by

Jared Dantis
Israel Aguba
Billie Fajardo
Lauren Fajardo
Jeries Yadao

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Introduction
This is a condensed reviewer for important concepts that one
might need to learn and remember for the UPCAT or any other
college entrance examination.
This reviewer is best used as a supplement for other more extensive
review materials, rather than as an outright replacement.
Therefore, this reviewer will only contain summaries of lessons and
lists of important formulae, instead of in-depth discussions on
various topics.

If you need more review materials, you may access my online

repository of reviewers through this link: by.jared.gq/cets. Please
be informed that the reviewers from that link may or may not be
complete, as these have been compiled from different people and
have not been individually inspected.

Good luck and padayon!

We’d love to hear your comments! Drop us a line at by.jared.gq/rvwr-feedback.


4 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Table of contents

English vocab resources 9

Earth science 10
The Solar System ......................................................................................10
Heavenly bodies......................................................................................... 12
The Earth ....................................................................................................13
Planetary motions ....................................................................................14
The Moon .....................................................................................................14
Composition of the Earth .......................................................................16
The Earth’s atmosphere .......................................................................... 17
The geological time scale........................................................................ 19
Plate tectonics ............................................................................................21
Earthquakes ...............................................................................................22
Seismic waves ...........................................................................................23
Terms in astronomy ................................................................................ 24
Other information ...................................................................................24
Biology 26
Organizational levels of life ..................................................................26
Taxonomic ranking..................................................................................27
Species to remember ...............................................................................28
The cell ........................................................................................................29
Tonicity ........................................................................................................31

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 The cell cycle ..............................................................................................31
Meiosis ........................................................................................................33
The Central Dogma ................................................................................. 36
Genetics terminologies ..........................................................................38
Laws of genetics .......................................................................................40
Probabilities in genetics .........................................................................41
Degrees of dominance ............................................................................42
Pedigree ......................................................................................................43
Cladograms ................................................................................................45
Chemistry 46
Phase change .............................................................................................46
Atomic structures ....................................................................................48
Bonding .......................................................................................................50
Intermolecular forces .............................................................................. 51
Balancing equations................................................................................ 52
Electron configuration ...........................................................................52
Gas laws ......................................................................................................53
Stoichiometry ............................................................................................53
Quantum numbers ..................................................................................54
Radioactive decay ....................................................................................56
Acids and bases .........................................................................................57
Organic nomenclature ...........................................................................57
Physics 58
Electromagnetic radiation ....................................................................58

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 Light .............................................................................................................58
Kinematics .................................................................................................59
Circuits ....................................................................................................... 59
Elementary statistics 60
Measures of central tendency ..............................................................60
Probability................................................................................................... 61
Combinatorics ..........................................................................................62
Set theory ................................................................................................... 63
Algebra 64
Linear function.........................................................................................64
Quadratic functions................................................................................65
Factoring a quadratic using the AC method....................................66
Polynomial functions ..............................................................................67
Rational functions ...................................................................................68
Radical functions .....................................................................................69
Exponential functions ............................................................................69
Logarithmic functions ............................................................................70
Trigonometric functions.........................................................................71
Composite functions................................................................................72
Inverse functions ......................................................................................72
Absolute value functions ........................................................................72
Number patterns ......................................................................................73
Geometry 75
Angles ...........................................................................................................75

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 Polygons ......................................................................................................76
Circles .......................................................................................................... 76
Triangles .....................................................................................................77
Quadrilaterals ...........................................................................................79
Solids ............................................................................................................ 81
Trigonometry 82
Reciprocal identities ...............................................................................82
Pythagorean identities ...........................................................................82
Quotient identities ..................................................................................82
Double angle identities...........................................................................82
Sum & difference identities ..................................................................82
Odd identities ...........................................................................................83
Even identities ..........................................................................................83
Hand method for evaluating base angles ......................................... 83

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English vocab resources

It would be impractical to list down English words here for

vocabulary practice, as many other reviewers already fill this
purpose. If your review center of choice already provides an English
vocabulary reviewer as part of their course materials, you would be
better off using those.

Having said that, here are some great resources for vocabulary
practice:

• Vocabulary.com. This site tests your vocabulary by giving

you sample sentences, and allowing you to fill in the blank
with the appropriate word. It’s free, but you need to sign up
to use it. https://www.vocabulary.com

• Merriam-Webster: How Strong Is Your Vocabulary? In this

game, you are given a word and four word choices, and you
must pick the choice that is closest in meaning to the given
word. It’s available on their mobile app (http://onelink.to/
mw-mobile) and on their website (https://www.merriam-
webster.com/word-games/vocabulary-quiz).

• Ghent University Vocabulary Test. This tests not your

knowledge of word definitions, but rather the size of your
vocabulary. You are given a set of words, and you must
identify whether each word is a valid English word or not.
http://vocabulary.ugent.be 


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Earth science

The Solar System

Sun

• Photosphere: the luminous surface layer of the sun or a star;

what Earthlings see

• Chromosphere: a stratum of the upper atmosphere in which

photochemical reactions are prevalent

• Corona: a colored circle around the sun; outermost part of

the atmosphere

• Solar flares: a sudden temporary outburst of energy from a

small area of the sun's surface

• Sunspots: dark spots on the surface; relatively colder than

any part

• Prominence: a mass of gas resembling a cloud that arises

from the chromosphere

• Solar wind: plasma continuously ejected from the sun's

surface into and through interplanetary space

• Aurora borealis: occurs in earth’s northern hemisphere

• Aurora australis: occurs in earth’s southern hemisphere

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The Terrestrial Planets

• Mercury

• Venus, The Morning Star

• Rotates opposite to other planets (Sun rises in the west

and sets in the East)

• Day longer than year

• Earth

• Mars

The Jovian Planets/The Gas Giants

• Jupiter

• Moons: Io, Callisto, Ganymede, Europa

• Has the Big Red Spot (a storm)

• Saturn - The Ringed Planet

The Ice Giants

• Uranus - axial tilt of 98º (spins on its side)

