mission.210 He was elected as the second Bishop of TELC and served from
in 1933as English -Tamil dictionary, known as Tranquebar Dictionary, which was his
lifetime work. It greatly facilitated for mutual understanding between the Western and
Coimbatore.211
209
Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church.
210
Gurukul Lutheran Theological College, http://www.gltc.edu/index.php/9-overview.
211
Religious Tract Society, The Missionary year book for 1889- Containing Historical and
Statistical accounts of the principal Missionary Societies, 1932, London, p. 298.
212
Dr. Fredrick Kulugburg, The Journal of the Christian Medical Association of India, Volume:
38, Christ Medical Association India, Sep 1963.
93
Ramnad District) called “The Swedish Mission Hospital”.213Sister Sonja Person, Dr.
Ysander, Dr. Sendol, Dr. Ericleson, Dr. Wallden and a group of other missionaries
from Sweden who served in this noble ministry developed this hospital with all
facilities and the CSM Hospital became one of the best hospitals in Tamil Nadu.214 A
Home for blind was started in 1971 by Sister Sonja Person. She served two terms
during 1944 - 1959 and 1963 - 1983 in Tirupattur. A school for blind children was
started in 1972 by Sister Sonja and it got upgraded as a Middle school in 1979. Miss.
Brigitta Enval served as the Manager of the School till 2007. In 1926, a nursing
Sweden Mission was called Paul Apostle because he sacrificed and devoted his whole
life to the poor people of Tamil Nadu. Between 1915 and 1925, he served at various
1920, conflict between the police and the Kallar community began in the same place.
British Government notified the Kallar community as a criminal tribe. 217 In this
critical situation, Rev. Paul Sandegren entered into the areas and helped them. After
this incident, most of them changed their attitudes and behaviors. His services to this
particular community were wonderful. Rev. Paul Sandegren built a beautiful church at
Usilampatti. The four pillars that stand outside this church represent the four gospel
213
http://ashokism.blogspot.in/2006/06/swedish-mission-hospital-campus-at.html.
214
Proceedings of the CSM Indian Missionaries conference 14-16.2.1932. (unpublished).
215
Religious Tract Society, op.cit., p.299.
216
J. Mallika Punniyavathi, op.cit., P.56.
217
Criminal Tribe Act (CTA), an All India Act, was originally meant to control tribes which made
crime a tribal profession and amongst whom there was no sense that crime was a wrong or
undesirable thing, thus proving to be addicts to the systematic commission of non-bailable offences.
Originally passed in 1871, it was extended to the Madras presidency with certain amendments as
Act III of 1911 on the basis of the recommendations of the Indian Police Commission appointed in
1902-03.
94
workers and the twelve pillars of the Holy Redeemer’s Lutheran Church at the rear
side of Union Christian Higher secondary school, Madurai, represent the twelve
India experienced many social evils in the society such as sati, female
and property rights to women. In this situation, Esther Peterson rendered priceless
missionary in 1938. She was basically a teacher and a pastor. She had closely
associated herself in educating women.220 The establishment of the Girl’s High school
contributions of Nordmark. 221 During the period of World Wars, the German
missionaries could not serve in India because Germany was against the British. Evan
at this critical juncture, Swedish Missionaries carried out the mission works with
in Tamil Nadu.223
218
The Forty Ninth Report of the Basel German Evangelical Missionary Society in South
Western India for 1888, The Basel Mission Press, Mangalore, 1889.
219
Ibid., p.58.
220
Flora Gnanamanickam, “My Experiences at Usilampatti,” Arunodhayam (Tamil), a Christian
Journal, Christmas Issue, January 1958, p. 11.
221
Refer chapter II for more details.
222
J.S. Ponniah, op. cit., p. 27.