• Neptune - blue because of methane

The Kuiper belt

• Pluto - no longer a planet

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Asteroid belt

• Ceres

Heavenly bodies
Stars

• Polaris - the northern star (where Earth’s axis points to);

part of the Little Dipper’s handle

• Sirius - the brightest night star; Dog Star

• Alpha Centauri star system - the closest to the Solar

system; triple star system

• Alpha Centauri (A and B) - a binary pair

• Proxima Centauri - the closest star to the sun; invisible

red dwarf

Constellations

• Ursa Major - from the Latin word ursae meaning bear;

contains the Big Dipper

• Ursa Minor - contains the Little Dipper

• Canis Major - from the Latin word canis meaning dog;

contains Sirius

• Canis Minor - the puppy

• Orion - The Hunter

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The Zodiac Signs

Aries - The Ram Libra - The Scales

Taurus - The Bull Scorpio - The Scorpion

Gemini - The Twins Sagittarius - The Archer

Cancer - The Crab Capricorn - The Sea Goat

Leo - The Lion Aquarius - The Water Bearer

Virgo - The Virgin Pisces - The Fishes


The Earth
• Axial tilt: 23.5 degrees

• Axial precession: 25,772 years (~26,000 years)

• Days per revolution (Earth year): 365.2422 days (~ 365.25

days)

• Seasons due to the axial tilt

• Eclipses

• Solar eclipse - sun-moon-earth; moon covers the sun

• Lunar eclipse - sun-earth-moon; moon appears red

• Tides

• Neap tide - weak; sun, earth, & moon form a 90-degree

angle

• Spring tide - strong; sun, earth, & moon are in a straight

line

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 • Solstices & Equinoxes, caused by revolution

• Summer solstice - June 21

• longest daylight (northern hemisphere)

• overhead sun at Tropic of Cancer (23.5º N)

• Fall equinox - September 23

• Winter solstice - December 22

• longest nighttime (northern hemisphere)

• overhead sun at Tropic of Capricorn (23.5º S)

• Spring/Vernal equinox - March 21

Planetary motions
• Rotation - movement on an axis

• Revolution - movement around a star

• Precession - wobbling of the axis

The Moon
• “Luna”

• No atmosphere

• Revolution (with respect to the stars): 27.32 days

• In synchronous rotation with the Earth, therefore it only

shows one side (rotation period ≅ revolution period)

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 • Soviet Lunar Program - first unmanned mission in 1959

• Apollo 11 - first manned landing in 1969 (Neil Armstrong)

Phases of the moon

image from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solar/moonphase.html

Types of shadows

• Umbra (Latin umbra meaning shadow)

• central cone of darkness which tapers away from the

Earth or Moon

• total solar eclipse observed

• Penumbra (Latin paena meaning almost)

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 • outer cone of partial shadow which diverges instead of
tapering

• partial solar eclipse observed

• Antumbra

• annular solar eclipse is observed (thin disk of light

around the moon)

Composition of the Earth

• 71% water

• In geology, a discontinuity is a surface at which seismic

waves change velocity

• The Earth’s Layers, from innermost to outermost

• Inner core

• Outer core

• Gutenberg discontinuity

• Mantle

• Lower mantle

• Upper mantle

• Mohorovičić discontinuity

• Crust

• Rocks

• Igneous

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 • solidification of magma

• oldest rocks

• Examples: basalt, granite, rhyolite, obsidian, pumice

• Sedimentary

• formed through lithification

• often found near water resources

• sometimes contains fossils

• Examples: conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale

• Metamorphic

• formed through recrystallization

• often has foliation (parallel lines)

• Examples: quartzite, marble, slate, phyllite, schist,

gneiss

The Earth’s atmosphere

Composition and layers

• 77% Nitrogen, 22% Oxygen, 1% others

• Troposphere - densest; where weather forms

• Stratosphere - where airplanes fly; ozone layer

• Mesosphere - where meteors burn; coldest

• Thermosphere - contains the ionosphere; hottest

• Exosphere - boundless; where artificial satellites are found

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Meteorology

• study of earth’s atmosphere, weather, & climate

• Weather - daily condition

• Climate - general condition of temperature and

precipitation

• ITCZ (intertropical convergence zone) - where trade winds

meet; usually where cyclones form

• Front - boundary separating masses of air with different

densities (usually because of temperature)

Clouds

• Cirrus: ice crystals; means fair weather; highest

• Cumulus: fluffy

• Stratus: low-lying

• Nimbo- (prefix): rain

• Alto- (prefix): middle-altitude

Monsoons in the Philippines

• Amihan: Northeast monsoon

• February to March

• Habagat: Southwest monsoon

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 • June to September/October

Breezes

• Air moves from high pressure to low pressure

• Sea breeze (day) - HP: sea, LP: land

• Land breeze (night) - HP: land, LP: sea

The geological time scale

Eon Era Period Subperiod Epoch
Phanerozoic Cenozoic (age Quaternary Holocene
of mammals)
Pleistocene
(ice age)

Tertiary Neogene Pliocene

Miocene
(kelp forests
and
grasslands)

Paleogene Oligocene
(first
elephants
with trunks,
early horses,
& grasses)

Eocene

Paleocene

Mesozoic (age Cretaceous

of reptiles)

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 Jurassic (land
dinosaurs)

*Breakup of
Pangaea

Triassic (ferns,
conifers, etc)

Paleozoic (age Permian (mass Lopingian

of insects, extinction)
fishes, Guadalupian
invertebrates)
Cisuralian

Carboniferous Pennsylvanian
(insects,
amniote egg) Mississippian

Devonian
(fishes, vascular
plants)

Silurian (glacial Pridoli

melting, coral
reefs, fish with Ludlow
jaws)
Wenlock

Llandovery

Ordovician
(Gondwanaland)

Cambrian
(explosion -
sudden increase
in biodiversity)

Precambrian Proterozoic
(bacteria,
archaeans,
eukaryotes)

Archaean
(toxic
atmosphere)

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Plate tectonics
Plate boundaries

• Divergent

• Oceanic-oceanic - mid-ocean ridges

• Seafloor Spreading Theory (Harry Hess): newest

rocks are near the ridge

• Continental-continental - valleys

• Convergent

• Oceanic-oceanic - trenches, volcanic islands/island arcs

(e.g. Hawaii)

• Oceanic-continental - mountain (range) & trench

• Continental-continental - mountain (range)

• Transform

• forms a strike-slip fault (e.g. San Andreas fault)

Continental drift theory

• by Alfred Wegener

• Glacial striations - scratches on rocks because of moving

glaciers

• Tillites - glacial sediments in rocks

• Pangaea/Pangea - supercontinent that existed before

continental drift

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 • Laurasia included Asia, Europe, and North America

• Gondwanaland included South America, Antarctica,

Africa, Australia, and India

Earthquakes
• Magnitude scale - amplitude of ground motion; measured
using a seismograph

• Richter scale

• 0.0 to 10.0

• a 1.0 increase means a 10 times stronger earthquake

• Intensity scale - based on observations (i.e. damages); uses

the Mercalli scale

• Terminology

• fault - plate fracture

• normal fault - footwall rises relative to hanging wall

• reverse/thrust fault - hanging wall rises relative to

footwall

• focus/hypocenter - origin of an earthquake along the

plate

• epicenter - point on Earth’s surface directly above the

focus

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Seismic waves
Body waves

• P wave (primary)

• Fastest to move

• Can pass through solids and liquids

• Longitudinal wave (i.e. wave propagation is in the same

direction as particle movement)

• S wave (secondary)

• Second fastest to move

• Can only pass through solids

• Transverse wave (wave propagation perpendicular to

particle movement)

Surface waves

• L/Q wave (Love)

• Third fastest to move

• Transverse waves

• What most people feel during an earthquake, slow decay

leads to most destructive effects

• R wave (Rayleigh)

• Slowest to move

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 • Includes both longitudinal and transverse motions (sort
of moves in a circular motion)

Terms in astronomy
Light year - the distance light travels in an earth year

Supernova - the explosion of a big star; star death

Black hole - remnants of a supernova with a very strong

gravitational force

Meteors

• Meteoroid - in space

• Meteor - in Earth’s atmosphere

• Meteorite - reached the Earth’s surface

Perihelion

• from the Greek peri, meaning around; and helios meaning

sun

• the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid, or comet at which

it is closest to the sun (for the Earth, it is at January 4)

Aphelion

• the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid, or comet at which

it is furthest from the sun (for the Earth, it is at July 4)

Other information
Sputnik - first artificial satellite in space (by the Soviets)

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Valentina Tereshkova - first woman in space

Yuri Gagarin - first human in space

Laika - first dog in orbit (she died 😔 )

Curiosity & Opportunity - rovers in Mars

• the latter was temporarily shut down due to dust storms

Diwata-1 - first satellite built and designed by Filipinos

Diwata-2 - second Filipino microsat, launched on October 29, 2018


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Biology

Organizational levels of life

From lowest to highest:

• Biomolecules & biomolecular complexes include proteins,

RNA/DNA, lipids, and carbohydrates.

• Organelles are functional groups of biomolecules and are

sites of biochemical reactions.

• Cell is the basic unit of all life and is made up of organelles.

• Tissues are groups of cells that perform the same function.

• Organs are groups of tissues that perform the same

function.

• Organ system is a group of organs that perform the same

function or are involved in the same process, e.g. digestion.

• Organism or life form refers to any individual entity that

exhibits the properties of its species/kind.

• Populations are groups of organisms of the same species.

Communities are groups of interacting populations existing
in one common place and time.

• Ecosystems include both living factors (communities) and

abiotic factors (environment: air, water, soil, etc).

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 • Biome is made up of communities of flora and fauna that
span climatically and geographically contiguous areas with
similar climatic conditions.

• Biosphere is the sum of all ecosystems on the planet.

Taxonomic ranking

Mnemonic: Dear King Philip Came Over For Great Spaghetti

Taxonomic rank, Example Commonly used

from general to (modern human) suffixes
specific

Domain Eukarya —

Kingdom Animalia —

Phylum Chordata plants: -phyta

Class Mammalia plants: –phyceae,

-opsida, –ae

Order Carnivora plants: -ales

Family Hominidae plants: -aceae

animals: -idae

Genus Homo —

Species Homo sapiens —

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Species to remember
Found in the Philippines

• Pithecophaga jefferyi (Philippine eagle)

• Bubalus mindorensis (tamaraw)

• Bubalus bubalis (carabao / water buffalo)

• Jasminum sambac (sampaguita)

• Musa textilis (abaca)

• Musa squamosa (banana)

• Passer montanus (maya bird)

• Chanos chanos (bangus)

• Mangifera indica (mango)

• Pterocarpus indicus (narra)

• Macaca fascicularis (Philippine macaque)

• Oryza sativa (rice)

Model organisms

• Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)

• Escherichia coli

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast)

• Danio rerio (zebrafish)

• Mus musculus (house mouse)

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The cell

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Animal cell Plant cell
Nucleus
Nuclear envelope - perforated; continuous with ER
Nucleolus - nonmembranous; ribosome production; 1 or more; rRNA
synthesis
Chromatin - consists of DNA and proteins

Synthesis organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - membrane synthesis and metabolisms
Rough ER - with ribosomes
Smooth ER - lipid synthesis
Ribosome - protein synthesis; can be free (in cytosol) or bound (to rough
ER or nuclear envelope)

Golgi apparatus - synthesis, modification, sorting, & secretion of

products

Structure
Cytoskeleton - cell shapes and movement
Microfilaments - structure
Intermediate filaments - spread from the nuclear envelope to the plasma
membrane
Microtubules - movement in animal cells; structure in plant cells

Centrosome - microtubule initiation; has a pair of centrioles

Peroxisome - produce hydrogen peroxide then converts it to water

Mitochondrion - site of cell respiration and ATP generation

Lysosome - digestion of macromolecules through hydrolysis

Central vacuole - storage and

breakdown of waste, hydrolysis of
macromolecules

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 Chloroplast - converts light energy
to chemical energy in the form of
sugars

Cell wall - cell shape; made of

cellulose, polysaccharides and
protein

Plasmodesmata - cytoplasmic
channels through cell walls of
adjacent cells

Tonicity
Image from Pearson Education.