223
J. Mallika Punniyavathi, op cit., p57.
95
led to the formation of new churches and strong missionary societies in the United
(ABCFM), the first mission sending organisation in North America was established in
June 1810, under the Charter, granted by the Massachusetts General Court.226This
came into existence largely through the appeal of five young men227 who held the
All of them had finished their training at Andovar Theological Seminary 229 and
the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions231 (ABCFM) with its
224
Jonathan Edwards was an extraordinary writer. By many estimates, he was the most acute early
American philosopher and the most brilliant of all American theologians. At least three of his many
works. viz: Religious Affections, Freedom of the Will, and The Nature of True Virtue stand as
masterpieces in the larger history of Christian literature. George M. Marsden, Jonathan Edwards-
A Life, Yale University Press, New Haven, London, 1939, p.1.
225
Annual Report of the American Madura Mission, un.pub., 1899, P.14.
226
Bengt Sundkler, Church of South India, the movement towards union, 1900-1947, London,
1965, P.20.
227
Founders of ABCFM : Mr. Adoniram Judson, Mr.Samuel Nott, Mr. Samuel J.Mills, Mr. Samuel
Newell and Rev.Luther Rice , (ref) Rufus Anderson, Memorial Volume of the First Fifty Years of
ABCFM, ABCFM Board, Massachusetts,1863,p.39.
228
Hay Stack was a place where the American Reformist Church Missionaries used to meet for
discussions and to decide on the mission actions for the future.
229
Andover Theological Seminary is located in Newton, Massachusetts and is the oldest graduate
school of theology in the United States.
230
The American College Calendar, Madurai, 1983-1984, P.13.
231
The Religious Trust Society, The Missionary year Book for 1889, containing historical and
statistical account of the principal Protestant Missionary Societies, London, p. 311.
232
Melen Voglesan Banninga, A Sketch of the life work of John J.Banninga in Pasumalai, South
India, 1910-1942, California, 1961 (No page number given).
96
Madurai area to work with churches and institutions.234 They made efforts aiming at
social change especially through the social upliftment of the depressed classes,
education of the masses and medical services. They strongly felt the prevalence of
place. It remained the cradle of Tamil literature, learning and culture.235 When the
American missionaries entered Madurai, they found the schools for Brahmin students
patronised by the kings of Vijaya Nagar Empire and Madurai had already
degenerated. 236 The AMM missionary Mr. Spaulding landed at Devipatnam near
Ramnad on 10th January 1834.237 Later he made a detour through Tirunelveli as well
233
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was the first foreign mission
sending agency in North America. It sent its first missionaries in 1812 to India. Upon reaching India
and being denied entry, some in the group went to other locations in the area. Samuel and his wife
Harriet Newell tried to start a station outside of British territory on the Isle of France, but Harriet
soon died during childbirth. When Samuel tried to re-enter India, he was diverted to Ceylon where
he was the initial missionary of the ABCFM Ceylon mission. The first ABCFM missionaries to
Madurai came from this Ceylon mission. Samuel and Roxana Nott and Gordon Hall found went to
Bombay where they started covert mission work. Adoniram and Ann Judson and Luther Rice had
decided to become Baptists during the voyage to the East and soon resigned from the service of the
ABCFM. Eventually the Judsons made their way to Serampore to work with the Baptist mission.
Rice returned to the United States to solicit aid for the establishment and maintenance of a Baptist
Mission in India. Ref: Oliver Wendell Elsbree, The Rise of the Missionary Spirit in America
1790-1815 ,The Williamsport Printing and Binding Col. Williamsport,1928, pp.114-118.
234
Annual Report, ABCFM, 175th year, New York, 1936, P.1
235
Dr.B.Sobhanan, A History of Christian Mission in South Kerala Historical Society,
Thiruvanathapuram, 1996, P.77.
236
J.S.Chandler, Seventy-five years in the Madura Mission : a history of the mission in South
India under the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., American Madura Mission,Madras,1910,p.29.
237
The American Missionaries who went to Madurai were the Rev. Levi Spaulding, the Rev. William
and Mrs. Lucy Brownell Todd, Rev. Henry Hoisington, Francis Asbury, Edward Warren I and
Edward Warren II, from Ceylon, were also part of the original group.