The cell cycle

Terminology

• Chromatin - contains uncondensed genetic material

• Chromosome - contains condensed genetic material

• Sister chromatids - joined copies of the original

chromosome

• Centromere - a region made up of repetitive sequences in

the chromosomal DNA where the chromatid is attached
most closely to its sister chromatid

• Centrosome - a subcellular region containing material that

functions throughout the cell cycle to organize the cell’s
microtubules; with 2 centriole pairs

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INTERPHASE (I)
• Growth 1 (G1) - first gap

• G0 - the cell exits the cell cycle; optional

• Synthesis (S) - copies chromosomes

• Growth 1 (G2) - second gap

MITOTIC PHASE (M)

Mitosis

• the division of one nucleus into two genetically identical

nuclei

• Prophase

• DNA replicates

• Mitotic spindle forms

• Nucleolus disappears

• Prometaphase

• Nuclear envelope fragments

• Kinetochore forms at the centromeres (2 per

chromosome) for kinetochore microtubules

• Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen at the sides

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 • Metaphase

• Centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell

• Chromosomes align at metaphase plate (imaginary plate)

• Anaphase

• Shortest stage (few minutes)

• Cohesin proteins are cleaved by separase enzyme which

separates the sister chromatids

• Nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell

• Telophase

• Nuclear envelopes arise and nucleoli reappear

• Cytokinesis

• Separation of daughter cells

• Cleavage furrow - animal cell

• Cell plate - plant cell

Meiosis
• Interphase - DNA replication

• Meiosis I - separation of homologous chromosomes; can

only occur in diploid cells

• Prophase I

• Crossing over of genes - duplicated homologous

chromosomes pair up and exchange segments

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 • Metaphase I - Chromosomes line up by homologous
pairs

• Anaphase I - homologs separate

• Telophase I - Two haploid (n) cells form; each

chromosome

still consists of two sister chromatids

• Cytokinesis

• Meiosis II - separation of sister chromatids

• Prophase II

• Metaphase II

• Anaphase II

• Telophase II

• Cytokinesis

• 4 haploid daughter cells

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Gametogenesis
image from Pearson Education.


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The Central Dogma

image from https://byjus.com/biology/central-dogma/

Replication

• Occurs in the nucleus (for eukaryotes) or the cytoplasm (for

prokaryotes)

• Make copies of DNA

• Guanine pairs with Cytosine

• Adenine pairs with Thymine

• Involves a leading strand (replicated from 5’ to 3’) and a

lagging strand (replicated from 3’ to 5’)

• Enzymes involved in DNA Replication

• Helicase: Unzips your genes (literally!)

• Primer: Starting point for replication

• DNA polymerase: Replicates DNA

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 • Ligase: Glues DNA segments together

• Okazaki fragments are segments of replicated DNA in

lagging strand

image from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/transcription-

of-dna-into-rna/a/overview-of-transcription

Transcription

• Occurs in the nucleus (for eukaryotes) or the cytoplasm (for

prokaryotes)

• A segment of DNA is copied out to make RNA

• Thymine becomes uracil, so Adenine pairs with Uracil

instead

• Performed by RNA polymerase

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Translation

• Occurs in the cytoplasm

• Can happen alongside transcription in prokaryotes

• A segment of RNA is translated per codon (groups of three

base pairs) into amino acids

• Start codon: AUG (becomes Methionine)

• Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA

Genetics terminologies
• Genes - hereditary units

• Locus - a gene’s specific location along the length of a

chromosome

• Somatic cells - all cells of the body except the gametes and
their precursors; can not undergo meiosis

• Germ cells - sex cells; produces gametes; can undergo both

mitosis and meiosis

• Karyotype - ordered display of chromosomes

• Homologous pair/homologs - same length, centromere

position, and staining pattern

• Sex chromosomes - refer to the X and Y chromosomes

• Autosomes - chromosomes other than X and Y

• Diploid cell - usually denoted as 2n; any cell with two

chromosome sets

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 • Haploid cell - usually denoted as n; contains a single set of
chromosomes (i.e. gametes)

• Character - a heritable feature that varies among

individuals, e.g.

flower color

• Trait - each variant for a character, e.g. purple or white

color for flowers

• True-breeding - had produced only the same variety as the

parent

• Hybridization - crossing, of two true-breeding varieties

• P generation - parent

• F1 generation - from Latin filial, meaning son; first filial

• Allele - alternative versions of a gene

• Dominant - determines the organism’s appearance

• Recessive - no noticeable effect on the organism’s

appearance

• Homozygous - gene that has a pair of identical alleles

• Heterozygous - gene that has two different alleles

• Phenotype - an organism’s appearance or observable traits

• Genotype - genetic makeup

• Monohybrids - heterozygous for the one particular

character being followed in a cross

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 • Dihybrids - heterozygous for the two particular character
being followed in a cross

• Pleiotropy - from the Greek pleion, more; having multiple

phenotypic effects, especially in alleles (e.g. sickle cell
anemia, albinism, autism)

• Epistasis - Greek for standing upon; the phenotypic

expression of a gene at one locus alters that of a gene at a
second locus (e.g. golden fur in Labradors)

• Quantitative characters - vary in the population in

gradations along a continuum (e.g. hair color & height in
humans)

• Usually indicates polygenic inheritance - additive effect

of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character

Laws of genetics
Law of segregation

the two alleles for a heritable character segregate (separate from

each other) during gamete formation and end up in different
gametes

Law of independent assortment

two or more genes assort independently—that is, each pair of alleles

segregates independently of any other pair of alleles—during
gamete formation

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Probabilities in genetics
Multiplication rule

• “and” situation

• mutually inclusive events

• Example: Given two heterozygous (Aa) organisms, what is

the probability that they will have a homozygous recessive
(aa) offspring?