97
as Travancore and reached Madurai on 8th February. 238 The following Sunday, he
new missionary station at Madurai, which was a popular city of ancient Kings and the
seat of Brahminical influence in Tamil Nadu, where the Roman Catholics had already
laboured and gained many converts. The finding that no permanent Protestant
Missionary labour had been bestowed in Madurai till then, made Spaulding spearhead
successfully.239After a long and deep study, Madurai was selected as the most suitable
place for founding a Mission and it became the head quarters of the American Madura
Mission later.240
Then Spaulding returned to Jaffna and wrote from there to his Mission head
quarters about his desire and feasibility to start a new missionary station in such a
popular district, the city of the ancient Pandyas.241 When the Mission was opened, the
missionaries had to make the journey to India in ships coming around South Africa, a
journey which took nearly three to four months.242There were no Railways in India
and the journey from Madras to Madurai had to be made in bullock carts which took
238
The beginning of the AMM corresponded directly with the 1833 act of the British Parliament
establishing a new charter for the East India Company. In the past, the East India Company had
discouraged mission because of the fear of upsetting people and discouraging trade. This 1833
Charter now permitted and encouraged the Company to extend their realm of influence in India
from commercial transactions to promoting also the moral and educational "civilization" of India.
This gave American missionaries permission to legally enter India and establish institutions. Ref:
James Hough, The History of Christianity in India from the Commencement of the Christian
Era Hatchard & Son. Nosbet and Co., London,1865, p.193; quoted in B. Sobhanan. "The
American Madura Mission" in A History of the Christian Missions in South India, ed.
Historical Society, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 1996,p.140.
239
J.S.Chandler, op.cit., p.36.
240
J.S.Chandler, American Madura Mission, Report, Vol, I 1834-1884, Madurai, 1886. p.7.
241
Majumdar, An Advanced History of India, T.K. Sengupta, Mac Millan Indian Press, Madras 1979,
p.23.
242
Ibid.,p.118
98
two weeks at least. 243 On July 31st, 1834, three American missionaries landed at
Madurai. They were Rev. and Mrs. Williams Todd, and Rev. Hendry Hosington.244
Todd and Hosington appointed themselves mutually as officers of the Mission. Todd
became the President and Treasurer and Hosington acted as the Secretary and Auditor
The aim of the American missionaries was to proselytize the Gospel, plant
churches and nurture them to Christian maturity. They carried their objectives with
the help of preachers, catechists, school teachers, press and doctors. Though they
came with the prime motive of ‘Christianizing’ the natives, the means and modes
246
adopted by them to achieve their goal needed special reference. Their
social aspects. For several years, the policy of the mission was to introduce
knowledge of Christianity among the people by means of free schools.247 Mrs. Lucy
Todd was not lucky in realising her dream of opening a school for girls because of her
premature death on 11th September, 1835, at the age of 35. On February 16, of the
same year, other reinforcement came to Madurai. Among them were Mrs. Eckard,
Mrs. Lawrence, Mrs. Poor and Mrs. Hall. Like Mrs. Todd they had come from Ceylon
where years of labour and hardship had already undermined their health.248
243
Annual Report of the American Madura Mission, 1900, p.160.
244
W. Francis., op.cit., pp 77-78.
245
J.S.Chandler, Seventy-five years..., op.cit., p.39.
246
B. Sobhanan, op.cit., p.144.
247
W.Francis. op.cit., p 78.
248
Capron Hall School Magazine, 1950, p.15.
99
Mrs and Mr Todd and three native assistants were at work in the beginning of
1835. They had to face several difficulties posed in the new mission field. They
cleared the ground for foundations of future mission work. 249 Mr. Eckard was
appointed the secretary of the mission. Their aim is to establish far-reaching school
system in and around Madurai as early as possible.250 They learnt Tamil language,
spending much of their time, and began to preach in Tamil which helped them to
reach the natives. The methods and contents of their mission efforts were based on
their own cultural background. As they understood that ‘a claim on Tamil is a claim
on the hearts of the natives’, they attached importance to vernacular schools. Daniel
Poor was the instrument for foundation of Mission schools in Madurai. He arrived on
18th of October 1835 and lost no time in making enquiries and getting information. In
1836 there were 37 schools in Madurai and the villages around it. They were
increased to 59 in 1837. In three years, since the commencement of the mission, its
and to Sivaganga in 1839.252The boarding schools which were responsible for the
success of A.M.M. helped in moulding the character and life style of the students.
In this period thrust was on rural areas. The neutral religious policy of the
249
J.S.Chandler, Seventy-five years..., op.cit., p.40.
250
The missionary year Book for 1889, op.cit., pp. 314-315.
251
Ibid., p.47
252
Idem., p.51
100
the people realised the importance of mission schools which fetched them jobs, they
widows and orphans, Madura Widows’ Aid Society was established to provide
pecuniary aids to them. They openly challenged certain social evils and obtained
success in putting an end to it. 253 Missionaries overlooked the early difficulties
oflanguage, climate, food habits, culture, etc., during this period and prepared
themselves to undergo any task that had confronted them. Wives of the missionaries
and single women missionaries visited homes, met the women and worked for their
When Indian National Congress gained popularity, the Christians joined it and
the missionaries even sympathised with the movement. The emphasis too shifted from
the regeneration of the individual to that society through the gospel. Their efforts
resulted in the mass movements of depressed classes into Christianity. Even during
diversify their activities on all fronts-medical, educational and social works. They laid
more emphasis on the rural population for achieving the meaningful life for them. In
fact their techniques to win over the different categories through self respect and self
253
F.E. Jeffery, The Eighty First Annual Report of the AMM-1915, Methodist Publishing House,
Madras, 1916, P.59.
254
F.E. Jeffery, The Sixty Fourth Annual Report of the AMM-1898, A.M. Mission Press, Pasumalai,
1899, p. 42.
101
(1910-1924)
The front line leaders of the mission noticed the mental attitude of people
under slavery and servitude particularly due to the control of the British rule. They
foresaw the danger of the educated elite alienating themselves from the agricultural
labourers and the emergence of gulf between Brahmins and non-Brahmins. The world
war brought the lives of people to a calamitous level and caused miseries to the
missionaries.255 Their travel and the back and forth movement to America were much
aimed at social change through the removal of untouchability and others which were
synonymous with the effort of AMM. The justice party also worked on similar lines
and for all these the missionaries were the pioneers of social justice who toiled for the
uplift of lower castes. The American Missionaries in general stood with the legal
claim of a free India for socio-political advancement and hence the government
monitored their activities. The missionaries also wanted the native Christians to be
independent with the sense of equality and freedom when receiving the responsibility
and power from them. They also wanted the women to be self sufficient and hence
they taught them employable skills. 256 The Rachanayapuram School served as an
abode for abandoned women, widows and new converts. They sensed the emergence
of national unity and passion for political liberty due to the new awakening.
255
J.S.Chandler, Seventy-five years..., op.cit., p. 287.
256
M.S.Blaufuss, Changing Goals of the American Madura Mission, 1830-1916, New York, 2002,
p.149.
102
The final phase of the Mission was the transfer of Mission work undertaken
between 1925 and 1934. Blaming the Congress for the stronghold of landlordism and
capitalism, self respect and communist movements emerged. The self respect
movement fought against untouchablity, casteism and capitalism similar to that of the
missionaries. When some of the Indian pastors supported national movement, the
missionaries taught democratic principles and as a special case the students elected
their leaders.257 Even among the Kallar boys who studied in boarding schools, there
occurred no thefts. The native Christians believed that they would follow the mission
In 1934, the AMM celebrated its centenary by creating the Madura Mission
Sangam to which the AMM with the approval and urging of the ABCFM handed over
its authority. 258 The Madura Mission Sangam consisted of missionary, church and
seventeen women. 259 It was organized in committees to carry out the work of all
departments formerly in the AMM. The only exception was the American College
that was governed by its own board. The AMM continued as a body and the ABCFM
and its successor bodies in the United States continued to send missionaries to the
Madurai area to work with churches and institutions for another half
257
Ibid., p.289.
258
John Banninga, Centenary Celebrations, January 11-14, 1934, Lenox Press, Madurai, 1934,p. 3
259
Dorothy Lockwood, Glimpses 1929-1980, The Lockwoods, January 1934, p. 33.