• To get an aa organism, each parent must contribute a

recessive gamete.

• Each heterozygous (Aa) parent has 1/2 chance of

contributing a recessive gamete.

• Therefore, the chance of an aa offspring = (1/2) x (1/2) =

1/4.

Addition rule

• “either/or” situation

• mutually exclusive events

• Example: Given two heterozygous (Aa) organisms, what is

the probability that they will have offspring with dominant
phenotypes?

• From a Punnett square: a cross between heterozygotes

will yield the genotypes AA, Aa, Aa, and aa.

• Therefore, the chance of a dominant offspring = 3/4.

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Degrees of dominance
Complete dominance

F1 offspring always resemble only one of the two parental varieties


Incomplete dominance

F1 hybrids have a phenotype somewhere between those of the two

parental varieties

Example: Flower colors

image from http://www.newhealthadvisor.com/Incomplete-Dominance-Examples.html

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Codominance

The alleles each affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable

ways

Example: Human blood genotypes

Phenotype Genotype
A IAIA, IAiO

B IBIB, IBiO
AB IAIB
O iOiO



Pedigree
Conventions

• box = male

• circle = female

• shaded shapes = carriers

Types of genes

• Autosomal genes - affect both male and female equally

• Sex-linked genes

• Affects all males due to them being hemizygous, i.e. have

only one X chromosome

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 43

 • Skips generations (criss-cross inheritance passed
through female child)

• If the gene is dominant, more females are affected

• Dominant genes

• Present in every generation

• Common in pedigree charts

• Affects half the children

• Recessive genes

• Affected child is born to unaffected parents (skips

generation)

• Rare in pedigree charts

• Genotype is always homozygous

• Holandric (Y-linked) genes

• Males only

• Passed from father to son

• Does not skip generations

• Cytoplasmic genes

• Mother transfers gene to all children

44 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Cladograms
Used in phylogenetic systematics; shows relation between
organisms.

Monophyletic - group contains ancestor and ALL descendants

Paraphyletic - group contains ancestor and SOME descendants

Polyphyletic - group without common ancestor

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 45

Chemistry

Phase change
• The stronger the attraction between molecules, the higher
the melting and boiling points

• Line AB = solid

• BC = melting/fusion (solid → liquid). This process is

endothermic, requiring heat. The reverse, exothermic (heat-
releasing) process is freezing (liquid → solid).

• Line CD = liquid

46 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

 • DE = evaporation (liquid → gas). Reverse is condensation
(gas → liquid)

• EF = gas

ⓘ Temperature does not increase as phases change, as the

heat gathered is used to change the phase and not to
increase the temperature.

• Line DO = melting curve (melting/freezing)

• Line CO = boiling curve (evaporation/condensation)

• Line BO = sublimation curve (solid → gas); reverse of

sublimation is deposition (gas → solid)

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 47

 • The above curves have two phases in equilibrium

• Point O = triple point (all three phases are in equilibrium)

• Point C = critical point (above this point, liquid and gas

become indistinguishable and become supercritical fluid)

Atomic structures
Dalton’s billiard ball model & atomic theory

• Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms

(the ball)

• Atoms of an element are identical in size, mass, and other

properties (proven false due to existence of isotopes)

• Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed (proven

false due to nuclear chemistry)

• Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole

number ratios to form chemical compounds

• In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or

rearranged

J.J. Thomson’s plum-pudding model

image from https://www.electrical4u.com/thomsons-
plum-pudding-model/

• devised after he discovered

the existence of electrons
via the cathode ray tube
experiment

48 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Ernest Rutherford’s nuclear model

images from https://study.com/academy/lesson/rutherford-model-of-the-atom-definition-diagram-

quiz.html

• devised after the infamous gold foil experiment

Niels Bohr’s planetary model

image from https://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-structure-of-atom-and-nucleus/bohr-model/

• flawed because it only describes the hydrogen atom

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 49

Erwin Schrödinger’s electron cloud/quantum mechanical model

image from https://www.sutori.com/item/untitled-7463-3e2e

Bonding
Ionic bonds

• metal + non-metal

• electron transfer

Covalent bonds

• non-metal + non-
metal

• electron sharing

Metallic bonds

• metal + metal

• electron pooling

50 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Intermolecular forces
London dispersion forces

• caused by temporary charges formed on a molecule through

random movements of electrons, found on all molecules, but
nonpolar molecules only have this

• increases as size and surface area of molecule increase


Dipole-dipole forces

• attraction between two molecules with permanent dipoles

(i.e. separation of charges) arising from differences in
electronegativity

• Hydrogen bonding - a special type of dipole-dipole forces

between a hydrogen bonded to a nitrogen (N-H), oxygen (O-
H), or fluorine (F-H) and a lone pair in an adjacent molecule

Polarity

• determined by electronegativity

• polar covalent bond

• unequal sharing of electrons

• results in +/- dipole moments

• non-polar covalent bond

• equal sharing of electrons

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 51

Balancing equations
Laws of chemical combination

Conservation of mass

• Mass of reactants = mass of products

Definite proportions

• Kinds and number of atoms are constant for a compound

Multiple proportions

• Compounds made up of atoms in small rations of whole

numbers

Reciprocal proportions


Electron configuration
Aufbau principle

• Orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy

Pauli exclusion principle

• No two electrons of the same atom can have the same

quantum numbers

Hund’s rule

• Lower energy orbitals are filled first


52 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Gas laws
Boyle’s law #P V = constant
V
Charles’ law # = constant
T
V
Avogadro’s law # = constant
n
P
Amonton’s law/Gay-Lussac’s law # = constant
T
PV
Combined gas law # = constant
T
Ideal gas law #P V = n RT

Dalton’s law of partial pressures #ptotal = p1 + p2 + ⋯ + pn

ratea molar massa
Graham’s rate of effusion # =
rateb molar massb

ⓘ The gas constant R has different values depending on the

units given.