103
century. 260 Today, the AMM no longer exists as a legal entity. Churches and
institutions established during the time of the AMM are now part of the Madurai-
He was a notable person who served for a long time. He worked as the
Committees, Principal of the Bible School, President of the United South Indian
Churches and in many other positions. John X. Miller, a Scott, came as an American
Missionary and worked for the improvement of Pasumalai School.261 He started the
Trade School at Pasumalai. His wife Mrs. Margaret Miller loved the children who
were sick and poor and she earned the name “Mother Miller”. Dr. R. A. Dudley
started boarding schools at various places and encouraged the churches to serve the
Daniel Poor
Madurai in 1836. He arrived at Madurai on 18th October 1835 and immediately after
260
In 1961, the ABCFM became part of United Church Board for World Ministries (UCBWM) in
connection with the church union that formed the United Church of Christ in 1957. This UCBWM
merger included the mission and service agencies of the Evangelical and Reformed Church and the
Congregational Christian Churches. Ref: David Stowe, A Brief History of the United Church
Board for World Ministries, New York: UCBWM, 1984. In 1996, the UCBWM covenanted to
work in partnership with the Division of Overseas Ministries of the Christian Church/Disciples of
Christ. This programmatic and decision-making body is called the Common Global Ministries
Board. During the re-structuring process of the United Church of Christ in 2000, the UCBWM
became part of the Wider Church Ministries division of church administration.
261
J.S.Chandler, op.cit., p.294.
262
Stanley Vaughan.C., Seventy Sixth Annual Report of the AMM-1910, American Mission Lenox
Press, Pasumalai, 1911, p. 48.
104
his arrival, he visited the schools already existing in Madurai and analysed their
function. He conducted meetings for the natives and educated them about their
services. Though he came on an initial assignment for three months after observing
the conditions at Madurai, he requested the Board for transferring more of services to
Madurai. The types of schools included free schools, English schools, Boarding
schools, Girl’s schools, Boarding school for girls, Theological seminary. He worked
for five years at Madurai and went to Sri Lanka. As he was taking care of the cholera
William Tracy was born on 2nd June 1807 in the USA. At the age of thirty, he
came to India as ABCFM missionary with his wife Emily. In 1836 he had studied at
in the church, he and his wife were attacked. He worked in the AMM from 1837 to
1877. He spent first five years to learn Tamil and socio-economic condition of Tamil
society. He replaced the palm scripts with printed books in mission schools. At the
Horace S Taylor
He came with his wife Martha Taylor to Madurai on 11th October 1844. He
started mission work at Thirupuvanam and played a major role in establishing the
263
Ibid., p.47.
264
William Tracy, Madura, to Rufus Anderson, Boston, 4 April 1848, Transcript in the hand of
William Tracy, "Papers of the ABCFM," ABCFM 16.1.9. Houghton Library, Harvard University.
105
sanatorium at Kodaikanal. Miss Martha S Taylor, his daughter came to Madurai and
did mission work at Madapasalai. He was instrumental in creating ten churches and
orientation of five pastors. After illness, he died at the age of fifty seven on 3rd
February 1871.265
John Rendall joined the AMM on 29th April 1846. He wanted to establish
churches in all the four sides of Madurai North, South, West and East gates of
he was popularly known as Ideal Treasurer. In 1857, he started the unique practice of
circulating papal books among the missionaries for sharing their problems and
experiences they came across during her Mission work. Jane B Rendall, his wife died
William B. Capron
1824. His education took him to Phillips Academy, Yale (1848), and Andover
from Seminary. During his days as a student, William was a private tutor in Baltimore
for one year and Principal of Hopkins Grammar School in Hartford, Connecticut for
six years. Sarah B. Hooker a female missionary graduated from Wheaton Seminary in
Massachusetts married William Capron on 1st October 1856. Over the course of their
marriage, the Caprons had 3 children. On 24th November 1856 the Caprons sailed to
265
S.C. Bartlett, Historical Sketch of the missions of the American Board, American Board, Boston,
1876, p.29.