R = 8.314 J·mol-1·K-1 = 0.0821 L·atm·mol-1·K-1

Stoichiometry
Chemical formulas

• Molecular: actual number of atoms. Example: C2H6

• Empirical: simplest whole number ratio. Example: CH3

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 53

Nomenclature

• Ionic

• Monoatomic non-metal: -ide

• Polyatomic

• Several O atoms: -ate

• Less O atoms: -ite

• Transition metals

• Smaller charge: -ous

• Larger charge: -ic

• Example: Fe2+ is ferrous, Fe3+ is ferric

Formal charge

(valence electrons) — (non-bound electrons + number of bonds)

Quantum numbers
These describe an electron, and serve as solutions to the
Schrödinger wave equation.

Number Description Possible values

n (principal/shell) distance of orbital from [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

nucleus

54 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

 ℓ (azimuthal/angular shape of orbital [0, n-1]
momentum/subshell)

ml (magnetic) orientation of orbitals [-l, +l]

ms (spin) direction of magnetic spin ½, -½

Subshells

Subshell (ℓ) Orbitals Number of e-

s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
g 9 18

Shells

Shell (n) Subshell (ℓ) Max number of of e-

1 1s 2
2 2s 2p 8
3 3s 3p 3d 18
4 4s 4p 4d 4f 32

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 55

Radioactive decay
238
Alpha-decay !92 U → 234 4
90 Th + 2 α

• the release of an alpha particle (#42 α or #42He)

• happens when the nucleus is too heavy/unstable


14
Beta-decay !6 C → 14 0
7 N + −1 β

• the release of a beta particle (#0−1 β or 0#−1e)

• happens when the nucleus has too many neutrons or too

few protons


40
Electron capture ! K
19 + 0−1 β → 40
18 Ar

• the capture of an electron (#0−1e)

• may happen when the nucleus has too few neutrons/too

many protons


14
Positron emission !6 C → 14 0
7 N + −1 β

• the release of a positron (#01 β or 0#1 e)

• may happen when the nucleus has too few neutrons/too

many protons


125 *
Gamma decay !53 I → 125 0
53 I + 0 γ

56 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

 • the release of a gamma particle (#00 γ)

• relaxes an atom that is an at excited state

ⓘ Lead (Pb) is the heaviest element with an isotope that does

not undergo radioactive decay.

Acids and bases

Organic nomenclature

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 57

Physics

Electromagnetic radiation

image from https://phys.libretexts.org/TextBooks_and_TextMaps/University_Physics/

Book%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)

Light
• both a particle and a wave

• Speed ) = 299 792 458 m/s

• v = λf, where λ is the wavelength and f is the frequency

58 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Kinematics
Given a constant acceleration a:

v# f = vi + at
t ⋅ (vf + vi )
Δx
# =
2
1 2
Δx
# = vi t + at
2
#vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx

Circuits
Ohm’s law

# = IR
V
Capacitance
Q
# =
C 

V

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 59

Elementary statistics

Measures of central tendency

Mean X1 + X2 + ⋯ + Xn ∑X
#X̄ = =
n n

Median Odd number of values: X

! n+1
2

X n + X n +1
2 2
Even number of values: !
2

Mode Most frequently occurring value in data set

unimodal: one mode

bimodal: two modes

multimodal: three or more modes

Midrange lowest val + highest val
2

60 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Probability
Addition and multiplication

Given two events that are mutually exclusive, the sum of each
event’s probability is equal to the probability of either event
happening.

• Example: What is the probability of getting either a 1 or a 6

when rolling a die?
1 1 1
# + =
6 6 3
Given two independent events A and B, the product of both events’
probabilities is equal to the probabilities of event A and B
happening.

• Example: Given two dice, what is the probability of getting a

2 on the first die and a 4 on the second die?
1 1 1
# × =
6 6 36

Fundamental counting principle

Given two independent events A and B:

If m = the total number of ways that event A can happen; and

n = the total number of ways thet event B can happen; then

The total number of ways that events A and B can happen together
is mn.

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 61

Combinatorics
ⓘ The following formulae denote the total number of objects
as n, and the number of selected objects as r.

Permutations

Selection where order matters.

n!
n
# Pr =
(n − r)!

Circular permutations

A special kind of permutation that deals with arranging objects in a

circle.

For example, in circular permutations, the set {a,

# b, c, d, e} is the
same as {b,
# c, d, e, a}, because circles can be rotated.

P
# n = (n − r)!

Combinations

Selection where order does NOT matter.

n!
nCr
# =
(n − r)!r!

62 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Set theory
Union and intersection formula

P(A
! ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A ∩ B)


Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 63

Algebra

ⓘ A function is defined as a relation in which there is only one

output for every input (i.e. for every x, there is only one y)

Linear function
• Forms

• Slope-intercept form: y
# = mx + b

• where #m is the slope (rise ÷ run), and

• b# is the y-intercept (value of x when y = 0)

• Point-slope form: y
# − y1 = m(x − x1)

• where #(x1, y1) is a point on the line, and

• m
# is the slope

• Standard form: !A x + B y = C

• General form: #A x + B y + C = 0
−A
• where m = # , and
B
−C
• y-intercept = #
B
• Domain: all real numbers

64 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

 • Range

• If m
# ≠ 0, then all real numbers

• # = 0, then #{y | y = b}
If m

Quadratic functions
• Forms

• # = a(x − h)2 + k, where (h,

Vertex form: y # k) is the
vertex of the function

• Standard form: #a x 2 + bx + c = 0, where a

# ≠0

• The solutions (or “roots”) of a quadratic equations are values

of x
# for which the function is equal to 0

• Getting the roots: the Quadratic Formula

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x! =
2a
• # 2 − 4ac tells us what kind of roots a
The discriminant b
quadratic equation has.

! 2 − 4ac
Value of b Solutions

Positive Both real

Zero One real (with
duplicity), one
complex
Negative Both complex

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 65

 −b c
Sum of roots: # • Product of roots: # 

•
a a

• Special quadratic functions (for the following, C is a

constant):

• f# (x) = x 2 − C 2 = (x − c)(x + c)

• f# (x) = x 2 ± 2Cx + C 2 = (x ± C )2

Factoring a quadratic using the AC method

We will be using the following equation as an example:

#8x 2 − 6x − 5
#a = 8, b = − 6, c = − 5

① Identify two factors of ac

! that add up to b
!.

ac
# = 8(−5) = − 40

# factors = {−10,4}, since − 10 + 4 = − 6 = b

② Divide a
! by the factors identified in ①.