266
J.S.Chandler, Seventy-five years..., op.cit., p.261.
106
Tirupuvanum and Manamadurai for the next sixteen years. From 1872 to 1875, the
Caprons visited America, returning to the field in January 1875. William Capron died
the following year on 6th October 1876 of heart disease. Sarah Capron lingered in
India for ten years,267 before returning to America in 1886. She remained active in
Missionary of AMM at his young age. He worked very hard for the growth of the
churches and education. He was the man who started the “Love Divine” in Pasumalai
which was a channel to make thousands and thousands know the true love of Christ,
every year. Miss. M.T. Noyes was the second daughter of Rev. Joseph Tucker Noyes.
She lived for sixty six years and toiled for forty years in upliftment of women’s
He was born in Dubuque, Iowa on 10th January 1860. After finishing his
education from Yale Medical School in 1885, he studied at Yale Theological School
upto May 1888. He departed for India with his wife Harriet Gurnee on 13th October
1888. Till his death in 1823 he worked in the hospitals of AMM as a medical Doctor.
He was instrumental in establishing the Albert Victor Hospital. His wife suddenly
267
J.S.Chandler, Seventy-five years..., op.cit., p. 160.
268
Congregational Library and Archives, Capron, William Banfield (1824-1876) and Sarah Brown
Capron (1828-1919). Papers, 1830-1876, un.pub., (n.p)
269
Twenty Ninth Annual Report of the American Board of Commission on Foreign Missions,
Crocker & Brewster, Boston, 1837, P.89.
107
died of cholera on 5th June 1911. In spite of his deteriorating health, he decided to
continue his service in India. He died at Melur near Madurai on 28th August 1923. 270
It was the American missionaries who introduced changes in the schools and
they took effort to start more institutions to extend education to the masses aiming at
enlightenment and social change. The literacy movement initiated by the missionaries
became people oriented and brought amelioration for the women and weaker sections
of the society. Admission of low caste children in missionary schools and opening of
girls’ schools created discontent among the natives. The school system introduced by
the A.M.M was brought to the attention of British parliament in 1845. The
offered not only to Christians but also to the caste- Hindus, girls and outcastes.
Through their mission they were able to remove the strings of caste discrimination
The Christian Missions rendered exemplary services and prepared the grounds
for their future course of action. The ever growing trend of promoting education
motivating power and Gods call was the guiding spirit, which made the missionaries
work selflessly in Madurai area. In their ministries to the needy more emphasis was
given to the value of universal brotherhood and to serve the humanity beyond the pale
of the Church. Missions had their own apostolate and charisms based on which they
were serving many target groups, especially the women folk. So from the beginning
270
Church of South India..., op.cit., p. 8.
271
Delphin Prema Dhanaseeli, American Madura Mission, Services Rendered by American
Missionaries at Madurai (1834-1934), Serials Publications, New Delhi, p. 225.
108
activities. The history of Christianity in India is viewed as an integral part of the socio
– cultural history of the Indian People. The contribution of the Christian missionaries
towards the abolition of the social evils especially against women will go permanently
in the annals of the history of Tamil Nadu. Conversion to Christianity was only
secondary, but making the natives worthy human beings was the primary aim of these
strove as lovers of humanity to achieve something more enduring. Though the social
evils were opposed by the government officials and broad-minded Hindu leaders, they
hesitated to act against the social and religious belief of the people due to lack of will
and courage. Yet, the Christian missionaries vehemently condemned these social evils
and toiled for their abolition. Though the missionaries had come with the mission of
evangelising the natives they never indulged in forced conversion. They were much
concerned in promoting Christian values and love of Christ among the natives. In
such a process, they attracted more individuals and on certain occasions, groups of
people came voluntarily and embraced Christianity after relinquishing their earlier
evil customs and practices. In the absence of modern roads and transports,
missionaries used to walk miles together every day and personally attended to the
needs of the people and empowered them socially, spiritually and culturally, obeying
the command of their heavenly Lord. The impact of western ideas and the efforts of