8 8
−10 4
③ Simplify both fractions.
8 4 8 2
! → ! →
−10 −5 4 1

66 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

④ Use the simplified fractions as coefficients of the factors of
the quadratic equation.
4 2
! → (4x − 5) ! → (2x + 1)
−5 1
⑤ Check that the factors produce the original quadratic
equation.

(4x
! − 5)(2x + 1) = 8x 2 − 6x − 5

Polynomial functions
• y# = An x n + An−1 x n−1 + An−2 x n−2 + ⋯ + A1 x + A0

• n# = the degree of the function (highest power)

• A
# n = leading coefficient

• Have at most n
# − 1 turning points

• Domain: all real numbers

• If n is odd, the function is odd, i.e. f# (−x) = − f (x)

• Range: all real numbers

• If n is even, the function is even, i.e. f# (−x) = f (x)

• Range: #y > absolute minimum, or y

# < absolute maximum

• Special polynomial functions

• Sum/difference of two cubes:

f# (x) = x 3 ± C 3 = (x ± C )(x 2 ∓ 2Cx + C 2 )

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 67

 • f# (x) = (x + C )n = An x n + An−1Cx n−1 + An−2C 2 x n−2 + ⋯
# A1C n−1 x + A0C n
+

• the coefficients are given by the (n

# − 1)th row of the
Pascal’s triangle, as shown below

e.g. (2x - 1)4

= 1(-1)0(2x)4 + 4(-1)1(2x)3 +
6(-1)2(2x)2 + 4(-1)3(2x)1 +
1(-1)4(2x)0

= 16x4 - 32x3 + 24x2 - 8x + 1

Rational functions
f (x)
• y# = , where f# (x) and g(x)
# are polynomial functions
g(x)

• Asymptotes are lines that the function approaches as x or y

goes to infinity

• Vertical asymptotes are the lines x

# = A, where g(A)
# =0
• Horizontal asymptotes:

• If the degrees of f# (x) and g(x)

# are equal, then the
horizontal asymptote is the quotient of the leading
coefficients

• If the degree of f# (x) > degree of g(x)

# , then the
horizontal asymptote is y
# =0

68 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

 • If the degree of f# (x) < degree of g(x)
# , there is no
horizontal asymptote

• For most rational functions:

• Domain: all real numbers, except for horizontal

asymptotes

• Range: all real numbers, except for vertical asymptotes

Radical functions
n
• y# = x −h+k
• # k) represents the horizontal and vertical shifts,
(h,
respectively

• Domain:

• If n
# is odd, the domain is all real numbers

• If n
# is even, the domain is all x such that the radicand
# − h) ≥ 0.
(x

Exponential functions
• y# = a b (x−h) + k, #b > 0

• # k) is the vertex
(h,

• h# and #k represent the horizontal and vertical shifts

• Horizontal Asymptote: y
# =k

• Domain: all real numbers

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 69

 • Range

• If a
# > 0, then all y
# >k

• If a
# < 0, then all y
# <k

Behavior of an exponential function

b>1 b<1 b=1

a>0 increasing decreasing horizontal

a<0 decreasing increasing horizontal

Logarithmic functions
• y# = a logb(x − h) + k

• b# > 0, b ≠ 1
• Vertical asymptote: Value of x
# such that the expression in
the logarithm is zero

• Domain: All values of x

# such that the expression in the
logarithm is positive

Behavior of a logarithmic function

b>1 b<1

a>0 increasing decreasing

a<0 decreasing increasing

70 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Trigonometric functions
• y# = A sin(Bx − C ) + D or y# = A cos(Bx − C ) + D
• Amplitude: #| A |
2π
• Period: !
B
C
• Horizontal shift: !
B
• Vertical shift: D
!

• Domain: All real numbers

• Range: !(−A + D) ≤ x ≤ (A + D)

• y! = A tan(Bx − C ) + D

• Amplitude: #| A |
π
• Period: !
B
C
• Horizontal shift: !
B
• Vertical shift: D
!

• Domain: ℝ
# − {vertical asymptotes}

• Range: !(−A + D) ≤ x ≤ (A + D)

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 71

Composite functions
• h(x)
# = f (g(x))

• # | x ∈ ℝ, g(x) ∈ domain of f (x)}

Domain: {x

Inverse functions
• #f −1(x) such that f ( f −1(x)) = x, and f −1( f (x)) = x

• The domain of a function is the range of its inverse.

Likewise, the range of a function is the domain of its inverse.

Finding the inverse of a function

Swap all x
# for y
# , then solve for the value of y
#.
3x − 2 3y − 2
f! (x) = will become x! =
4x − 5 4y − 5

After isolating y
! :
5x − 2
y! = f −1(x) =
4x − 3

Absolute value functions

• y# = a | x − h | + k

• # k) is the vertex
(h,

• h# and #k represent the horizontal and vertical shifts

72 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

 • Domain: all real numbers

• Range

• If a
# > 0, then #y > k

• If a
# < 0, then y
# <k

• Behavior

• If a
# > 0, then graph opens upward

• If a
# < 0, then graph opens downward

Number patterns
Arithmetic sequence

1, 2, 3, 4, 5…

• Constant common difference d

#

• nth term: an = a1 + d(n − 1)

a1 + an
• Average: #X̄ =
2
an − a1
• Number of terms: # =
n +1
d
• Sum of sequence: S# = x̄ ⋅ n

Geometric sequence

1, 2, 4, 8, 16…

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 73

 • Constant common ratio #r

• nth terms: an = a1 ⋅ r n−1

a1 (1 − r n )
• Sum of finite sequence: S# =
1−r
a1
• Sum of infinite series: S
# = , −1<r <1
1−r

Quadratic sequence

• Constant second difference

• nth term: an = a n 2 + bn + c

First n squares First n cubes

1, 4, 9, 16, 25… 1, 8, 27, 64, 125…

Sum of sequence: Sum of sequence:
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
[ ]
2
# =
S n(n + 1)
6 #S = 

2

74 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Geometry

Angles
• Complementary: angles
that add up to 90º

• Supplementary: angles
that add up to 180º

Angle relationships (see figure above)

Angle pairs Relationship Mathematical

relationship
1-2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8, Linear pair Supplementary
1-4, 6-7, 2-3, 5-8 consecutive exterior angles
consecutive interior angles

1-3, 2-4, 5-7, 6-8 Vertical angles Congruent

2-5, 3-8 Interior angles on the same If parallel:

side of the transversal supplementary

1-6, 4-7 Exterior angles on the same If parallel:

side of the transversal supplementary

1-5, 2-6, 4-8, 3-7 Corresponding angles If parallel: congruent

1-7, 4-6 Alternate exterior angles If parallel: congruent

2-8, 3-5 Alternate interior angles If parallel: congruent

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 75

Polygons
Number of triangles in a #n − 2
regular polygon
Sum of interior angles #180 ⋅ (n − 2)
Number of diagonals n(n − 3)
#
2

Circles
Circumference #π d = 2π r
Area #π r 2

Arc length #2 ⋅ m ∠central angle

Area of sector r 2 ⋅ m ∠central angle
#
2

Given two lines that intersect outside a circle, the angle is equal to
half the difference of the arcs they intercept.

76 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

 ← The perpendicular that bisects any chord in a
circle is the diameter of the circle.

Triangles
Triangle inequality

The sum of any two sides is always larger than the third side.

Median

• line connecting a vertex to the

midpoint of the opposite side

• The three medians of a triangle

meet at a point called the
centroid (Point O). Distance
from a vertex to O is ⅔ the
length of the corresponding
median.

• An altitude is a line perpendicular to a side of a triangle,

connecting it to the opposite vertex.

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 77

Right triangle similarities

image from https://slideplayer.com/slide/7754093/

The Pythagorean theorem

! 2 + b2 = c2
a
where c
# is the hypotenuse of the triangle

Pythagorean triples Special right triangles

3, 4, 5 (and multiples)

5, 12, 13 (and multiples)

8, 15, 17 (and multiples)

7, 24, 25 (and multiples)

Perimeter of a triangle Area of a triangle

a
! +b +c 1
A
! = bh

2

78 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Area of an equilateral triangle

s2 ⋅ 3
A
! △eq = , where s# is a side of the triangle
4

Quadrilaterals
Parallelogram

• Both pairs of
opposite sides are
parallel

• Opposite sides are

congruent

• Opposite angles are

congruent

• Adjacent angles are

supplementary

• Diagonals bisect each other

• Area# = base ⋅ height

• Each diagonal separates the parallelogram into two

congruent triangles

• Rectangle: a parallelogram whose angles are all right

• Diagonals are congruent

• Rhombus: a parallelogram whose sides are all equal

• Diagonals bisect the angles

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 79

 • Diagonals are perpendicular and bisect each other

• Square: a rectangular rhombus

Trapezoid

• Only one pair of opposite sides (its bases) are parallel while
the other pair (legs) are not

• The median of a trapezoid joins the midpoints of its

nonparallel sides

• The median is parallel to both bases and is equal to half the

sum of both bases
1
• Area# = (b + b2 )h
2 1
• Isosceles trapezoid: a trapezoid with equal legs

• Bases angles and diagonals are equal

Kite

• Two disjoint pairs (i.e. one side can only be in one pair) are
congruent

• Diagonals are perpendicular

• One diagonal (diagonal A) bisects the other (diagonal B)

• Diagonal A bisects the two angles it crosses

• Diagonal B crosses two congruent angles

80 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Solids
Prism

• Connects two parallel polygonal bases

• Volume: #(area of base) ⋅ h

• Rectangular prism (cuboid): base is a rectangle

• Volume: #l wh

• Surface area: 2l
# w + 2wh + 2lh

• Cube: base is a square, all faces are squares

• Volume: #s 3

• # 2
Surface area: 6s

Pyramid

• Connects a polygonal base to a single point

1
• Volume: # (area of base) ⋅ h
3

Cylinder Cone

• Connects two circles • Connects a circle to a

single point
• Volume: #π r 2 h
1
• Surface area: 2π
# r (r + h) • Volume: # π r 2 h

3

Not for sale. UPCAT Condensed Reviewer 81

Trigonometry

Reciprocal identities

1 1 1
# x =
csc # x =
sec # x =
cot 

sin x cos x tan x

Pythagorean identities

#sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 1# + tan2 x = sec2 x 1# + cot2 x = csc2 x


Quotient identities Double angle

tan
# x =
sin x
=
sec x identities
cos x csc x
sin
# 2x = 2 sin x cos x
cos x csc x
# x =
cot =
sin x sec x # 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x
cos
# = 1 − 2 sin2 x

# = 2 cos2 x − 1
2 tan x
# 2x =
tan 

1 − tan2 x

Sum & difference identities

# (a ± b) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b
sin (retain the sine)

cos
# (a ± b) = cos a cos b ∓ sin a sin b (cos = change the sign)

82 UPCAT Condensed Reviewer Not for sale.

Odd identities

sin
# (−x) = − sin (x) csc
# (−x) = − csc (x)

tan
# (−x) = − tan (x) cot
# (−x) = − cot (x)


Even identities

cos
# (−x) = cos (x) sec
# (−x) = sec (x)


Hand method for evaluating base angles

① Fold the finger for the
angle that you are evaluating

Ex.: 30º = fold ring finger

② Count the number of

fingers above (for cos) or
below (for sin) the folded
finger.

Ex.: cos 30º = 3 fingers

above, sin 30º = 2 fingers
below

③ For sin/cos: Halve the square root of that number; for tan:
divide the square root of the fingers for sin by that for cos.

1 1 3 3 3
Ex.: sin 30º = # = , cos 30º = # , tan 30º = # =
2 2 2 1 1

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